1st Topic

Vector Calculus
Differentiation of vectors, Space curves (Curves in
Space), Curvature, Torsion, Radius of curvature
and radius of torsion, Frenets Formulae
Prepared by:
Dr. Sunil
NIT Hamirpur (HP)
(Last updated on 24-10-2008)
Latest update available at: http://www.freewebs.com/sunilnit/

Differentiation of vectors:
If a vector R varies continuously as a scalar variable t changes, then R is said to
be a function of t and is written as R = F(t ) .
We define the derivative of a vector function R = F(t ) as
F (t + t ) F (t )
t 0
t
Lt

and write it as

dR
dF
or
or F (t ) .
dt
dt

General rules of differentiation:

General rules of differentiation are similar to those of ordinary calculus provided
the order of factors in vector products is maintained. Thus, if is scalar and F, G, H are
vector functions of a scalar variable t, then we have

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

(i)

d
(F + G H ) = dF + dG dH
dt
dt
dt
dt

(ii)

d
dF
d
( F ) = + F
dt
dt
dt

(iii)

d
dF
dG
( F.G ) = .G + F.
dt
dt
dt

(iv)

d
dF
dG
(F G ) = G + F
dt
dt
dt

(v)

d
(FGH ) =
dt

(vi)

d
[(F G ) H ] = dF G H + F dG H + (F G ) dH .
dt
dt
dt
dt

(iv) Prove that

Proof:

dH
dF
dG
dt GH + F dt H + FG dt

d
(F G ) = F dG + dF G .
dt
dt
dt

d
(F G ) = Lt (F + F ) (G + G ) F G
t 0
dt
t

(F G ) + (F G ) + (F G ) + (F G ) (F G )

= Lt

t 0

= Lt

(F G ) + (F G ) + (F G )
t

t 0

G F
F
dG dF

= Lt F
+
G +
G = F
+
G [ G 0 as t 0]
t 0
t
t
t
dt
dt

This completes the proof.

Result No.1.: If F(t) has a constant magnitude, then show that F.
Proof.: Given F(t) has a constant magnitude F(t ) = constant
2

F(t ).F (t ) = F (t ) = constant

F.

d
(F.F ) = 0
dt

dF dF
dF
dF
+
.F = 0 2F.
= 0 F.
= 0.
dt dt
dt
dt

This completes the proof.

Note: F.

dF
dF
=0
F.
dt
dt

dF
= 0.
dt

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

Result No.2.: If F(t) has a constant direction, then show that F

dF
= 0.
dt

Proof: Let F(t ) = f (t ) .

If we assume G (t ) be a unit vector in the direction of F(t), then F(t ) = f ( t ) G (t ) .

dF
d G df

= f (t)
+ G.
dt
dt dt

(i)

If F(t) has a constant direction, then G (t ) has also a constant direction.

Thus, G (t ) is a constant vector

G (t)
dt

= 0.

dF df
dF
d G df
= G
From (i), we have
= f (t)
+ G
dt
dt dt
dt dt
Now F
F

dF
df
df
= f G G = f G G = 0
dt
dt
dt

dF
= 0.
dt

This completes the proof.

Now let us solve few problems using the general rule of differentiation:

Q.No.1.: If A = 5t 2 I + t J t 3 K , B = sin t I cos t J ,

find (i)
Sol.: (i)

d
(A.B ) , (ii) d (A B ) .
dt
dt

d
(A.B ) = A. dB + dA .B
dt
dt
dt

= 5t 2 I + t J t 3 K . cost I ( sin t ) J + 10t I + J 3t 2 K . sin t I cos t J

= 5t 2 cos t + t sin t + (10t sin t cos t ) = 5t 2 cos t + 11t sin t cos t . Ans.
(ii):

d
(A B ) = A d B + d A B
dt
dt
dt

= 5t 2 I + t J t 3 K cos t I + sin t J + 10t I + J 3t 2 K sin t I cos t J

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

= 5t 2 sin t K + t cos t K t 3 cos t J t 3 sin t I

+ 10t cos t K + sin t K 3t 2 sin t J + 3t 2 cos t I

[(

= t 3 sin t 3t 2 cos t I t 2 (t cos t + 3 sin t ) J + 5t 2 1 sin t 11t cos t K . Ans.

Space curves (Curves in Space):

Associated with each point on a curve, there is a set of three
mutually perpendicular lines known as
Tangent, Principal normal, Binormal
and three mutually perpendicular planes determined by these in pairs and
known as
Osculating plane, Normal plane, Reflecting plane.

Binormal

Normal Plane

Reflecting
Plane
O

Curve

T
Tangent

Osculating Plane

Principal
Normal

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

(1) Tangent at a point:

Let R (t ) = x (t ) I + y( t ) J + z(t )K be the position vector of a point P.

We observe that, as the scalar parameter t takes different values, then the point P traces
out a curve in space.
If the neighbouring point Q corresponds to t + t , then
R = R ( t + t ) R ( t ) .

z-axis

P0(t0)
s

P(t)

R
s

R(t )

Tangent

R(t + t )
y-axis
O

x-axis

As t is scalar, then the vector

R R (t + t ) R (t )
is parallel to PQ
=
t
t

or directed along the chord PQ.

R
,
Q P t

Now, taking the limit, when Q P , and consequently t 0 , we get Lim

t 0

which becomes the tangent (vector) to the curve at P, whenever it exists and is not zero.
But Lim
Q P
t 0

R dR
=
= R
t
dt

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

Thus, the vector R =

dR
is a tangent to the space curve R = F(t ) .
dt

Vector equation of the tangent:

If u is the scalar parameter, R is the position vector of the point P and X is the
position vector of any point on the tangent.
Then the vector equation of the tangent at P is X = R + u

dR
dt

X = F ( t ) + uF(t) .

Formula for evaluating arc length:

Let P0 be a fixed point of this curve corresponding to t = t 0 .

If s be the length of the arc P0 P , then

s
s R
arc PQ R
=
.
=
.
t
R t
chord PQ t

Now, as Q P along the curve QP i.e., t 0 , and consequently

Then Lim
Q P
t 0

arc PQ
1.
chord PQ

s
R
= Lim
P t
t Qt
0
ds dR
=
= R ( t ) .
dt
dt

If R(t ) is continuous, then by taking integration, the arc P0 P is given by

s=

t
t0

R dt =

t
t0

(x)2 + (y)2 + (z)2 dt .

This is the required formula for evaluating the length of an arc.

Remarks:
Since, we know

ds dR
=
.
dt
dt

If we take s as the parameter in place of t, then the magnitude of the tangent vector is
equal to one, i.e.
dR
= 1.
ds

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

Thus, if we denote the unit tangent vector by T , then we have

T=

dR
.
ds

(2) Principal Normal:

dT
Since T is unit tangent vector, then we have
.T = 0 .
ds

dT
is perpendicular to T

ds

dT
or
= 0 T is constant vector w.r.t. the arc length s and so has a fixed direction
ds

i.e. the curve is a straight line.

If we denote a unit normal vector to the curve at P by N ,

dT
then
is in the direction of N ,
ds

which is known as the principal normal to the space curve at P.

Osculating plane:

The plane between T and N is called the osculating plane of the curve at P.
(3) Binormal:

A third unit vector B defined by B = T N , is called the binormal at P.

Since T and N are unit vectors

B is also a unit vector perpendicular to both T and N .

Hence B is normal to the osculating plane at P.

Final Conclusions:
Thus, at each point P of a space curve, there are three mutually perpendicular unit

vectors T , N , B which form a moving trihedral such that

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

T = N B ,

N = B T ,

B = T N .

This moving trihedral determines the following three fundamentals planes at each point
of the curve:

(i)

The osculating plane containing T and N .

(ii)

The normal plane containing N and B .

(iii)

The reflecting plane containing B and T .

Remarks:

(i)

The tangent is parallel to the vectors

dR
ds

The principal normal is parallel to the vector

The binomial is parallel to the vector

d2R
ds 2

dR d 2 R

.
ds ds 2

(ii) Equation of normal plane at a point P with position vector R, is

(X R ). dR
dt

= 0,

where X is the position vector of any point on the plane.

(iii) Equation of osculating plane is

(X R ). dR d
dt

X.

dt 2

=0

dR d 2 R
dR d 2 R
2 =R

.
dt dt
dt dt 2

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

Curvature:

dT
The arc rate of rotation of the tangent (i.e. the magnitude of
) is called
ds
curvature of the curve and is denoted by k.

dT
Thus,
=k.
ds

or
The arc rate at which the tangent changes its direction as the point moves along
the curve is known as curvature.

Torsion:

dB
The arc rate of rotation of the bi-normal (i.e. the magnitude of
) is called
ds

dB
torsion of the curve and is denoted by .Thus,
= .
ds

or
The arc rate at which the bi-normal changes its direction as the point moves along
the curve is known as torsion.

Remarks: Here, the torsion is positive or negative according as the vectors N and

dB
have the same or opposite senses.
ds
Radius of curvature and radius of torsion:

The reciprocal of curvature is called radius of curvature and is denoted by .

Thus =

1
.
k

The reciprocal of torsion is called the radius of torsion and is denoted by .

Thus =

1
.

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

10

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

Frenets Formulae:
We shall now establish the following important results, known as Frenets formulae.

dT
(i)
= kN,
ds

dB
(ii)
= N ,
ds

dN
(iii)
= B k T
ds

Proof:

dT
(i) To prove:
= kN.
ds

dT
.
Since, we know that N is the unit vector having the sense and direction of
ds

dT
i.e.
N.
ds

dT
And moreover, we also know that
=k.
ds

dT
Combining these two facts, we obtain
= kN.
ds

dB
(ii) To prove:
= N .
ds

dB
Since B is a unit vector, we have
.B = 0 .
ds

dB

is perpendicular to B .
ds

Also B. T = 0

d
B . T = 0
ds

dB dT

. T+ B .
=0
ds
ds

dB
d
T

. T+ B . k N = 0 .
= k N
ds

ds

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

11

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

B .N = 0

dB

.T = 0
ds

dB
is perpendicular to T .

ds

dB
dB
Thus,
B and
T.
ds
ds

dB
dB
Hence,
is parallel to the vector N
N.
ds
ds

dB
And moreover, we also know that
= .
ds

dB
= N .
Combining these two facts, we obtain
ds

dB
Here, the torsion is positive or negative according as the vectors N and
as defined
ds
above, have the same or opposite senses.

dB
dB
Remarks: If
has direction of N , then
= N .
ds
ds

dN
(iii) To prove:
= B k T .
ds

Since we know that N = B T .

Differentiate w.r.t. s, we get

dN dB dT
.
=
T + B
ds
ds
ds

dT

d
B
= N,
= k N
= N T+ B k N
ds

ds

= B k T

B = T N, T = N B ].

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

12

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

Now let us solve some more problems using the general rule of differentiation:
Q.No.2.: Show that, if R = A sin t + B cos t , where A, B and are constants, then
d 2R
dt

= 2 R and R

dR
= A B .
dt

Sol.: R = A sin t + B cos t , A, B and are constants

(i) R = A sin t + B cos t
Differentiating w. r. t. t, we get

dR
= A cos t + B( sin t )
dt

Differentiating again w. r. t. t, we get

d 2R
dt

d 2R
dt

= 2 A cos t B2 cos t = 2 (A sin t + B cos t )

= 2 R . Ans.

(ii) R = A sin t + B cos t

dR
= A cos t B sin t
dt

dR
= (A sin t B cos t ) (A cos t B sin t )
dt

= A B sin 2 t A B cos 2 t = (A B ) sin 2 t + cos 2 t

= (A B ) . Ans.
Q.No.3.: R = t m A + t n B , where A, B are constant vectors,
show that, if R and

d2R
dt 2

are parallel vectors, then m + n =1, unless m = n.

Sol.: R = t m A + t n B
Differentiating w. r. t t, we get

Differentiating again w. r. t t, we get

dR
dA n dB
= mt m 1A + nt n 1B + t m
+t
dt
dt
dt

d 2R
dt

= m(m 1)t m 2 A + n (n 1)t n 2B

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

13

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

Since R and

d 2R
dt 2

are parallel vectors, then R

)[

d 2R
dt 2

=0

t m A + t n B m(m 1)t m 2 A + n (n 1)t n 2B = 0

n (n 1)t m n 2 A B + m(m 1)t m + n 2B A = 0
n (n 1)t m n 2 A B = (m )(m 1)t m + n 2B A
n (n 1)t m n 2 A B = (m )(m 1)t m + n 2 A B

(m)(m 1) = n(n 1) m 2 m = n 2 n m 2 n 2 = m n
(m n )(m + n ) = m n m + n = 1
(m n )[(m + n ) 1] = 0
R and

d 2R
dt 2

are parallel if m + n =1, unless m = n.

Hence this proved the result.

Q.No.4.: If P = 5t 2 I + t 3 J t K , Q = 2 I sin t J cos t + 5t K ,

find (i)
Sol.:(i)

d
(P.Q ) (ii) d (P Q ) .
dt
dt

d
(P.Q ) = P. dQ + dP .Q
dt
dt
dt

= 5t 2 I + t 3 J t K 2 cos t I + sin t J + 5t K + 10t I + 3t 2 J K 2 sin t I cos t J + 5t K

= 10t 2 cos t + t 3 sin t 5t + 20t sin t 3t 2 cos t 5t

= t 3 sin t + 7 t 2 cos t + 20t sin t 10t . Ans.
(ii)

d
(P Q )
dt

t3

Now P Q = 5t 2

2 sin t cos t

5t

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

14

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

) (

) (

= I 5t 4 t cos t + J 2t sin t 25t 3 + K 5t 2 cos t 2t 3 sin t

] [

d
(P Q ) = 20t 3 ( t sin t + cos t ) I + 2(t cos t + sin t ) 75t 2 J
dt

[ (

)]

) (

+ 5 t 2 sin t 2 sin t cos t 2 t 3 cos t + sin t 3t 2 K

] [

= 20t 3 + t sin t cos t I 2t cos t + 75t 2 + 2 sin t J

t 2t 2 cos t + t sin t + 10 cos t K . Ans.

Q.No.5.: If

dU
dV
d
= W U and
= W V , prove that (U V ) = W (U V ) .
dt
dt
dt

Sol.: Since

d
(U V ) = U dV + dU V
dt
dt
dt

Given
Then

dV
dU
= WV ,
= WU
dt
dt
d
(U V ) = U (W V ) + (W U ) V
dt

Now using the formulae

(A B) C = (A.C)B (B.C)A
A (B C) = (A.C)B (A.B )C = [(U.V )W (U.W)V] + [(W.V )U (U.W )W]
= (W.V )U (U.W)V

d
(U V ) = W (U V )
dt

Hence this proved the result.

Q.No.6.: If A = x 2 yz I 2xz3 J + xz 2 K and B = 2z I + y J x 2 K , find

at (1, 0, 2)

Sol.: Given A = x 2 yz I 2xz3 J + xz 2 K , B = 2z I + y J x 2 K .

2
(A B )
xy

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

15

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

(A B ) =

x 2 yz 2xz3
2z

) (

) (

x2

(A B ) = 6x 2z3 yz2 I 4x 3 yz 2z3 J + 2xy2z + 4z 4 K

x

) (

) (

2
(A B ) = z 2 I + 4x 3z J + 4xyz K
xy

At (1, 0, 2) , we get

2
(A B ) = ( 2)2 I + 4(1)( 2)J + 4(1)(0)( 1)K = 4 I 8 J = 4 I + 2 J . Ans.
xy

Problem on angle between the tangents:

Q.No.7.: Find the angle between the tangents to the curve R = t 2 I + 2 t J t 3 K at the
point t = 1 .
Sol.: Let T1, T2 be two tangents at t = +1 and t = 1 are respectively.
To find: Angle between the tangents T1 and T2 .
Since we know T1. T2 = T1 . T2 cos .
i.e. we have to find:

Now given vector equation of the curve is R = t 2 I + 2t J t 3 K .

Then the tangent at any point t is given by

dR
= 2t I + 2 J 3t 2 K .
dt

The tangents T1, T2 at t = +1 and t = 1 are respectively, given by

T1 = 17.

T1 = 2 I + 2 J 3 K

xz 2 = 2x 3z3 xyz2 I x 4 yz 2xz3 J + x 2 y 2z + 4xz4 K

T2 = 2 I + 2 J 3 K T2 = 17.
Then the required is given by the relation

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

16

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

T1. T2 = T1 . T2 cos 2( 2) + 2.2 + ( 3)( 3) = 17 17 cos

9
i. e. 9 = 17 17 cos = cos 1 . Ans.
17

Problems for evaluating unit tangent vector:

Q.No.8.: Find the unit tangent vector at any point on the curve x = t 2 + 2 ,
y = 4 t 5 , z = 2t 2 6t , where t is any variable.

Also determine the unit tangent vector at any point t = 2.

Sol.: The vector equation of curve is R = x I + y J + z K

= t 2 + 2 I + ( 4t 5) J + 2t 2 6t K .

To find: Unit tangent vector T .

dR
Since unit tangent vector T = dt .
dR
dt

dR
= (2t ) I + (4) J + (4t 6)K
dt

and

dR
= 4 t 2 + 16 + 16 t 2 + 36 48t = 20 t 2 48t + 52 = 2 5t 2 12t + 13
dt

dR

t
I
+
2
J
+
2t

3
K
(
)
1

Thus T = dt =
. 2t I + 4 J + ( 4t 6 ) K =
. Ans
2
dR 2 5t 12t + 13

5t 2 12t + 13
dt

2nd Part:
To find: The unit tangent vector at any point t = 2.
At point t = 2, we get

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

17

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

dR

2
I
+
2
J
+K
T = dt =
, Ans.
dR
3
dt

which is the required unit tangent vector at any point t = 2.

Q.No.9.: If R = (a cos t ) I + (a sin t ) J + (at tan )K , find the value of

dR d 2 R d 3 R
dR d 2R
(i)
2 (ii)
, 2 , 3 .
dt dt
dt
dt dt

Also find the unit tangent vector at any point t of the curve.

Sol.: Given R = (a cos t ) I + (a sin t ) J + (at tan )K

dR
= ( a sin t ) I + (a cos t ) J + (a tan )K
dt

dR
= a 2 sin 2 t + a 2 cos 2 t + a 2 tan 2 = a 1 + tan 2 = a sec
dt

Also

d 2R
dt 2

= ( a cos t ) I + ( a sin t ) J

dR d 2R
(i)
2 = ( a sin t ) I + (a cos t ) J ( cos t ) I (a sin t ) J + a tan K
dt dt

a cos t

a tan

= a sin t

a cos t a sin t

) (

) ( )

= a 2 tan sin t I a 2 cos t tan J + a 2 K = a 4 tan 2 + 1 = a 2 sec

(ii)

d 3R
dt 3

= (a sin t ) I (a cos t ) J

dR d 2 R d 3 R
, 2 , 3

dt
dt dt

dR d 2 R d3R
.

dt dt 2 dt 3

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

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Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

d 2 R d 3R
Now 2 3
dt
dt

I
J
K

= acost a sin t 0 = (0) I + (0) J + a 2 K

a sin t a cos t 0

Putting the values, we get

dR d 2R d 3R
. 2 3 = ( a sin t ) I + (a cos t ) J + (a tan )K .(0) I + (0) J + a 2 K = a 3 tan
dt dt
dt

3rd Part: Tangent vector at any point of curve is

dR
= ( a sin t ) I + (a cos t ) J + (a tan )K .
dt

dR

1
(

a
sin
t
)
I
+
(
a
cos
t
)
J
+
(
a
tan

)
K
Unit tangent vector is = dt =

dR
a sec

dt

= ( sin t. cos ) I + (cos t. cos ) J + (sin )K

This is the required unit tangent vector at any point of the curve .
Problems on curvature and torsion:

Q.No.10.: Find the curvature and torsion of the curve x = a cos t , y = asint, z = bt .
z-axis

Sol.:

P
O
*
P0(t=0)
x-axis

y-axis

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

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Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

This curve is drawn on a circular cylinder cutting its generators at a constant angle and is
known as circular helix.

The vector equation of the curve is R = a cos t I + a sin t J + bt K .

dR
= a sin t I + a cos t J + b K .
dt

dT
To find: (i) k ( curvature ) =
ds

dB
.
(ii) (torsion) =
ds

Consequently, we have to evaluate:

(i)

dR
dT

t
dR dt
d T dt
dR
=
, T=
=
, s=
dt
0
ds
ds
ds
ds
dt
dt
dt

(ii)

dT
dB

d
T
dB
= dt = k N N = ?.
= dt , B = T N ,
ds
ds
ds
ds
dt
dt

Its arc length from P0 ( t = 0) to any point P(t) is given by

s=

dR
dt =
dt

(a

+ b2 ) t

ds
=
dt

(a

+ b2 ).

dR

dR

a
sin
t
I
+
a
cos
t
J
+
b
K
Then T =
= dt =
ds
ds
a 2 + b2
dt

d T a cos t I + sin t J

dT

= kN

N
cos
t
I
sin
t
J

= dt =

ds
ds
a 2 + b2

dt

dT
a
Thus k (curvature) =
.
= 2
ds
a + b2

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

20

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

a
sin
t
I
+
a
cos
t
J
+
b
K
cos t I + sin t J
Also B = T N =

2
2

a
+
b

b sin t I b cos t J + a K

=
2
2
a +b

dB

dB
b

= dt = 2
cos
t
I
+
sin
t
J
=

N
=

cos
t
I
+
sin
t
J

ds
ds
a + b 2

dt
Hence =

b
2

a + b2

. Ans.

Q.No.11.: A circular helix is given by the equation R ( t ) = (2 cos t ) I + (2 sin t ) J + K . Find

the curvature and torsion of the curve at any point and show that they are
constant.

Sol.: The vector equation of circular helix is R ( t ) = (2 cos t ) I + (2 sin t ) J + K

dR
= ( 2 sin t ) I + (2 cos t ) J
dt

ds dR
=
= 4 sin 2 t + 4 cos 2 t = 2
dt
dt

dR

dR
(

2
sin
t
)
I
+
2
cos
t
J

sin
t
I
+
cos
J
The unit tangent vector = T =
= dt =
=
ds
ds
2
1
dt

dT
Now
= cos t I sin t J
dt

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

21

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

dT

dT
cos t I sin t J
dt

=
=
ds
ds
2
dt

dT
cos t I sin t J

2
N = dt =
= cos t I sin t J

1
dT
2
dt

dT 1
k=
= , which is constant.
ds
2

B = T N =

1
sin t
2

cos t

cos t sin t

(i)

0 = I (0) (0) J + sin 2 t + cos 2 t K = K

dB

=0
dt

dB

dB
0
Hence =
= dt =
= 0 , which is constant.
ds
ds
2
dt

(ii)

From (i) and (ii), we get

Curvature k and Torsion are constant.
Hence this proves the result.
Remarks: Another way to calculate curvature and torsion

Curvature k =

dR d 2 R

dt dt 2
dR
dt

dR d 2 R d3 R

.
dt dt 2 dt 3

, Torsion =
.
2
2
dR d R

dt dt 2

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

22

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

) ( ) (

Q.No.12.: Show that the curve R = a 3t t 3 I + 3at 2 J + a 3t + t 3 K , the curvature

equals torsion.

) ( ) (

Sol.: The vector equation of the curve is R = a 3t t 3 I + 3at 2 J + a 3t + t 3 K

dR
= 3a 1 t 2 I + (6at ) J + 3a 1 + t 2 K
dt

d 2R
dt 2
d 3R
dt 3

Now

= 6at I + 6a J + 6at K

= 6a I + 6a K

dR d 2 R
2 = 3a 1 t 2
dt dt

6at 3a 1 + t 2 = 18a 2 t 2 1 I 2t J + 1 + t 2 K

6a
6at

6at

dR d 2 R
2 = 18a 2
dt dt

(t 2 1)+ (2t )2 + (1 + t 2 ) = 18a 2 (t 4 + 1 2t 2 + 4t 2 + 1 + t 2 + 2t 2 )

(t + 1)

= 18a 2 2 t 4 + 1 + 2t 2 = 18 2 a 2
And

2
dR
= 3a 1 t 2 + 4t 2 + 1 + t 2
dt

)2 = 3a

1 + t 4 2t 2 + 4t 2 + 1 + t 4 + 2t 2

= 3a 2 t 4 + 2 t 2 + 1 = 3 2 a t 2 + 1

= 3 2 a 1 + t2

dR d 2 R d3R

2 . 3 = 18a 2 t 2 1 I 2t J + 1 + t 2 K . 6a I + 6a K
dt dt dt

= 18a 2 .6a 1 t 2 + 1 + t 2 = 216a 3

Since we know that curvature k =

dR d 2 R

dt dt 2
dR
dt

= 18 2a 2 t 2 + 1

18 2 a 2 (1 + t 2 )

54 2 a 3 1 + t 2

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

23

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

Curvature k =

3a 1 + t

(i)

2 2

dR d 2 R d3R

dt dt 2 dt 3
216a 3

=
Also =
2
18.18.2a 4 1 + t 2
dR d 2R
2
dt dt

Torsion =

3a 1 + t

(ii)

2 2

From (i) and (ii), we have

k=
This shows that curvature equals torsion
Hence this proves the result.

Q.No.13.: Find the curvature of the (i) ellipse R( t ) = a cos t I + b sin t J

(ii) Parabola R ( t ) = 2t I + t 2 J at the point t = 1.

Sol.: (i) The vector equation of the ellipse is R( t ) = a cos t I + b sin t J

dR
= a sin t I + b cos t J
dt

Also

1/ 2
ds dR
=
= a 2 sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t
dt
dt

dR
dR

dR

a
sin
t
I
+
b
cos
t
J
T=
= dt = dt =
ds
ds
ds
a 2 sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t
dt
dt

2 2

2
2
a sin t + b cos t a cos t I b sin t J

1 / 2
2
2
a sin t I + b cos t J 1 a 2 sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t

2a sin t cos t 2b cos t sin t

d T

=
dt
a 2 sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t

) (
)

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

24

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

2 2

2
2 1/ 2

a
sin
t
b
cos
t
a
cos
t
b
sin
t
+

a sin t I + b cos t J
1
/
2

a 2 sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t

2a 2 sin t cos t 2b 2 cos t sin t

dT
2

=
2
2
2
2
dt
a sin t + b cos t

) (
)

2 2

2
2
a sin t + b cos t a cos t I b sin t J

a sin t I + b cos t J a 2 sin t cos t b 2 cos t sin t

dT

=
dt

(a

sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t

3/ 2

d T ab 2 cos t I a 2 b sin t J

=
3/ 2
dt
a 2 sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t

dT
dT
dT
= dt
, where
k=
ds
ds
ds
dt

dT

=
ds

(a

sin 2 t + b 2 cos2 t a cos t I b sin t J a sin t I + b cos t J a 2 sin 2t b 2 sin 2 t

(a

sin 2 t + b 2 cos2 t

dT

dT
ab 2 cos t I a 2 b sin t J
dt
=
=
.
4/2
ds
ds
a 2 sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t
dt

dT
k =
=
ds

a 2 b 2 b 2 cos2 t a 2 sin 2 t

(a

sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t

)=

ab

(a

sin 2 t + b 2 cos 2 t

(ii) The vector equation of parabola is R ( t ) = 2t I + t 2 J

3/ 2

. Ans.

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

25

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

dR
= 2 I + 2t J
dt

Now

ds dR
=
= 4 + 4t 2 = 2 1 + t 2
dt
dt

dR
dR

dR
2 I + 2t J
dt
dt
T=
=
=
=
ds
dR
ds
2 1 + t2
dt
dt

1 + t 2
1
+
t
J

I
+
t
J

dT

2

=
dt
1 + t2

1 / 2

t 1 + t 2
1
+
t
J

I
+
t
J

=
2
1+ t

(2t )

1 / 2

2
1 + t J I + t J t t I + J

=
=
2 3/ 2
2 3/ 2
1+ t
1+ t

t I+ J

dT

2
dT
I+ J

t
t2 + 1
1
+
t
= dt =
=
=
2
2
ds
ds
2 1 + t2 2 1 + t2
2 1 + t2
dt

dT
2
2
1
=
=
=
Put t = 1, we get
. Ans.
2
ds 2(1 + 1)
24 4 2

dT
1
. Ans.
k =
=
ds
4 2

Problems on equations of the tangent line, the osculating plane and binormal:
Q.No.14.: Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve x = a cos , y = a sin ,

z = a tan at =

.
4

Sol.: The vector equation of the curve is R = a cos I + a sin J + a tan K

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

26

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

dR
= a sin I + a cos J + a tan K
d

[ (

1/ 2
ds dR
=
= a 2 sin 2 + a 2 cos 2 + a 2 tan 2
= a 2 1 + tan 2
d
d

)]

1/ 2

= a sec

dR

dR

a
sin

I
+
a
cos

J
+
a
tan

K
T=
= d =
ds
ds
a sec
d

At =

a
a

a
, x=
, y=
, z=
tan
4
4
2
2

Now T =

tan
1
1
I+
J+
K
sec
2 sec
2 sec

D. C. of tangent line are

1
,
2 sec

1
tan
,

2 sec sec

a
,
and it passes through the point
2

a
a

,
tan .
4
2

Then the equation of the tangent line is

a
a
a
y
z tan
2 =
2 =
4

1
1
tan
sec
sec
sec
2
2
x

a
a

x
= y
=
2
2

a
tan
4
. Ans.
2 tan

Q.No.15.: Find the equation of the osculating plane and binormal to the curve
t
t
(i) x = 2 cosh , y = 2 sinh , z = 2t at t = 0.
2
2

(ii) x = e t cos t , y = e t sin t , z = e t at t = 0.

t
t
Sol.: (i) The vector equation of the curve is R = 2 cosh I + 2 sinh J + 2t K
2
2

dR d
t
t
t 1
t 1
= 2 cosh I + 2 sinh J + 2t K = 2 sinh I + 2 cosh J + 2 K
dt
dt
2
2
2 2
2 2

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

27

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

t
t
= sinh I + cosh J + 2 K
2
2

ds dR
t
t
=
= sinh 2 + cosh 2 + 4
dt
dt
2
2

dR sinh t I + cosh t J + 2 K

dR
2
2
T=
= dt =
ds
ds
t
t
sinh 2 + cosh 2 + 4
dt
2
2

t
t
t
t 1
t 1
2 t
+ cosh 2 + 4 cosh I + sinh J sinh I + cosh J + 2 K
sinh
2
2
2 2
2 2
2
2

1 / 2

1
t
t 1

t
t 1

2 t
2 t

. sinh
+ cosh
+ 4
2 sinh cosh + 2 cosh sinh
2
2
2
2
2 2
d T

2
2 2

=
2
dt

t
t
2
2
sinh
+ cosh
+ 4

2
2

t
t 1
t
t
2 t
2 t

+
+
+

+
+
sinh
cosh
4
cosh
I
sinh
J
sinh
I
cosh
J
2
K

2
2

2
2 2
2
2

1 / 2
1
t
t

2 t
2 t

. sinh cosh
+ 4
2 sinh cosh

2
2
2
2
2

=
t

2 t
+ cosh 2 + 4
sinh
2
2

t
t 1
t
t
2 t
2 t
sinh + cosh + 4 cosh I + sinh J sinh I cosh J + 2 K
2
2

2
2 2
2
2

t
t

. sinh cosh
2
2

=
3/ 2
t

2 t
+ cosh 2 + 4
sinh
2
2

J+ 2 K
At t = 0, we have T =
5

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

28

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

dT

dT

= dt =
ds
ds
dt

t
t
2 t
2 t

sinh
+
cosh
+
4
cosh
I
+
sinh

2
2

2
2

t
t
t
t

sinh I + cosh J + 2 K . sinh . cosh

2
2
2
2

2 t
+ cosh 2 + 4
sinh
2
2

At time t =0, we have

d T 5 I 0 5 I
=
=
=I.
2
ds
5
5

( )

dT

I
N = dt = = I
ds
1
dt

J+ 2 K
B = T N =
I = 0
5

1
5

2
1 2 1
= I (0) + J
+ K
=
J
K
5
5 5 5
5

2 J K
B =
. Ans.
5
which is required equation of binormal. Since we know that any vector r in the plane
containing two vectors a and b is given by r = a + b , where , are arbitrary
constants. Thus

R = p N+ q T = p I +

q
J + 2 K
5

R = p I + q J + 2q K , where q =

q
,
5

which is the required equation of osculating plane.

(ii): Given x = e t cos t , y = e t sin t , z = e t .

R = e t cos t I + sin t J + K

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

dR
= e t (cos t sin t ) I + e t (cos t sin t ) J + e t K
dt

ds dR
=
= e t 2 cos 2 t + sin 2 t + 1 = 3 e t
dt
dt

dR

dR
cos
t
sin
t
cos
t
sin
t
(

)
I
+
(

)
J
+K
T=
= dt =
ds
ds
3
dt

d T (sin t + cos t ) I + (cos t sin t ) J

=
dt
3

dT

(
)
(
)
dT

sin
t
+
cos
t
I
+
cos
t

sin
t
J
= dt
.
ds
ds
3e t
dt

At t = 0, we get

dT

I+ J
dT
= dt =
.
ds
ds
3
dt

I+ J
dT

I+ J
N = ds = 3 =
.

1+1
2
dT
3
ds

I + J+ K
I+ J
Thus, at t = 0, we get T =
and N =
3
2

B = T N =

J K

1
1
6

1 1

1 =
0

1
(0 1) I + ( 1 0) J + (1 + 1)K
6

29

Vector Calculus: Differentiation of vectors, Curves in space

30

Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur

I J+ 2 K
B=
. Ans.
6


I + J+ K
I+ J
Also equation of plane through T and N is R = p' T+ q ' N = p'
+ q'
.
3
2

R = (p q ) I + (p + q ) J + p K .
which is the required equation of osculating plane.

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