Contents
48571 Electrical Machines
DC Machines
Prof. J.G. Zhu
School of Electrical, Mechanical and Mechatronic Systems
Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology
University of Technology, Sydney
Introduction
Principle Elemental DC Machines
Structure
Name Plate
Magnetic Fields
EMF and Torque
Steady State Equivalent Circuit
DC Generator Performance
Establishment of terminal voltage
External characteristics and voltage regulation
Efficiency
DC Motor Performance
Torque/speed curve
Efficiency
Speed control
Principle
Introduction
The DC machine is an electromechanical device that converts
mechanical energy into DC electrical energy (generator) or the
other way around as in the case of a motor.
The DC machine is the first type of electrical machine
employed for practical applications. DC generators are
commonly used for battery charging, electrolysis, synchronous
machine excitation and welding, etc.
DC motors have excellent drive performance for wide speed
range with convenient, smooth, and accurate speed control, and
high starting, braking, and over load capability, and therefore,
are suitable for electrical drive systems with requirements for
wide speed range and high precision and dynamic performance,
such as steel rolling, electrical propulsion, crane, textile and
cold machining, etc.
With the fast development of power electronics and control, DC
generators are being replaced by rectifiers, and motors by AC
motor drive systems, but still there are a number of applications.
Elementary DC machine
The fundamental principle is based on the Faradays law, and
the electromagnetic force/torque produced by current carrying
conductors in a magnetic field.
Diagram
on the
right shows the
structure of an
elementary
DC
machine,
which
consists of a pair
of electromagnets
on the stator, and a
rotor also known
as armature with
slots to hold coils.
Principle
Principle
Elementary DC generator
Elementary DC generator
Consider a coil placed in a uniform magnetic field inclined at an
In order to generate a DC emf, a device known as commutator
angle . The magnetic flux linkage of the coil varies with its
angular position by
(t ) = NAB sin = N sin
where N is the number of turns, A the cross sectional area, B the
flux density, and =AB the flux linking the coil.
When the coil is rotated at an angular
speed r, an electromotive force (emf)
is induced. By Faradays law, this emf
can be expressed as
e(t ) =
d (t )
= r N cos( r t + 0 )
dt
r =
d
dt
where
Eav =
=
[ N cos( t + )]d t
1
3 2
2
r Nsin (r t + 0 ) 3 2 =
2
r N
When there are a great number of coils
embedded in the slots around the rotor or
armature surface, a stable DC emf can be
obtained.
and (t ) = r t + 0
Principle
DC Machine Structure
Elementary DC motor
Large DC machine
When the elementary DC generator is operated inversely, i.e.
supplied by a DC current, a unidirectional torque can be
produced with the help of the commutator.
If the DC current is ia, the average
torque can be calculated by dividing the
electromagnetic power by the speed, i.e.
Tav =
(rectifier by mechanical means) can be used. The average value
of the DC emf can be calculated as
Eav ia
Commutator
Brushes
Stator Poles
Inter Poles
Armature Slots
and Winding
Shaft
Bearing
Nia
Stator Case
DC Machine Structure
DC Machine Structure
Small DC machine
Permanent Magnet DC machine
DC Machine Structure
DC Machine Structure
Cross sectional illustration
Stator
The DC machine housing supports
the stator, brushes, and bearings.
stator contains main poles
excited by DC current to produce the
magnetic fields. These poles are
mounted on an iron core that provides
a closed magnetic circuit.
On the surface of main poles, there
are slots to hold the compensation
windings, which are connect in series
with the armature winding to reduce
the effect of armature reaction.
In the middle between main poles or
the neutral zone, commutating/inter
poles, which are connected in series
with the armature winding, are placed
to reduce sparks on the commutator.
The
DC Machine Structure
DC Machine Structure
Rotor or armature
Commutator and brushes
The rotor has a ring-shaped
laminated iron core with slots.
Coils with multiple turns are
placed in the slots. The distance
between the coil sides is about
180o electrical.
The coils are connected in series
through the commutator segments.
The commutator consists of insulated
copper segments mounted on an
insulated tube. The ends of each coil
are connected to two commutator
segments.
Brushes of positive and negative
polarities are pressed to the
commutator to permit current flow.
These brushes are placed in the
neutral zone, where the magnetic
field and hence the induce emf are
close to zero, to reduce arcing.
The commutator and brushes switch
the current from one rotor coil to the
adjacent coil.
Rotation
Ir_dc/2
Brush
Shaft
|
2
7
6
5
Insulation
Rotor
Winding
Ir_dc
Armature windings
Armature windings
Lap winding: a = p,
p where
p is the number of poles.
DC Machine Structure
armature windings can be classified as (a) Lap winding and (b)
Wave winding.
winding
These two different connections result in different numbers of
the parallel paths of the armature winding between the positive
and negative brushes, a.
Pole
winding
1
8
DC Machine Structure
According to the pattern how the coils are connected, the
Ir_dc/2
Ir_dc
Copper
segment
DC Machine Structure
DC Machine Name Plate
Armature windings
Rated quantities
Rated Power Prated (W or kW) The output power under the
Wave winding: a = 2
rated operating conditions. For a generator, it is the electrical
power output at the terminals, whereas for a motor, the
mechanical power output at the shaft.
Rated voltage Vrated (V) The voltage at the electrical terminals
when the machine is operated under the rated conditions.
Rated current Irated (A) The current at the electrical terminals
when the machine is run with rated voltage and output power.
Rated speed rrated (rev/min) The rotor speed when the
machine is operated with rated voltage and output power.
Rated excitation current Ifrated (A) The field winding current
when the machine is run with rated voltage, current and speed.
Rated efficiency rated (%) The percentage ratio between the
output and input power when the machine is in rated conditions.
Magnetic Fields
Magnetic Fields
Stator, rotor and combined field distribution
Armature field in airgap
Stator field
Armature field
Resultant field
The stator and armature fields in a DC machine are
perpendicular to each other, because of the effect of
commutator.
The resultant field is distorted by the armature field with the
neutral zone shifts towards the rotating direction in the case
of a generator, or away from the rotating direction in a motor.
motor
Cut and unroll of a 2 pole DCM
Armature mmf
Magnetic Fields
Magnetic Fields
Resultant airgap field and armature reaction
Armature field compensation and commutation
Stator airgap field and mmf
Resultant field
The armature reaction can cause serious commutation difficulty
heavy sparks.
Three methods to improve commutation: (a) Interpoles,
(b) Compensation coils, and (c) Shift brushes.
Armature reaction:
reaction
Shift the neutral zone for an
angle
Reduce the total flux
because of the magnetic
saturation
EMF & Torque
EMF & Torque
Assume a real DC machine has p poles, Ca conductors in the
The induced emf and electromagnetic torque of a single coil in
armature, and a parallel paths between the positive and negative
brushes. The total number of coils, which has N turns each, is
Ca/(2N), and the number of coils in each path is Ca/(2Na).
Previously, it was calculated that the induced emf and
electromagnetic torque in an elementary single coil two pole
DC machine are
Eav =
r N
and
Tav =
Eav ia
Nia
the real DC machine of p poles are
(t ) =
p
(r t + m 0 )
2
and
d p
= r
dt 2
E i
r N
Ca
C p
pCa
Ecoil = a
r N =
r
2 Na
2 Na
2a
C
C p
pCa
T = a Tcoil = a Nia =
I a
2N
2N
2a
Ea =
The real machine however has p poles. Once the coil rotates for
a complete cycle of NSN poles, or 2 electrical radians,
mechanically it only rotates for 4/p mechanical radians, or
=(p/2)m, and r=dm/dt, where m is the angular position in
mechanical radians. Therefore, we obtain
Tcoil = av a = Nia
and
r
The total armature emf and electromagnetic torque can then be
calculated by multiplying the emf and torque of a single coil by
the number of coils in a parallel path and the total number of
coils respectively as
Ecoil =
and
or
Ea = K a r
where I a = aia , and
constant.
pC a
Ka =
2a
and
T = K a I a
is known as the emf or torque
Steady State Equivalent Circuit
Steady State Equivalent Circuit
Symbol
Excitation connections
The DC machine symbol shown below on the right hand side
There are four types of connections: (a) Separate excitation, (b)
resembles its cross section on the left hand side. The field
winding produces a flux when excited by a DC current, and
across the brushes, an emf is produced when the armature or
rotor rotates.
Series excitation, (c) Shunt excitation, and (d) Compound
excitation.
Steady State Equivalent Circuit
Steady State Equivalent Circuit
Separately excited DC generator
Separately excited DC generator
Corresponding to the steady state equivalent circuit of a
Complete
separately excited DC generator shown below, the circuit and
torque equations are:
dynamic
equivalent
circuit of a
separately
excited DC
generator
Model
Va = Ea Ra I a
vt = va = ea Ra ia La
v f = Rf if + Lf
di f
dt
Tshaft Tloss T = J
d r
dt
dia
dt
Vf = Rf I f
and T = Tshaft Tloss
Steady State Equivalent Circuit
Steady State Equivalent Circuit
Separately excited DC motor
Separately excited DC motor
Corresponding to the steady state equivalent circuit of a
Complete dynamic equivalent circuit of a
separately excited DC motor shown below, the circuit and
torque equations are:
separately excited DC motor
Model
dia
dt
vt = va = ea + Ra ia + La
v f = Rf if + Lf
Vf = Rf I f
Va = Ea + Ra I a
T = Tload + Tloss
and
di f
dt
T Tloss Tshaft = J
d r
dt
Steady State Equivalent Circuit
Steady State Equivalent Circuit
Shunt DC machines
Series DC machines
Ia
Ra
Rs
Is
It
Vs
Ea
Va
Vt
T+Tloss
r
Tshaft
For shunt DC motor
Va = Ea + Ra I a
Vt = V f = Va
and T = Tload + Tloss
Vf = Rf I f
It = I a + I f
For shunt DC generator
For series DC motor
For series DC generator
Va = Ea Ra I a
Vf = Rf I f
Va = Ea + Ra I a
Vs = Rs I s
Va = Ea Ra I a
Vs = Rs I s
Vt = V f = Va
Ia = It + I f
Vt = Vs + Va
It = I a = I s
Vt = Va Vs
It = I a = I s
and T = Tshaft Tloss
and T = Tload + Tloss
and T = Tshaft Tloss
Steady State Equivalent Circuit
Steady State Equivalent Circuit
Compound DC machines
Parameter determination
The DC machine steady state equivalent circuit parameters to be
For compound DC motor
Va = Ea + Ra I a
Vf = Rf I f
For compound DC generator
Va = Ea Ra I a
Vf = Rf I f
Vs = Rs I s
Vt = Vs + Va = V f
Vs = Rs I s
Vt = Va Vs = V f
It = I s + I f
Is = Ia
It = I s I f
Is = Ia
and
T = Tload + Tloss
determined are the field winding resistance, armature circuit resistance
(winding resistance plus brush-commutator contact resistance), and
emf or torque constant.
The resistances can be measured by V/A method. It should be noted
that the shunt field winding has a large resistance while the armature
circuit and series field winding have small resistances. Therefore, the
Ammeter should be connect in series with the shunt field winding first
and then in parallel with the Voltmeter, where for the latter test, the
Voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the armature circuit or
series field winding and then in series with the Ammeter.
and T = Tshaft Tloss
Steady State Equivalent Circuit
DC Generator Performance
Parameter determination
Shunt generator self excitation
The emf or torque constant can
be determined by the no load
test in the following steps:
Set up and connect the DC
machine as a separately excited
generator with the armature
open circuited;
Drive it at the rated speed;
Adjust If from zero to the rated
value, and measure the terminal
voltage or emf;
Ka = Ea/r
Ea(If) is known as the
magnetisation curve
When magnetic saturation is
considered, Ka is not a
constant.
The conditions for voltage
build-up:
There must be residual
magnetism If not, use a
battery to given an initial excitation;
The connection of the field circuit to the armature circuit must be correct
such that the excitation field aids the residual magnetism If not, swap
the terminals;
The Re + Rf line must be lower than the airgap line such that the rated
voltage can be established.
DC Generator Performance
DC Generator Performance
External characteristic
External characteristic
The relationship between the terminal voltage and current, Vt vs. It, of
a DC generator excited by the rated field current and driven at the
rated speed is defined as the external characteristic.
It can be determined experimentally by measuring the terminal
voltage at different load currents when the generator is operated at the
defined condition.
It can also be calculated by the equivalent circuit model. For example,
for a separately excited generator, it can be calculated by
Vt = Va = Ea Ra I a
Theoretical
when r = rrated
and I f = I frated
The discrepancy
between the
experimental and
theoretical results is
due to the armature
reaction.
DC Generator Performance
DC Generator Performance
Voltage regulation
Efficiency
The voltage regulation of a DC generator is defined as the percentage
variation of the terminal voltage from no load to full load, i.e.
VR =
Vt , NL Vt , FL
Vt ,rated
Ea Vt ,rated
Vt ,rated
For a separately excited DC generator, for example, the voltage
regulation can be calculated as
VR =
Ra I a ,rated
Vt ,rated
Ra
RL ,rated
For a shunt DC generator, the voltage
regulation can be calculated as
VR =
Ra I a ,rated
Vt ,rated
Ra (I t ,rated + I f )
Vt ,rated
1
1
= Ra
+
R
R
f + Re
L ,rated
The efficiency of a DC generator is defined as the percent ratio
between the output power and input power, and can be expressed as
=
Pout
Vt I t
=
Pin V f I f + I a2 Ra + Vs I s + Vt I t + Tlossr
For the separately excited DC generator, for example, one has
Vt I t
Va I a
Va I a
=
=
=
V f I f + Tshaftr V f I f + (T + Tloss )r V f I f + I a2 Ra + Va I a + Tlossr
where Tloss is the retarding torque
corresponding to the total of core
and mechanical power losses,
which is approximately equal to
the no load power.
DC Motor Performance
DC Motor Performance
Efficiency
Torque/Speed curves
The efficiency of a DC motor is defined as the percent ratio between
the output power and input power, and can be expressed as
(T Tloss )r
P
Toutr
= out =
=
Pin
Va I a + V f I f
Va I a + V f I f
where Tloss is the retarding torque corresponding to the total of core
and mechanical power losses, which is approximately equal to the no
load power, and Tout = TL.
The external characteristic of a DC
motor is the torque/speed curve.
For a separately excited DC motor,
one has
or
Ea
V Ra I a
= a
Ka
Ka
Va
Ra
r =
T
K a (K a )2
r =
Because of the armature reaction, at
heavy load the speed increases.
DC Motor Performance
DC Motor Performance
Torque/Speed curves
Torque/Speed curves
For a shunt DC motor, the torque/speed
curve can be expressed same as the
separately excited motor, i.e.
r =
Vt
Ra
T
K a (K a )2
The operating point of series DC motors are
generally designed in the linear region, i.e.
= KsIs, where Is = Ia, and thus
T = K a I a = K a K s I a2
or I a =
T
Ka Ks
Therefore, we have
r =
or
Ea
V ( Ra + Rs ) I a Vt ( Ra + Rs ) I a
= t
=
Ka
Ka
Ka Ks Ia
r =
Vt
R + Rs
a
Ka Ks
K a K sT
The torque/speed curve of a typical
series DC motor is plotted on the right
hand side. Because the torque of a series
DC motor is proportional to the square
of armature current, for the same value
of armature current, the series motor can
produce much higher torque, and as the
load torque increase, the speed drops
very fast. Therefore, the series DC
motors are suitable for electrical vehicle
drive. It should be noted that series DC
motors must not be operated at no load.
As the armature current changes its
direction, the magnetic field alters its
direction accordingly, and hence series
motors can also be operated by AC
current universal motors.
motors
T=
r =
Ra + Rs
KaKs
K a K sVt 2
(Ra + Rs )2
DC Motor Performance
DC Motor Performance
Torque/Speed curves
Speed control
In a compound DC motor, the series excitation is employed to
There are two methods to control
compensate the field weakening effect of
armature reaction such that the total flux
remains constant. The torque/speed curve
can be derived as
r =
=
the speed of a separately excited
DC motor:
motor (a) Varying armature
terminal voltage, and (b) Flux
weakening.
Ea
V (Ra + Rs )I a
= t
K a ( f + s )
K a ( f + s )
r =
Vt
R + Rs
a
T
K a (K a )
Va
Ra
T
K a (K a )2
When the armature voltage varies, the
If
Ia
Ra
Rs
Is
It
Vs
Vf
Rf
Ea
T
r
TL+Tloss
Va
Vt
no load speed varies accordingly, but
the gradient is kept constant. Therefore,
the torque/speed curves are in parallel.
Note that Va must < Va,rated.
When Vf is reduced while Va = Va,rated,
both the no load speed and gradient
increase. For a normal load torque, the
operating speed increases.
DC Motor Performance
DC Motor Performance
Speed control
Speed control
There are also two methods to control the
speed of a shunt DC motor:
motor (a) Varying
armature circuit resistance, and (b) Flux
weakening, while the terminal voltage is
kept constant.
r =
Va
R + Rea
a
T
K a (K a )2
When the armature resistance increases, the
no load speed does not vary, but the gradient
increases. Therefore, for a given load, the
speed reduces.
When the field circuit resistance increases,
both the no load speed and gradient increase.
For a normal load torque, the operating
speed increases.
There are also two method to control the
speed of a series DC motor:
motor (a) Varying the
terminal voltage, and (b) Varying the
armature circuit resistance.
r =
Vt
R + Rs + Rea
a
Ka Ks
K a K sT
T=
T=
P1
K a K sVt 22
(Ra + Rs )2
K a K sVt12
Vt1 > Vt2
(Ra + Rs )2
When reducing the terminal voltage below
the rated value, the intersection of the
torque/speed curve and the T axis moves
towards the origin and the operating speed is
reduced.
When the armature circuit resistance is
increased while the terminal voltage is kept
constant, the lower bound of the
torque/speed curve moves down, and the
operating speed is reduced.
TL
R + Rs
r = a
Ka Ks
TL
T=
P
P1
K a K sVt 2
(Ra + Rs + Rea )2
T=
K a K sVt 2
(Ra + Rs )2
T
R + Rs
r = a
Ka Ks
r =
Ra + Rs + Rea
KaKs
DC Motor Performance
DC Motor Performance
Speed control
Speed control systems
Since the series excitation is
used to compensate the field
weakening effect of the
armature reaction, the
torque/speed curves of a
compound DC motor are
the same as those of a shunt
motor, and therefore the speed
control methods are the same as
those for a shunt DC motor.
The speed control methods are
often employed to limit the
starting current of DC motors.
The diagram on the right hand side
illustrates the three step starting of a
shunt DC motor to limit the armature
current below I2=T2/(Ka).
Multi stage starting (DCM_MultiStage_Starting.mdl).
One quadrant chopper 5HP DC motor drive system
(power_dcdrive.mdl, power_dcdrive_disc.mdl, dc5_example.mdl).
Two quadrant three phase rectifier 200HP DC motor drive system
(dc3_example.mdl)
Note that Ka = LafIf, where Laf is the mutual inductance between
field and armature windings (a parameter used in the Simulink DC
machine model).
More examples can be found in Matlab/Simulink help Contents and
Demo.
P
Rea = 0
Rea = R1
Rea = R1+R2
ro
Rea = R1+R2+R3
T1
T2
DC Motor Performance
Reading
Speed control systems
Example: One quadrant chopper 5HP DC motor drive system
(power_dcdrive.mdl).
Textbook:
Chapter 4. Introduction to Rotating Machines
Chapter 7. DC Machines
Exercises: Textbook Section 7.12, Problems 7.1 7.27
Lecture notes at UTSOnline
Specified speed r = 120 rad/s; TL = 5 Nm;
In the PI controller, Ia is capped at 30 A to
avoid overheating.
If = Vf/Rf = 1 A, and in steady state, Ia =
(TL+Tloss)/(Ka) = (5+0.02x120)/1.23 = 6.016
(A), and Va= Kar + RaIa = 1.23x120 +
0.5x6.016 = 150.608 (V)
