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Grammar Appendix
Present Simple and Continuous
FORM
USE
EXAMPLES
PRESENT SIMPLE
a. a habitual action or a fact
I watch sport at the weekends.
bare infinitive (-s / -es)
b. a general truth
The earth revolves around the sun.
(-) do / does + not + bare infinitive
c. stative verbs (see, hear, etc.)
I dont remember the address.
(?) Do / Does + subject + bare
infinitive
d. future (timetable / schedule)
University starts next Monday.
My train leaves in two hours.
e. narrative, commentary about a
sporting event, joke, etc.
I arrive at the hotel and I find
He aims for the basket oh, he misses!
a. an action in progress at the
time of speaking
Were watching the news now.
b. an incomplete action still in
progress, usually temporary
Im taking a judo course.
c. an arrangement or plan in the
near future
We are meeting Sue at the cinema
tonight.
d. With always, forever, constantly,
etc., for an action that happens
very often (usually a criticism or
a complaint)
She is forever arranging little suprises
for us.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
am / is / are + verb-ing
(-) am / is / are + not + verb-ing
(?) Am / Is / Are + subject + verb-ing
Paul is always losing things.
Passive
They grow oranges here. Oranges are grown here.
The teacher is marking our tests now. Our tests are being marked by the teacher now.
Time Expressions
Present Simple: always, often, usually, occasionally, sometimes, rarely, hardly ever, scarcely, never, every week,
once / twice a year, on Monday
Present Continuous: now, right now, at the moment, today, tonight
With a future meaning: this week, next week, tomorrow, soon, on Tuesday
Stative Verbs
1. Stative verbs refer to the state of things rather than an action and are not usually used in the continuous form.
These verbs express:
senses: feel, hear, smell, sound, see, taste, notice, recognise
mental activities: appear, believe, consider, depend, doubt, expect, feel, forget, forgive, guess, hope, imagine,
know, mean, mind, prefer, realise, remember, seem, suppose, think, understand
possession: belong to, have, own, owe, possess
emotion: adore, desire, dislike, fear, hate, like, love, need, want, wish
measurements: cost, equal, measure, weigh
2. Some of these verbs can be used in the continuous form when the meaning changes from a state to an
activity in progress.
I have a new bicycle. (possess)
Mum feels that Ive made a good choice. (opinion)
Im having supper at home. (eating)
Are you feeling better? (physical feeling)
I think its a good idea. (opinion)
Do you see what I mean? (understand)
Im thinking of travelling abroad. (considering)
Jane is seeing her boyfriend tonight. (meeting)
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The Future: Future Simple and Continuous, be going to,
Future Perfect, Present Simple and Continuous
USE
FORM
EXAMPLES
FUTURE SIMPLE
a. information about the future
Well visit you tomorrow.
will + bare infinitive
b. a spontaneous decision
Ill do the shopping.
(-) will not + bare infinitive
c. a suggestion / offer / request
Will you play the piano for us, please?
(?) Will + subject + bare infinitive
d. a prediction or warning
Youll catch cold if you dont wear a hat.
e. willingness or refusal to do
something
Ill make the salad, but I wont clean
the chicken.
f.
I know she will like this CD.
opinion or speculation about the
future (often after verbs like: think,
know, expect, suppose, be sure)
Im sure hell arrive soon.
a. when we know an action will be in
progress at a certain time in the
future
Ill be writing a test between 3.00 and
5.00 this afternoon.
(?) Will + subject + be + verb-ing
b. a future action that has been
pre-arranged
Kylie Minogue will be appearing here
next month.
be going to + bare infinitive
a. a plan or intention
I am going to visit them in May.
b. a prediction based on present
evidence
The wind is strong. Theres going to be
a storm soon.
an activity that will be completed by a
certain time in the future
By tomorrow, the cleaners will have
finished all the office carpets.
to emphasise how long an activity has
been going on by a specific time in the
future
By June, I will have been living in this
house for three years.
a planned future action or series of
actions connected with a timetable,
a programme or a journey
My dentist appointment is tomorrow, so
I cant come to the cinema with you.
personal arrangements and fixed plans
I am getting my bicycle back this
afternoon.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
will be + verb-ing
(-) will not be + verb-ing
FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE
will have + past participle
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
will have been + verb-ing
PRESENT SIMPLE
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
Her plane arrives at 2.00 a.m.
Passive
The newspaper will publish your article. Your article will be published by the newspaper.
The police are going to question the suspect. The suspect is going to be questioned by the police.
By tomorrow, the cleaner will have washed the windows. By tomorrow, the windows will have been washed.
The Future Continuous and the Future Perfect Continuous have no passive form.
Notes
1. Be about to + bare infinitive can be used to express the future. It refers to something that will happen very soon.
I am about to leave for Paris.
2. Some words, such as time expressions (temporals) and conditionals, are followed by the present tense although
they have a future meaning.
Phone me if you need help tomorrow. (conditional)
Call me when Tom arrives. (temporal)
Take an umbrella in case it rains later.
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Past Simple and Continuous, Past Perfect Simple and Continuous,
used to / would
FORM
PAST SIMPLE
verb-ed (except irregular verbs)
(-) did not + bare infinitive
(?) Did + subject + bare infinitive
PAST CONTINUOUS
was / were + verb-ing
(-) was / were not + verb-ing
(?) Was / Were + subject + verb-ing
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
had + past participle
USE
EXAMPLES
a. a completed action that took place
at a definite time in the past
We bought the house a year ago.
I didnt understand the instructions.
b. several actions that happened in the
past one after another
She got up, took her bag and left.
c. the main events in a narrative
The speeding car hit a dog and did not
stop.
a. an action in progress at a specific
time in the past
At 9.00 pm last night, we were visiting
friends.
b. two incomplete actions taking place
at the same time in the past
I was playing the guitar while Cindy
was singing.
c. an action in progress (Past
Continuous) interrupted by another
action (Past Simple)
We were walking home when the storm
broke.
d. background to a narrative
We looked outside. It was raining hard
and the wind was howling.
an activity that happened before
another activity or time in the past
He did well in his exam; he had studied
really hard.
By the time we found the hall, the
meeting had started.
(-) had not + past participle
(?) Had + subject + past participle
No sooner had we heard the thunder
than the lights went out.
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
had been + verb-ing
(-) had not been + verb-ing
(?) Had + subject + been + verb-ing
a. an action which started before a
particular time in the past and was
still in progress at that time
She realised that she had been reading
the same page for half an hour.
b. an action that had just finished at a
particular time in the past but was
still relevant at that time
I was tired when I got home because Id
been working hard all day.
c. to say how long something had
been happening before something
else happened
Ann had been waiting for 20 minutes
when she realised she was in the wrong
office.
Passive
We bought the house a year ago. The house was bought a year ago.
The students were discussing the exam. The exam was being discussed by the students.
By 10 pm, we had collected 5,000. By 10 pm, 5,000 had been collected.
The Past Perfect Continuous has no passive form.
Time Expressions
Past Simple: a month / year ago, yesterday, last week / month, in 1963 / November, when, the other day
Past Continuous: yesterday, at 9 oclock, as, while
Past Perfect Simple: by the time, after, before, when, as soon as, already, for, no sooner than
Past Perfect Continuous: for, since, all night / week
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used to / be used to / get used to / would
FORM
used to + bare infinitive
(-) did not use to /
never used to + bare infinitive
EXAMPLES
USE
a. an action that happened regularly in
the past but no longer happens
I didnt use to go to the gym. (but now I
do)
(?) Did + subject + use to + bare
infinitive
be used to + noun / gerund
I used to / would play with imaginary
friends when I was younger.
Did you use to go to parties when you
were my age?
b. a past habit, state or situation
I used to own a bicycle, but I sold it.
be accustomed to something which is
no longer new or strange
(can be expressed in all tenses)
I am used to sleeping late at the
weekend.
Hes not used to his new home yet.
I was used to dancing every day and
didnt want to give it up.
get used to + noun / gerund
the process of becoming accustomed
to something
(can be expressed in all tenses)
David is getting used to his new school.
We quickly got used to life in the country.
I cant get used to studying all day.
Note: Used to can be replaced by would for actions that happened regularly. We use it in positive sentences.
I would often play with imaginary friends when I was younger.
Present Perfect Simple and Continuous
FORM
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
have / has + past participle
(-) have / has not + past participle
(?) Have / Has + subject + past
participle
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
have / has been + verb-ing
(-) have / has not been + verb-ing
(?) Have / Has + subject + been +
verb-ing
USES
EXAMPLES
a. an action that took place at an
unstated time in the past but has
present relevance
I have seen the doctor and everything
is OK.
b. an action that began in the past and
continues up to the present (usually
with stative verbs and for and since)
We have studied here for five years.
c. for unfinished time periods
I havent read the paper today.
d. an action that happened several
times or repeatedly in the past
I have met her twice.
e. after superlatives and expressions
like it / this is the first / second time
This is the worst film Ive ever seen.
a. an action that began in the past and
continues up to the present
She has been talking on the phone for
half an hour.
b. to say how long something has
been happening (usually with for
and since)
I have been sleeping all afternoon.
c. an action that has just finished and
still influences the present
The dog is wet because he has been
running in the rain.
We have just finished the test.
I have known the twins since they were
babies.
Passive
Someone has found my book. My book has been found.
Have they invited you? Have you been invited?
The Present Perfect Continuous has no passive form.
Time Expressions
Present Perfect Simple: just, yet, already, ever, never, lately, recently, so far, always, for, since, how long
Present Perfect Continuous: for, since, all day / morning, how long
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Gerunds and Infinitives
1. Verbs and expressions followed by a gerund (verb-ing)
admit
appreciate
avoid
cant help
cant stand
consider
delay
deny
discuss
dislike
end up
enjoy
fancy
feel like
I appreciate hearing from you.
finish
forget
go
have trouble
imagine
involve
its no use / good
its worth
keep
look forward to
mention
mind
miss
She doesnt mind helping you.
postpone
practise
recall
recommend
resent
resist
risk
spend (time)
stop
suggest
tolerate
understand
He spends a lot of time reading.
2. Verbs and expressions followed by an infinitive (to + verb)
afford
agree
appear
arrange
ask
attempt
be afraid
be pleased
be ready
be willing
beg
care
claim
consent
decide
demand
deserve
expect
fail
forget
have a chance
hesitate
hope
its difficult
He deserved to win the competition.
its easy
learn
manage
mean
need
offer
plan
prepare
pretend
promise
refuse
seem
struggle
swear
Will you have a chance to speak to her?
tend
threaten
volunteer
wait
want
wish
would like
Im afraid to tell Bill the truth.
3. Verbs followed by a noun / pronoun + infinitive
advise
allow
ask
beg
cause
challenge
convince
dare
enable
encourage
I expected John to phone me.
expect
forbid
force
help
hire
instruct
invite
need
order
permit
Our teacher encourages us to read.
persuade
remind
require
teach
tell
urge
want
warn
They urged us to come early.
4. Verbs followed either by a gerund or an infinitive without a change in meaning
begin
cant bear
continue
hate
intend
love
prefer
start
I cant bear to hear the shouting. I intend to travel in the future.
I cant bear hearing the shouting. I intend travelling in the future.
She continued to work.
She continued working.
5. Verbs followed by a gerund or an infinitive with a change in meaning
forget
regret
remember
stop
try
I wont forget visiting Gran in hospital. (forget what happened)
I wont forget to visit Gran. (forget what to do)
I regret shouting at her. (be sorry about what happened)
I regret to tell you that you failed the exam. (be sorry about what you must do)
I remember phoning Aunt Mary. (remember what happened)
Remember to phone Aunt Mary! (remember what to do)
I stopped eating chocolate. (I no longer eat chocolate.)
I stopped to eat chocolate. (I stopped what I was doing in order to eat chocolate.)
I tried to get the chair through the door but it was too big. (attempt)
I tried taking some aspirin but my headache didnt go away. (experiment)
6. Other uses of gerunds
as the subject
Sunbathing is unhealthy.
after prepositions
Hes tired of studying every day.
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Review of the Passive: be + past participle
The passive is formed with the verb to be + past participle.
FORM
ACTIVE
PASSIVE
PRESENT SIMPLE
We grow oranges here.
Oranges are grown here.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
They are washing the dishes.
The dishes are being washed.
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
They have painted our house.
Our house has been painted.
PAST SIMPLE
He opened the window.
The window was opened.
PAST CONTINUOUS
We were washing the dishes.
The dishes were being washed.
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
She had done the shopping.
The shopping had been done.
FUTURE SIMPLE
We will make the beds.
The beds will be made.
FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE
She will have cleaned her room.
Her room will have been cleaned.
BE GOING TO
They are going to print the article.
The article is going to be printed.
MODAL
He can prepare the report.
The report can be prepared.
SEMI-MODAL
She has to hand in the form today.
The form has to be handed in today.
MODAL PERFECT
She should have taken the test.
The test should have been taken.
Notes
1. The following tenses do not have a passive form: Present Perfect Continuous, Past Perfect Continuous,
Future Continuous and Future Perfect Continuous.
2. The agent is not mentioned when it is obvious, unimportant or unknown.
Her baby was born last month.
Potatoes are grown here.
3. By + agent is used when it is important to know who does the action.
These stamps were collected by my grandfather.
4. When the active sentence has both a direct and indirect object, we usually begin the passive sentence with the
indirect object (the person).
We gave Jim a CD. Jim was given a CD. (less common: A CD was given to Jim.)
5. Dont forget the particle with phrasal verbs in the passive.
She turned down the offer. The offer was turned down.
6. Some verbs (believe, consider, expect, know, say, think, suppose) are followed by the infinitive when
used in the passive.
He is considered to be an excellent doctor.
John was expected to be ready at noon. (We can also say: John was expected to have been ready at noon.)
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Modals and Semi-Modals
MODAL
can
USE
EXAMPLES
a. a general ability in the present or future
I can play the piano.
I can come over later.
b. a request
Can I ride your bicycle?
c. permission
You can have some cake.
cant
an impossibility or something hard to believe Jim cant be away; hes just called me.
could
a. a general ability in the past (past form
of can)
He could read when he was four.
b. possibility (not certain)
He could either be at home or at school.
c. a polite request / asking permission
Could I use your computer?
d. an impossibility or inability in the past
I couldnt find my book.
e. a suggestion
You could try talking to her.
a. a future possibility
I may go on a picnic.
may
might
will
would
should / ought to
must
b. a polite request (formal)
May I close the window?
c. permission (formal)
You may borrow my pen.
a. a future possibility
It might stop raining later today.
b. past form of may
She said that she might phone us tonight.
a. a certainty or prediction
She will leave tomorrow evening.
b. willingness / a spontaneous decision
Ill get some bread.
c. a polite request
Will you pour me some tea, please?
a. a polite request
Would you phone John for me?
b. repeated past action
When I was ill, I would spend hours
watching TV.
c. past form of will
I hoped she would write to us.
d. refusal or impossibility (negative)
We tried to tell her but she wouldnt listen.
a. an obligation
I should go home soon.
b. advice
You should stay in bed today.
c. a polite suggestion when unsure of the
answer
Should I leave the book here?
d. logical probability
She ought to get the results today.
She should get back any day now.
a. a strong necessity
You must follow the doctors instructions.
b. a strong obligation
You must stop at a red traffic light.
c. almost certainty
She studied all day. She must be tired.
d. a strong recommendation
You must taste this coffee.
mustnt
prohibition
You mustnt walk on the grass.
shall
a. a polite suggestion or offer of help
(with I or we)
Shall I lock the windows?
b. future (with pronouns I or we as subject
formal)
We shall send a reply to the invitation.
lack of necessity (= dont have to)
You neednt pay me until next month.
neednt
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SEMI-MODAL
be able to
have / has to
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USE
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EXAMPLES
a. general ability (= can)
(can be expressed in all tenses)
The child is able to dress himself.
You will be able to come home soon.
b. a specific past ability / managing to
do something despite difficulty
We were able to rescue the dog from
the fire. (not: We could rescue )
an obligation or necessity
(can be expressed in all tenses)
I have to wear a seat belt.
I dont have to get up early today.
She had to study for a test yesterday.
We will have to do the shopping
tomorrow.
MODAL PERFECT
USE
EXAMPLES
must have + past participle
when we are quite sure about a past
action
Johns car wasnt there. He must have
left early.
cant have + past participle
when we are sure that something did
not happen
They cant have heard the news. We
kept it a secret.
may / might / could have + past
participle
when we do not know what happened
in the past (we are guessing)
Ann hasnt phoned yet. She may have
overslept.
could have + past participle
when we had the ability to do
something in the past but did not do it
I could have baked a cake, but I
ordered one instead.
should / ought to have + past
participle
a. when expectations were not fulfilled
They should have contacted us by
now, but they havent.
b. when sensible advice was not
followed
You should have apologised to Tim.
would have + past participle
willingness to do something, but didnt
do it
I would have visited Gran, but I was ill.
neednt have + past participle
it wasnt necessary to do something
(but it was done anyway)
You neednt have worked so hard. I
could have helped you.
will have + past participle
(Future Perfect)
an action that will be completed by
some point in the future
By this time next year, I will have
learned to drive.
Passive
They may sell their house. Their house may be sold.
You have to clean your room. Your room has to be cleaned.
They should have contacted us We should have been contacted.
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Relative Clauses
A relative clause gives information about a noun. It immediately follows the noun it describes and often begins
with a relative pronoun.
A defining relative clause identifies the noun it refers to. A non-defining relative clause gives additional
information about something that is already clearly identified. Non-defining relative clauses are separated by
commas from the rest of the sentence.
USE
RELATIVE PRONOUN
EXAMPLES
who
for people
The children who live here are very friendly. (defining)
She is the one who I voted for. (defining)
Jane, who lives next door, is a nurse. (non-defining)
which
for things and animals
The play which we saw was excellent. (defining)
This flat, which is in the centre of the city, is suitable
for us. (non-defining)
that
whom
can replace who or which in
defining relative clauses only
Heres the child that sang so well.
Did you buy the shoes that you wanted?
a.
often used after words like all,
none, little, few, anything,
nothing
There is little that we can do.
b.
after superlatives (often with
the Present Perfect)
Casablanca was the best film that I have ever seen.
for people used in formal English
a.
as the object
This is the teacher whom I described. (defining)
b.
after prepositions
She is the candidate for whom I voted. (defining)
The Bartons, to whom we have just spoken, are coming
to visit us soon. (non-defining)
whose
to show possession
The girl whose bicycle was damaged is upset. (defining)
Tim Smith, whose teaching methods are really good,
is a teacher at our school. (non-defining)
where
for places
The house where I grew up looks the same. (defining)
Here is the Lifestyle Club, where I do aerobics.
(non-defining)
when
for time
I remember the day when (that) we first met. (defining)
I met her in March, when I was taking a computer course.
(non-defining)
Note
Who, whom, which or that may be omitted from a defining relative clause when it is the object of the verb in the
relative clause. (This is more common in spoken English.)
The play (that / which) we saw was excellent.
Did you buy the shoes (that / which) you wanted?
This is the teacher (whom) I described to you.
She is the one (that) I voted for.
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Reported Speech (Indirect Speech)
When we report what someone has said, if the reporting verb is in the past, we move the verb of the sentence back
one tense. The chart below reviews these tense changes from direct to indirect speech.
DIRECT
INDIRECT
PRESENT SIMPLE
PAST SIMPLE
He said, I go to school by bus.
He said (that) he went to school by bus.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
PAST CONTINUOUS
She said, I am learning French.
She said (that) she was learning French.
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
He said, I have written a reply.
He said (that) he had written a reply.
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
She said, I have been doing exercises.
She said (that) she had been doing exercises.
PAST SIMPLE
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
She said, I practised the piano.
She said (that) she had practised the piano.
PAST CONTINUOUS
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
He said, I was playing a computer game.
He said (that) he had been playing a computer game.
FUTURE
FUTURE PAST
He said, I will book the tickets.
He said (that) he would book the tickets.
She said, I will be marking tests.
She said (that) she would be marking tests.
IMPERATIVE
TO + BARE INFINITIVE
He said, Stop talking!
He told me to stop talking.
She said, Dont waste paper.
She asked us not to waste paper.
MODAL / SEMI MODAL
MODAL
He said, I can write clearly.
He said that he could write clearly.
He asked, Shall I hang up the washing?
He asked if he should hang up the washing.
He said, I may play tennis on Saturday.
He said that he might play tennis on Saturday.
He said, I have to hand in my composition.
He said that he had to hand in his composition.
TIME EXPRESSIONS
TIME EXPRESSIONS
now
then
today
that day
yesterday
the day before, the previous day
tomorrow
the next / following day, the day after
next week / month
the next / following week / month
last week / month
the previous week / month, the week / month before
a week ago
the week before
here
there
this
that
these
those
Notes
1. The Past Perfect Simple and Past Perfect Continuous do not change in indirect speech.
She said, I had expected a reply. She said she had expected a reply.
He said, I had been working there for a while He said he had been working there for a while
when they met.
when we met.
2. The modals should, could, would, might and ought to do not change in indirect speech.
continued
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3. If the reporting verb is in the Present Simple, Present Perfect or Future Simple, the tense of the verb in the
main clause does not change.
He says, I can come next week. He says that he can come next week.
4. When we report something which is a fact, we do not need to change the tense of the verb.
She said, PETA is an international organisation. She explained that PETA is (was) an international organisation.
5. a. In indirect speech, the first conditional is often reported as the second conditional.
If I hear any news, I will tell you, she said. She said that if she heard any news, she would tell me.
b. The second and third conditionals require no change in indirect speech.
John said, If I won a trip, Id go to Thailand. John said that if he won a trip, hed go to Thailand.
6. When we report questions, we change the word order to that of a regular sentence. (This is the same rule
as for indirect questions.)
a. Wh- Questions
Why are you crying? he asked. He asked why I was crying.
b. Yes / No Questions
Do you play basketball? No, I dont. She asked whether / if I played basketball, and I replied that I didnt.
7. Different reporting verbs are followed by different structures.
a. Statements
say + (that) + sentence
He said, I found my key. He said (that) he had found his key.
tell + object + (that) + sentence
I said to John, Were watching a film. I told John (that) we were watching a film.
explain that + sentence
She said, You misunderstood the question. She explained that I had misunderstood the question.
b. Questions
ask, wonder, inquire, want to know, would like to know + whether / if + sentence
Mum asked, Will you be home for lunch? Mum asked whether I would be home for lunch.
c.
Commands
tell, order, instruct, ask, beg, invite, warn, command + object + (not) + infinitive
The officer ordered his soldiers, Stop here! The officer ordered his soldiers to stop there.
8. We can also report what someone said with certain verbs + gerunds without giving the exact words the speaker used.
suggest, accuse, apologise, deny + gerund
I said, Lets go to the beach. I suggested going to the beach.
He said, You stole my money. He accused them of stealing his money.
Im sorry Im late, she said.
She apologised for being late.
I didnt break the window, he said. He denied breaking the window.
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GRAMMAR APPENDIX
GRAMMAR APPENDIX
GRAMMAR APPENDIX
Conditionals
FORM
Conditional
Clause
EXAMPLES
USE
Main Clause
(Result)
ZERO
CONDITIONAL
If + present
Present Simple
to talk about things that are
generally true
If babies are hungry, they cry.
FIRST
CONDITIONAL
If + present
Future
a. future possibility
If I finish my project, I will hand it in
tomorrow.
Youll be tired tomorrow unless you
go to bed now.
If + present
Modal
If + present
Imperative
If you apologise, she may forgive you.
b. command
If you have to leave, go now.
SECOND
CONDITIONAL
(unreal)
If + Past Simple would / could /
might + bare
infinitive
a hypothetical or imaginary
situation in the present or
future; also used to express
advice, hope or ambition
If I won the lottery, Id travel abroad.
THIRD
CONDITIONAL
(past)
If + Past
Perfect
an unfulfilled condition in the
past; may be used to express
regret about the past
If I had heard earlier, I would have
come over. (but I didnt hear)
would / could /
might + have +
past participle
If I were you, I would buy a computer.
If I had my own piano, I could play
every day.
Notes
1. unless = if not
2. In formal English, we use were for all subjects in the second conditional.
If she were here, she would help us.
3. Other words can be used instead of if.
Suppose / Supposing used to ask What if ? These words are followed by a question.
Suppose / Supposing you had her phone number, would you phone her?
Provided / Providing (that), on condition that, as long as = if and only if
Shell go on holiday provided (that) she saves enough money.
Ill listen on condition that you tell me the whole story.
You can walk where you like as long as you keep off the grass.
In case refers to things we do in order to get ready for something.
Well buy some more food in case Sue and Jack come over.
Compare: in case of + noun
In case of emergency, phone this number. (= If there is an emergency)
Otherwise can replace an if clause.
Wash these strawberries in lots of water. Otherwise, we wont be able to eat them. (= If you dont wash them)
4. Other words that are not followed by will and would when referring to the future include: after, when, until / till, once,
as soon as, as long as, before, the moment that, whenever, by the time, while
When she gets to London, she will phone us.
We will wait here until the rain stops.
We decided that we would go out as soon as the rain stopped.
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GRAMMAR APPENDIX
GRAMMAR APPENDIX
GRAMMAR APPENDIX
Wish Clauses
There are three forms of wish sentences.
FORM
USE
wish + would / could + bare infinitive
wish + Past Simple
EXAMPLES
a. usually refers to the future
I wish she would phone me.
b. a complaint about the present or
a desire for change
I wish it would stop raining.
dissatisfaction with a present situation
I wish I lived near my cousins.
I wish they were here now.
wish + Past Perfect
regret about a past situation
I wish I had refused the invitation.
I wish you hadnt shouted at Bob.
Notes
1. Wish + would can only be used with different subjects.
I wish he would stop shouting. (not: I wish I would run faster. )
2. If only can replace wish and is often used to stress the wish or express deep regret.
If only she would phone me.
If only they were here now.
If only I had refused the invitation.
3. We use were as the form of the verb to be in wishes about the present (as in the second conditional).
I wish Mary were in our class.
The Causative
Have / Get
The verbs have and get can be used to express the idea that we cause or arrange for someone else to do something
for us. The causative can be expressed in different tenses.
do it yourself
I painted my nails.
have someone do something /
get someone to do something
have / get something done (by someone else)
I had / got my nails painted (by the beautician).
I had the beautician paint my nails.
I got the cleaner to wash the windows.
I am polishing my floors.
I am having / getting my floors polished
(by the cleaner).
I am having the cleaner polish my floors.
I got the cleaner to polish my floors.
Make / Let somebody do something (Make / Let + object + bare infinitive)
Make expresses the idea that someone is forced to do something.
My parents made me do my homework.
Do they make you study at the weekend?
Note: When we use made in the passive, we add to + bare infinitive.
The children were made to clean up after the party.
let = allow
My sister let me borrow her jacket.
Do you let your dog sleep in your room?
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GRAMMAR APPENDIX
GRAMMAR APPENDIX
GRAMMAR APPENDIX
Special Structures
FORM
so + adjective / adverb
EXAMPLES
The film was so exciting!
How did you get here so quickly?
so + adjective / adverb + that
The cake was so tasty that I ate three slices.
such + noun
The news was such a shock!
such + adjective + noun
Our neighbours are such nice people.
such + adjective + noun + that
It was such a tasty cake that I ate three slices.
enough + noun
She doesnt have enough money.
adjective / adverb + enough
He tried to reach the shelf, but he wasnt tall enough.
adjective / adverb + enough + to + bare infinitive
He plays well enough to be in the team.
too + adjective / adverb
These jeans are too big for me.
He talks too quickly.
too + adjective / adverb + to + bare infinitive
He is too young to drive.
despite / in spite of + noun / verb-ing
We went on a picnic despite / in spite of the cold weather.
In spite of having / Despite having a driving licence, he is
unwilling to drive.
although / even though / though + subject + verb
Although he has a driving licence, he is unwilling to drive.
what + noun phrase
He knew what a difficult job it was.
how + adjective / adverb
He knew how difficult the job was.
its time + to + bare infinitive
Its time to leave.
Its time for us to leave.
its (high / about) time + subject + Past Simple
Its time he stopped behaving so rudely.
had better (+ not) + bare infinitive
Youd better walk carefully.
Hadnt you better ask your parents permission?
Hed better not touch my books.
would rather + bare infinitive (+ than + bare infinitive)
He would rather leave now.
Shed rather see a film than go to a play.
would rather + subject + Past Simple
The doctor would rather I stayed in bed.
Mum would rather we didnt eat sweets.
prefer + noun / gerund + to + noun / gerund
I prefer tea to coffee.
He prefers jogging to running.
prefer (+ not) + to + bare infinitive
We prefer to live in a flat rather than a house.
She prefers not to talk about it.
I insist on + gerund
I insist on leaving now.
I insist (that) + subject + (should) bare infinitive
We insist that she stay with us.
I recommend + gerund
I recommend having lunch at the new fish restaurant.
I recommend / suggest (that) + subject + (should) + bare
infinitive
I recommend that he (should) send in the form today.
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