Course Overview
Introduction to Machine Condition Monitoring
and Condition Based Maintenance
Machine Condition Monitoring
Basics of Mechanical Vibrations
and
Vibration Transducers
Fault Diagnostics
Vibration Signal Measurement and Display
Machine Vibration Standards and Acceptance
Limits (Condition Monitoring)
Chris K Mechefske
Vibration Signal Frequency Analysis (FFT)
January 5, 2006
Page 1
January 5, 2006
Page 2
Course Overview
Current Topic
Machinery Vibration Trouble Shooting
Introduction to Machine Condition Monitoring
and Condition Based Maintenance
Fault Diagnostics Based on Forcing Functions
Fault Diagnostics Based on Specific Machine
Components
Basics of Mechanical Vibrations
Fault Diagnostics Based on Specific Machine Type
Vibration Signal Measurement and Display
Automatic Diagnostic Techniques
Machine Vibration Standards and Acceptance
Limits (Condition Monitoring)
Vibration Transducers
Non-Vibration Based Machine Condition Monitoring
and Fault Diagnosis Methods
January 5, 2006
Page 3
Vibration Signal Frequency Analysis (FFT)
January 5, 2006
Basics of Mechanical Vibration
Classification of Vibration
By Motion:
Definition
The variation with time of the magnitude of a
quantity, which is descriptive of the motion or position
of a mechanical system, when the magnitude is
alternately greater and smaller than the average
value or reference.
Basically an object oscillates back and forth about
an equilibrium point.
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Page 5
Simple Harmonic Motion
The simplest form of vibration.
Exact position is predictable from the equation of
motion.
Mathematical description:
x(t ) = A sin(t + )
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Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple Harmonic Motion
x(t ) = A sin(t + )
Terms:
x (t ) - instantaneous displacement (m)
- maximum amplitude (m)
- angular velocity (Radians/Second)
- phase angle (Radians)
= 2 f
f = frequency,
Graphical description of simple harmonic motion
T = cycle/period, T = 1 / f
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January 5, 2006
Periodic Motion
Random Motion
Motion repeats itself in equal time periods.
Includes harmonic motion, pulses, etc.
Motion is not deterministic (That is, not repeatable).
Statistics of motion history may be well defined, but
exact location as a function of time is not obtainable.
1
0.8
0.6
Vibration signal contains all frequencies in a given
band.
0.4
Amplitude
Page 8
0.2
0
Often generated by machine looseness.
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
10
20
30
40
50
60
Time (ms)
70
80
90
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January 5, 2006
Random Motion
Page 10
Chaotic Motion
1
0.8
0.6
Combination of random and periodic motion.
Amplitude
0.4
Random and repeatable characteristics combined
in a non-linear fashion.
0.2
0
-0.2
Vibration signal contains all frequencies in a given
band but not in equal proportions.
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
10
20
30
40
50
Time (ms)
60
70
80
90
Graphical description of Random Motion.
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Transient Motion
Classification of Vibration by Excitation
Free vibration:
Oscillation occurs at natural frequency after an
initial force input has disappeared.
Any motion other than the above.
Impulsive in nature, but not regularly repeated.
Forced vibration:
Oscillation occurs at the frequency of a driving
force input.
Self-induced vibration:
Vibration of a system resulting from conversion of
energy within system.
Non-oscillatory energy to oscillatory excitation.
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January 5, 2006
Basic Theory of Vibration
Basic Theory of Vibration
The equation of motion comes from the force
balance equation,
Single Degree-of-Freedom System Model
F(t)
M&x&(t ) + Cx& (t ) + Kx (t ) = F (t )
x(t)
Mass M
Page 14
The total solution to the equation of motion has
two parts. The transient solution (x1) and the
steady state part (x2). We are usually more
interested in the steady state solution, but will
consider both here for completeness.
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January 5, 2006
Basic Theory of Vibration
Page 16
Basic Theory of Vibration
Solution to equation of motion.
Transient state solution ( F (t ) = 0 ).
x1 (t ) = Ae
s1t
+ Be
There are three special cases of transient vibration.
1. Underdamped <1
s2 t
2. Critically Damped
S1, 2 = 2 1 0
=1
3. Overdamped > 1
A, B are initial conditions
0 is the natural frequency, 0 = K M
is the damping ratio, = C (2 M )
0
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Basic Theory of Vibration
Responses of free vibration versus damping
Underdamped <1
Underdamped, =0.15
1.5
S1, 2 = j 1 2 0
x(t)
0.5
x1 (t ) = Ae 0t sin( 1 2 0 t + )
Oscillation with frequency 0
-0.5
Amplitude decays exponentially
January 5, 2006
-1
Page 19
1.5
Time (s)
2.5
January 5, 2006
Basic Theory of Vibration
Critically Damped
0.5
Page 20
Responses of free vibration versus damping
2
=1
Critically damped, =1.0
1.5
x1 (t ) = ( A + Bt )e 0t
x(t)
Quick restoration to equilibrium state
0.5
-0.5
-1
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1.5
Time (s)
2.5
January 5, 2006
Basic Theory of Vibration
Overdamped
0.5
Page 22
Responses of free vibration versus damping
2
>1
Overdamped,
=3.0
1.5
x1 (t ) = Ae s1t + Be s2t
x(t)
s1 , s2 R
0.5
Exponential decaying without oscillation
-0.5
-1
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January 5, 2006
0.5
1.5
Time (s)
2.5
Page 24
Responses of free vibration versus damping
2
Solution to equation of motion.
=0.15
Underdamped,
=1.0
Critically damped,
=3.0
Overdamped,
1.5
Basic Theory of Vibration
Steady state solution ( F (t ) = F0 sin(t ) ).
x(t)
x 2 (t ) =
0.5
Total solution to equation of motion.
-0.5
-1
F0
sin( t )
C + (K 2 M )
x ( t ) = x1 ( t ) + x 2 ( t )
0
0.5
1.5
Time (s)
2.5
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Relationship between Displacement,
Velocity and Acceleration
Displacement
We are primarily interested in the Steady State
response of a system due to some continuous
forcing function input.
Velocity
Velocity (m/s)
- The rate of change of displacement with time
v ( t ) = x& ( t ) = A sin( t + +
Recall that the equation that describes simple
harmonic motion is:
)
2
x(t ) = A sin(t + )
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Velocity
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Relationship between Displacement,
Velocity and Acceleration
Acceleration
Acceleration (m/s2)
0.25
- The rate of change of velocity with time
0.2
0.15
Amplitude
0.1
a (t ) = &x&(t ) = 2 A sin(t + + )
0.05
0
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
displacement
velocity
acceleration
-0.2
-0.25
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January 5, 2006
10
15
20
Time (ms)
25
30
35
40
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Descriptors of Vibration Signals
Descriptors of Vibration Signals
Mean
Average
Indicates the DC level in the signal and should
be subtracted first.
Indicates average vibration level of the signal.
Definition:
x =
1
T
Definition:
x ( t ) dt
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x av =
Page 31
1
T
x(t ) dt
January 5, 2006
Vibration Descriptors
Page 32
Descriptors of Vibration Signals
Peak Value (zero-to-peak)
Indicates peak vibration level of the signal.
Amplitude
Definition:
xav
x p = max [x (t ) x ]
Mean
time
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January 5, 2006
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Descriptors of Vibration Signals
Vibration Descriptors
Peak-to-Peak
Indicates total fluctuation in the vibration signal.
Amplitude
xp
Definition:
x p p = max [x (t )] min[x (t )]
Mean
time
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January 5, 2006
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Vibration Descriptors
Descriptors of Vibration Signals
RMS (root mean square)
Value proportional to the energy in the vibration
signal.
Amplitude
xp p
Definition:
Mean
xRMS =
time
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1
[x(t )]2 dt
T
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Vibration Descriptors
Vibration Descriptors
Amplitude
Amplitude
xp
xRMS
xav
Mean
xRMS
xp p
Mean
time
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time
January 5, 2006
Descriptors of Vibration Signals
Descriptors of Vibration Signals
With respect to A in the original equation of
simple harmonic motion:
Note that equations on the last slide are true for
simple harmonic motion only. If the vibration
signal has a different character the simplification
below does not hold.
x(t ) = A sin(t + )
xRMS 0.707 A
x RMS = 0.707A
xp = A
But rather, the RMS value must be calculated
from...
x p p = 2 A
xRMS =
x av = 0.637A
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January 5, 2006
1
[x(t )]2 dt
T
Page 42
Time and Frequency Domains
Time and Frequency Domains
Amplitude
Frequency
F2
F2
F1
F1
Time
January 5, 2006
Page 43
January 5, 2006
Time and Frequency Domains
Page 44
Time and Frequency Domains
Amplitude
Amplitude
Time
January 5, 2006
F1
Page 45
Frequency F2
January 5, 2006
Decibel (dB) units
Page 46
Decibel (dB) units
Definition (Mechanical and Acoustics)
A measure of vibration amplitude
A
dB = 20 log10 rms
Aref
Logarithmic scale
With respect to a reference value
Effective in displaying small values together
with very large values.
Arms - RMS value of a parameter
Aref
- Reference value of the parameter
Double amplitude corresponds to an increase of 6 dB
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January 5, 2006
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Decibel (dB) units
Decibel (dB) units
Linear Scale
1 10
Standardised reference values (ISO standard)
100
1000
Logarithmic Scale
10
Parameter
Reference
100
Displacement
1 10 6 g
1 10
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12
1 10 m
or
1 10 6 m
s2
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Decibel (dB) units
Decibel (dB) units
Linear Multiplication
6
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
x2
x3
x 10
x 30
x 100
x 300
x 1000
x 3000
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January 5, 2006
What is Mechanical Vibration?
y(t) - output
How mechanical systems respond to forcing
function inputs?
Consider an everyday example the motor vehicle.
Mass M
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Mechanical Vibration is:
Using the Single Degree-of-Freedom System Model
A wide range of different inputs can cause
vibrations in motor vehicles.
K
x(t) - input
F(t)
January 5, 2006
Acceleration
1000
January 5, 2006
dB increase
Velocity
Page 53
Wind
Engine Combustion
Road surface
Mechanical Imbalance
Engine Fan
Misalignment
January 5, 2006
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Mechanical Vibration
Mechanical Vibration
All vibrations experienced by the driver and other
occupants are the result of mechanical dissipation
of energy in response to some forcing function
input.
Using the single Degree-of-Freedom System
model for the suspension system
Mass of
vehicle, M
Consider only one source of potential forcing
function input the road surface.
Also consider the vehicles suspension system as
a linear single degree-of-freedom system.
y(t) output
(vehicle vibration)
C shock damping
K spring stiffness
x(t) input
(road surface)
F(t)
January 5, 2006
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January 5, 2006
Mechanical Vibration
Response to System Inputs
Assume unsprung mass (wheel) is small (but not
negligible) compared to that of the vehicle.
Road Input
K is the spring stiffness (linear). Spring stores energy
when stretched or compressed and acts to oppose
motion proportional to position. Unstretched or
uncompressed spring no force.
C is the damping coefficient of the shock absorber,
which is modeled as a viscous damper. The shock
absorber dissipates energy rather than storing it and
opposes motion proportional to velocity. Zero velocity
zero force.
January 5, 2006
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Ampl.
Vehicle Output
Ampl.
Time
Time
Evaluation of these plots reveals two important
quantities gain and phase shift.
January 5, 2006
Mechanical Vibration
Page 58
Response to System Inputs
Gain is the change in amplitude (often an
increase) from input to output (often expressed in
decibels).
Gain = Output Amplitude
Input Amplitude
Road Input
Time
Gain
Time
Phase Shift
The frequency of the output does not change
relative to the input.
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Vehicle Output
Ampl.
Ampl.
The phase shift is the change in the position of the
output vibration signal relative to the input
vibration signal.
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January 5, 2006
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10
Mechanical Vibration
Mechanical Vibration
Consider now the gain and phase shift of a system
over a range of frequencies.
In order to do this we need to introduce what is
know as the Transfer Function (TF).
Gain
(dB)
When considered together the gain and the phase
shift plots represent the Transfer Function of a
particular mechanical system.
Gain
(dB)
Phase
(degrees)
The Gain and Phase Shift at
any particular frequency are
found from these plots.
Freq.
Phase
(degrees)
Freq.
Gain Plot
Freq.
Phase Plot
January 5, 2006
Freq.
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January 5, 2006
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Mechanical Vibration
Mechanical Vibration
The gain at low
frequencies is one
or close to one.
Gain
(dB)
Gain
(dB)
Freq.
Freq.
The frequency shift
is zero.
Phase
(degrees)
Phase
(degrees)
Freq.
Freq.
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Freq.
Page 64
Mechanical Vibration
Above the Natural
Frequency, the
gain decreases at
a constant rate
(usually rapid).
As the frequency increases the gain initially increases (until
natural frequency) and then decreases (after natural
frequency). Note there may be more than one natural
Frequency.
Gain
(dB)
Freq.
Phase
(degrees)
The phase shifts
towards 90 as the
frequency gets close to
the Natural Frequency.
January 5, 2006
Mechanical Vibration
Gain
(dB)
There is little change in
the gain as the frequency
increases, until the
system Natural Frequency
is approached where the
gain quickly increases
with increasing frequency.
The frequency shift
approaches 180.
While low frequency inputs are
passed through the system
(gain equals one), high
frequency inputs are
attenuated.
Such a system is called a low
pass filter.
Phase
(degrees)
Freq.
Freq.
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11
Mechanical Vibration
Mechanical Resonance
An increase in gain and dramatic phase shift
occur at the frequency of mechanical resonance.
All mechanical systems act as low pass filters for
two reasons.
High frequencies require higher speeds to reach
the same amplitudes as lower frequencies
Many system responses or
forcing function frequencies exist
at or close to resonance.
Gain
(dB)
All machines have a maximum velocity (due to
inertia). Once the maximum velocity is reached,
higher frequencies can only be reached by
reducing the amplitude.
It is essential to consider the
existence of these resonances
when designing new machines
and when maintaining existing
machines.
Freq.
Phase
(degrees)
Freq.
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January 5, 2006
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Mechanical Resonance
Note:
System Damping
As noted earlier system damping affects the
response of the system.
The gain remains relatively
constant at low frequencies.
Systems natural frequency
(resonance) occurs when the
phase shift is exactly -90o
Gain
(dB)
The peak gain occurs slightly
below the system resonance due
to damping.
Freq.
Phase
(degrees)
Freq.
For frequencies above resonance
the gain decreases as the phase
shift approaches -180o.
January 5, 2006
Increased damping results in
lower peak gain.
Gain
(dB)
Page 69
Freq.
Increased damping results in
reduced phase shift slope.
Phase
(degrees)
Freq.
Changes in damping result in only minimal changes in
gain and phase shift at low and high frequencies.
January 5, 2006
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Analysis of Mechanical Vibrations
Non-Linearities
Typically only outputs can be measured, not inputs.
To complicate this a different transfer function
exists from each vibration forcing function input to
the point where the output is measured.
Damping is usually modeled as linear.
Using this model - as velocity slows the
damping force goes to zero.
This is, of course, not true in real systems.
Not all (if any) transfer functions are known due to
their complex nature.
As a result separately analyzing transfer functions
and inputs is extremely challenging.
January 5, 2006
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Damping
Force
Velocity
In reality, the damping force levels off as velocity
approaches zero.
January 5, 2006
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12
Summary
Summary
Vibration is the mechanical dissipation of energy in
response to a mechanical input.
All mechanical systems act as low pass filters of
vibration inputs.
In a simple linear system, the response to a
sinusoidal input is a sinusoidal output with the
same frequency, but different phase and
amplitude.
January 5, 2006
A system response to vibration input depends on
the frequency of the input.
The change in amplitude and phase shift of the
output relative to the input is slight at low
frequencies, but is dramatic close to the system
natural frequency (resonance) and above.
In vibration analysis it is essential to consider both
the specifics of the input and the system
characteristics (transfer function) such as
resonances and non-linearities.
Page 73
January 5, 2006
Page 74
Next Time
Introduction to Machine Condition Monitoring
and Condition Based Maintenance
Basics of Mechanical Vibrations
Vibration Transducers
Vibration Signal Measurement and Display
Machine Vibration Standards and Acceptance
Limits (Condition Monitoring)
Vibration Signal Frequency Analysis (FFT)
January 5, 2006
Page 75
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