MACE61222

Two Hours

UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER

HELICOPTER FLIGHT

28 May 2014
14:00 16:00

Answer any THREE Questions out of FIVE.

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Electronic calculators may be used, provided that they cannot store text.
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Q1
Consider a helicopter rotor in vertical flight. The rotor aerodynamics is modelled
with a one-dimensional momentum theory.
a) Calculate the contraction ratio of the slipstream of a rotor of radius R in hover.
[8 marks]
b) The total hover power, including the induced power and the profile power, is

P=

W 3/ 2

1
3
+ C Do AU tip
8
2 R

(EQ1.1)

where W is the gross weight; A is the rotor disk area. Assume the following
data: W = 20.0 kN; radius R = 5.60 m, rotor solidity = 0.055, rpm = 250,
average profile drag coefficient C Do = 0.008 .
Calculate the ratio between the profile power and the induced power for a
rotor operating at 1,000 m altitude above sea level, where the air density is
[9 marks]
= 1.112 kg/m.
c) Assume that in Eq.1.1 the radius is a free parameter. Calculate the optimum
rotor radius with the same data as in part b).
[9 marks]
d) Provide a mathematical definition of the figure of merit (FM) of the hovering
rotor. Can you use the FM to describe forward flight performance?
[7 marks]

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Q2
In case of engine failure, it is stipulated that there must be a section of the flight
envelope that allows for safe landing.
a) The helicopter has a forward flight performance given by the graph in Figure
Q2.1. This figure shows the inflow ratio as a function of the advance ratio
The corresponding torque coefficient is given by EQ2.1:
CQ =

CW 1
1 f
+ C d + 3 + CW
2
8
2 A

(EQ2.1)

2
where CW = W / AU tip
is the weight coefficient; is the rotor solidity; C d is the

average drag coefficient; f is an equivalent flat plate area; is a constant

Figure Q2.1
b.) The helicopter is powered by two gas turbine engines. Failure from one
engine does not prevent full loss of control thanks to the power train. Provide
a sketch of a typical power train for a twin-engine helicopter and describe how
control is achieved when one engine shuts down.
[9 marks]
c.) A power loss is encountered with the helicopter in hover flight. Assume that
the pilot is able to set the rotor in autorotation, without delay. The initial
altitude is 50 m, the weight is W = 20.0 kN; radius R = 5.60 m; rpm = 250.
The equivalent drag coefficient of a windmilling rotor is 1.85.
i. Write down the condition for ideal autorotation.
[3 marks]
ii. Calculate the terminal descent speed; assess whether the helicopter can
land safely.
[6 marks]
d.) Describe the difference between Category A and B in helicopter certification.
[6 marks]

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Q3
A helicopter has a main rotor speed of 260 rpm, and a radius R = 5.90 m. The
gross take-off weight is 30 kN. The blades have an average drag coefficient
C D = 0.011 , and rotor solidity = 0.08 . The distance between the axis of the main
and tail rotor is x = 7.50 m. The helicopter is powered by two gas turbine engines,
whose maximum continuous power at sea level is Po = 1,150 kW (each).
a) Calculate the tail rotor thrust required to trim the helicopter in hover.
[10 marks]
b) Assume that due to a failure in the flight control system there is an impulsive
excess of tail rotor thrust.
i. What happens to the helicopter?
ii. Judge whether the worst case scenario is during hover or level flight.
[8 marks]
c) The altitude lapse rate for the engine power is a function described
approximately by Eq. 3.1.

P ( z ) = Po
SL

1.35

(EQ. 3.1)

Estimate the hover ceiling of this helicopter rotor; neglect the effects of profile
power and tail rotor power.
[8 marks]
d) Describe a flight procedure that allows the helicopter to fly above the hover
ceiling. Provide sketches if necessary.
[7 marks]

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Q4.
Consider the flapping motion of a rigid rotor blade. The blade has a mass m and a
radius R . Assume that the flapping hinge point is placed on the rotational axis. The
equation describing the rigid flapping around the hinge is
2 1
Ma
+
+ =
2

8
I 2

(EQ.4.1)

where is the flapping angle; is the azimuth angle; I is the blades polar moment
of inertia; is the rotational speed; M a is the aerodynamic moment about the flap
hinge; is the Lock number: = C L cR 4 / I , with lift-curve slope C L ; c is the
average blade chord; is the air density.
a) Compare the flapping characteristics of the blades at sea level and high
altitude (Hint: in EQ. 4.1 the only free parameter is the air density). [9 marks]
b) Consider pure rotational motion. Write an equation for the equilibrium of a
blade with the hinge point on the shaft; discuss the parameters required to
reduce the flapping angle .
[9 marks]
c) Describe the mechanism required to provide pitch control on the blades of an
articulated rotor. Use sketches to aid the discussion.
[9 marks]
d) Describe the risks of resonance due to rigid blade flapping in the case shown
in Figure Q4.1 (an interference diagram). Justify your answer.
[6 marks]

Figure Q4.1.

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Q5
Dynamic stall is an unsteady aerodynamic effect on the blades of a helicopter rotor
due to a combination of pitching and plunging.
a) Assume an aerofoil in simple plunging motion, with an amplitude h, and a
frequency f. The free stream has a speed V. Write down an expression for the
equivalent inflow angle, .
[8 marks]
b) Assume an aerofoil in simple pitching motion with angular frequency

= o + sin ( t )

(EQ.5.1)

with o = 5 degrees and amplitude = 10 degrees. Describe how the direction

c) For the pitch oscillation described by EQ5.1 the dynamic stall is an anticlockwise loop in the lift coefficient. Explain why this is the case.
[7 marks]
d) Explain under which circumstances dynamic stall occurs on the blades of a
helicopter rotor.
[6 marks]
e) Explain why dynamic stall is a limiter of helicopter flight speed.

END OF EXAMINATION PAPER

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[5 marks]