Democracy is Indispensable:

A Political Philosophy of Islamic Governance

This article was published in the special issue The Roundtable, Vol. 9, Issue 2
(Institute of Political Economy, University of Asia and the Pacific, 2010).

M. A. Muqtedar Khan

Islamists across the globe are agitating for some

wherever they are, rather than seek separation for the

form of Islamic self-determinism. Some are seeking to

sake of separation from and conflict with democracy.

establish Islamic states in Muslim majority states, some

The democracy deficit in the Muslim World has

are seeking to establish a global caliphate, and others are

been mitigated by efforts at democratization in

fighting to break away from non-Muslim States. The

Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Turkey.

underlying assumption of all these political movements

Nevertheless, democracy is glaringly absent from most

is that Islamic sources postulate a blueprint for

of the Arab world, and with the rise of political Islam in

governance and being Muslim necessitates the

the region, the compatibility of Islam and democracy has

establishment of an Islamic state. In this essay, I accept

become an important issue.1 There are commentators in

this premise in order to argue that a deeper

the West and in the Muslim world who share common

understanding of Islamic history and sources will clarify

interests in asserting that Islam and democracy are

that democracy is indispensable for Islamic governance

incompatible. Some Western scholars argue that Islam is

and striving for democracy and striving for Islamic

incompatible with modernity, and in particular

governance is one and the same thing. Therefore

democracy, and insist that Muslims must either abandon

Islamists would better serve their cause and the cause of

Islam or reform Islam in order to join the modern

global harmony by working to strengthen democracy

world.2 Some Muslim scholars and militants reject

democracy, arguing that it is contrary to the way of God

to interrogate it to ascertain its ability to confirm to

(the Islamic shariah), and in their eagerness to reject

democratic principles. I shall adopt an inside-out

Western cultural and political domination they also

approach. I will simply articulate what I find in Islamic

reject democracy, falsely believing that democracy is

sources as key elements of Islamic governance and

something uniquely Western.3 Fortunately, these

readers will be able to recognize their fundamentally

arguments have been soundly rebutted. Many scholars

democratic nature.

have systematically demonstrated that Islam can co-exist

Muslims can define good governance either on

with the democratic process, and by highlighting the

the basis of universal norms or through a parochial

presence of democracy in several Muslim countries and

paradigm based on Islamic terminology. The end

the presence of Muslims in the West and in other places

product in my mind is the same, since there is not much

like India where democracy is well established, have

disparity between universal norms and Islamic values.

drawn attention to the fact that Islam and Muslims can

The difference is in politics. If Muslims use

thrive in democratic societies.4 The courage that the

contemporary universal language to seek self-

Iraqis and the Afghans have shown when they voted

determination and good governance, then their political

under fire from extremists to give democracy a chance to

activism may be received with less hostility from the rest

take root in their societies is testimony to the

of the world, but may have more difficulty in gaining

compatibility of Islam/Muslims and democracy.

legitimacy at home. But if they use Islamic language for

The challenge for Muslim theorists today is to

seeking self-determination and good governance then

go a step further and show how an Islamic democracy

they will enjoy instant legitimacy at home but will

may be conceived and what its constitutive principles

inspire insecurity and even opposition abroad, since non-

and architectural features will be. In this brief essay, I

Muslims worldwide have developed a fear and dislike

will approach democracy from within Islamic thought

for Islamist governments primarily because of the

and describe the broad principles of Islamic governance.

worlds horrific experience with the Taliban in

In the debate on the compatibility of Islam and

Afghanistan, the clerics in Iran and Saudi Arabia.

democracy, the idea of democracy has often been taken

for granted and treated as a stable and uncontested idea;

Key Elements of Islamic Governance

it is Islam that is approached from outside-in with a view

Muslim theorists of the state argue that the

will also foster a culture of tolerance and compassion for

essential Quranic principle of Amr bil marouf wa nahy

different and even multiple understandings of what that

anil munkarcommand good and forbid evilis the

good might be.

Islamic justification for the creation of an ideological

The key features of Islamic governance that I have

state that is geared toward establishing the Islamic

found in Islamic sources, Quran and the Prophetic

shariah. This principle is essentially drawn from the

precedence (Sunnah) and contemporary Muslim

Quran [3:100, 3:104, and 9:710].

discussions on the Islamic State are constitution,

consent, and consultation. Muslims who seeks to

You are the best of the nations raised up for (the benefit
of) humanity;
you enjoin what is right and forbid the wrong [Quran
3:110]

implement the Shariah are obliged to emulate the

Prophets precedence and given the rather narrow

Since what is good and what is evil, they insist, is

definitions of Shariah and Sunnah that most Islamist

articulated in the shariah, in order for Muslims to fulfill

operate with, there is no escape for them from the three

the duty to enjoin the good and forbid evil, Muslims

key principles identified here. While these principles

must establish the Islamic shariah. This is the standard

need to be explored and articulated in the specific socio-

justification for the Islamic state and was essentially

cultural context of different Muslim societies, it is

articulated by a now prominent medieval scholar, Ibn

important to understand that they are essential.

Taymiyyah.5 While one can always dispute whether the

text of the Quran necessitates the creation of a state, the
Constitution
fact remains that a large segment of the Muslim
The compact of Medina that Prophet Muhammad
population believes in it.
adopted provides a very important occasion for the
development of Islamic political theory. After Prophet

The question, then, that becomes paramount for

Muslim political theorists, concerns the nature and

Muhammad migrated from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE,

consequences of the Islamic state. Will this state created

he established the first Islamic state. For ten years

to institute good and penalize bad become a tyranny of

Prophet Muhammad was not only the leader of the

those who claim to know what the shariah is, or will it

emerging Muslim community in Arabia but also the

become a collective human endeavor in pursuit of the

political head of the state of Medina. As the leader of

virtuous republic that will facilitate the good life and

Medina, Prophet Muhammad exercised jurisdiction over

Muslims as well as non-Muslims. The legitimacy of his

constitution is the document that enshrines the

sovereignty over Medina was based on his status as the

conditions of the social contract upon which any society

Prophet of Islam as well as on the basis of the compact

is founded. The compact of Medina clearly served a

of Medina.

constitutional function since it was the constitutive

As Prophet of God he had sovereignty over all

document for the first Islamic state. Thus we can argue

Muslims by divine decree. But Muhammad did not rule

that the compact of Medina serves the dual function of a

over the non-Muslims of Medina because he was the

social contract and a constitution. Clearly the compact of

messenger of Allah. He ruled over them by virtue of the

Medina by itself cannot serve as a modern constitution.

compact that was signed by the Muhajirun (Muslim

It would be quite inadequate since it is a historically

immigrants from Mecca), the Ansar (indigenous

specific document and quite limited in its scope.

Muslims of Medina), and the Yahud (several Jewish

However, it can serve as a guiding principle to be

tribes that lived in and around Medina). It is interesting

emulated rather than a manual to be duplicated. Today

to note that Jews were constitutional partners in the

Muslims worldwide can emulate Prophet Muhammad

making of the first Islamic state.6

and draw up their own constitutions, historically and

The compact of Medina can be read as both a

temporally specific to their conditions.

social contract and a constitution. A social contract, an

Consent
idea developed by English philosophers Thomas
An important principle of the Constitution of
Hobbes, and John Locke, is an imaginary agreement
Medina was that Prophet Muhammad governed the citybetween people in the state of nature that leads to the
state of Medina by virtue of the consent of its citizens.
establishment of a community or a state. In the state of
He was invited to govern and his authority to govern was
nature people are free and are not obliged to follow any
enshrined in the social contract.7 The constitution of
rules or laws. They are essentially sovereign individuals.
Medina established the importance of consent and
But through the social contract they surrender their
cooperation for governance.
individual sovereignty to a collective and create a
The process of bayah, or the pledging of
community or a state.
allegiance, was an important institution that sought to
The second idea that the compact of Medina
formalize the consent of the governed. In those days,
manifests is that of a constitution. In many ways the
when a ruler failed to gain the consent of the ruled

through a formal and direct process of pledging of

known concept and many Islamic scholars have

allegiance, the rulers authority was not fully

advanced the Islamic concept of Shura as evidence for

legitimized.8 This was an Arab custom that predates

Islams democratic credentials. Indeed many scholars

Islam but like many Arab customs was incorporated

actually equate democracy with Shura. 9

within Islamic traditions. Just as Prophet Muhammad

and consult them in affairs (of moment).
Then, when thou hast taken a decision put thy trust in
Allah. (Quran 3:159)

had done, the early Caliphs of Islam too practiced the

process of bayah after rudimentary forms of electoral

[righteous are those] .. who conduct their affairs

colleges had nominated the Caliph, in order to legitimize
through [shura baynahum] mutual Consultation. (Quran
the authority of the Caliph. One does not need to stretch
42:38).
ones imagination too far to recognize that in polities
that have millions rather than hundreds of citizens, the

Muslim scholars dispute whether the Quranic

process of nomination followed by elections can serve as

injunction for consultation is advisory or mandatory, but

a necessary modernization of the process of bayah.

it nevertheless remains a divine sanction. Pro-democracy

Replacing bayah with ballots makes the process of

Muslims see it as necessary and those who fear

pledging allegiance simple and universal. Elections

democratic freedoms and prefer authoritarianism

therefore are neither a departure from Islamic principles

interpret these injunctions as divine suggestions and not

and traditions nor inherently un-Islamic in any form.

divine fiats. The Prophet himself left behind a very

The Quran too recognizes the authority of those

important tradition that emphasized the importance of

who have been chosen as leaders and in a sense extends

collective and democratic decision making. He said that

divine legitimacy to those who have legitimate authority.

the community of Muhammed will never agree upon

error,.10 Consultative governance therefore is the

O you who believe! Obey Allah and obey the Messenger

and
those in authority from among you. (Quran 4:59)

preferred form of governance in Islam and any Muslim

who chooses to stay true to his faith sources cannot but
prefer a democratic structure over all others to realize the

Consultation

justice and wellbeing promised in Islamic sources.

The third key principle of Islamic governance is

consultation or Shura in Arabic. This is a very widely

Conclusion
[Link]. Also see the collection of essays in Khaled
Abou El Fadl, Joshua Cohen, and Deborah Chasman, eds.,
Islam and the Challenge of Democracy (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 2004), and in M. A. Muqtedar
Khan, ed., Islamic Democratic Discourse: Theory, Debates
and Philosophical Perspectives (Lanham, MD: Lexington
Books, 2006).

There is much in Islamic sources and Islamic

tradition that is favorable to making democracy the
vehicle for delivering the products of Islamic

See M. A. Muqtedar Khan, The Islamic States, in

Routledge Encyclopedia of Political Science, eds. M.
Hawkesworth and M. Kogan (London: Routledge Press,
2003).

governance, such as social justice, economic welfare,

and religious freedoms. I am convinced that Islam is not

For the entire text of the Compact of Medina, see M. H.

Haykal, The Life of Muhammad, trans. Ismael R. Al Faruqi
(Indianapolis: NAIT, 1988), pp. 18083.

a barrier to but a facilitator of democracy, justice, and

tolerance in the Muslim world. But for that to happen,

Muslims must revisit their sources and re-understand

See A. H. Siddiqui, The Life of Muhammad (Des Plaines,

IL: Library of Islam, 1991), pp. 11732.

them without a bias against things that they erroneously

See Khaled Abou El Fadl et al., Islam and the Challenge of

Democracy, p. 11.

label as Western. Today the two major forces in the

See for example John L. Esposito and John O. Voll, Islam

and Democracy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).

Muslim World are the moderates and the Islamists, The

10

extremists, though loud are marginal. The moderates

want democracy and the Islamists an Islamic state. It is
time the Islamists recognize that democracy is the best
vehicle for delivering the legitimacy justice that they
seek.

Endnotes
1

See Noah Feldman, After Jihad: America and the Struggle

for Islamic Democracy (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux,
2003).
2

See for example, Bernard Lewis, Islam and Liberal

Democracy, Atlantic Monthly 27.2 (1993), p. 89.
3

See Abdulwahab El-Affendi, Democracy and its Muslim

Critics: An Islamic alternative to Democracy? In Islamic
Democratic Discourse: Theory, Debates and Philosophical
Perspectives, ed. M. A. Muqtedar Khan (Lanham, MD:
Lexington Books, 2006), pp. 22756.
4

For this line of reasoning, see Mumtaz Ahmad, Islam and

Democracy: The Emerging Consensus, [Link] (May
6, 2002). On the World Wide Web:
[Link]

See the Hadith collection Imam Al-Tirmidhi (4:2167).