Collaboration policy
Programs: Do not use someone elses code unless specifically authorized
Exceptions
Code from course materials OK [cite source]
Coding with partner OK after first assignment [stay tuned]
Where to get help
Email (but no code in email)
Office hours
Lab TAs in Friend 008/009
Bounce ideas (but not code) off classmates
Note: Programming in groups except as above is a serious violation.
Exercises: Write up your own solutions (no copying)
working with classmates is encouraged
checking solutions is OK
Stacks and Queues
stacks
dynamic resizing
queues
generics
applications
Stacks and Queues
Fundamental data types.
Values: sets of objects
Operations: insert, remove, test if empty.
Intent is clear when we insert.
Which item do we remove?
LIFO = "last in first out"
Stack.
Remove the item most recently added.
Analogy: cafeteria trays, Web surfing.
FIFO = "first in first out"
Queue.
Remove the item least recently added.
Analogy: Registrar's line.
push
pop
enqueue
dequeue
Client, Implementation, Interface
Separate interface and implementation so as to:
Build layers of abstraction.
Reuse software.
Ex: stack, queue, symbol table.
Interface: description of data type, basic operations.
Client: program using operations defined in interface.
Implementation: actual code implementing operations.
Client, Implementation, Interface
Benefits.
Client can't know details of implementation
client has many implementation from which to choose.
Implementation can't know details of client needs
many clients can re-use the same implementation.
Design: creates modular, re-usable libraries.
Performance: use optimized implementation where it matters.
Interface: description of data type, basic operations.
Client: program using operations defined in interface.
Implementation: actual code implementing operations.
stacks
dynamic resizing
queues
generics
applications
Stacks
Stack operations.
Insert a new item onto stack.
push()
Remove and return the item most recently added.
pop()
isEmpty() Is the stack empty?
push
pop
public static void main(String[] args)
{
StackOfStrings stack = new StackOfStrings();
while(!StdIn.isEmpty())
{
String s = StdIn.readString();
stack.push(s);
}
while(!stack.isEmpty())
{
String s = stack.pop();
StdOut.println(s);
}
}
a sample stack client
7
Stack pop: Linked-list implementation
first
of
best
the
was
it
item = first.item;
best
the
was
it
first = first.next;
best
the
was
it
return item;
first
first
Stack push: Linked-list implementation
first
best
first
was
it
the
was
it
second = first;
the
was
it
first = new Node();
the
was
it
first.item = item;
first.next = second;
second
best
first
the
second
best
first
second
of
best
Stack: Linked-list implementation
public class StackOfStrings
{
private Node first = null;
private class Node
{
String item;
Node next;
}
public boolean isEmpty()
{ return first == null;
"inner class"
public void push(String item)
{
Node second = first;
first = new Node();
first.item = item;
first.next = second;
}
Error conditions?
Example: pop() an empty stack
COS 217: bulletproof the code
COS 226: first find the code we want to use
public String pop()
{
String item = first.item;
first = first.next;
return item;
}
}
10
Stack: Array implementation
Array implementation of a stack.
Use array s[] to store N items on stack.
push() add new item at s[N].
pop() remove item from s[N-1].
s[]
it
was
the
best
11
Stack: Array implementation
public class StackOfStrings
{
private String[] s;
private int N = 0;
public StringStack(int capacity)
{ s = new String[capacity]; }
public boolean isEmpty()
{ return N == 0; }
public void push(String item)
{ s[N++] = item; }
public String pop()
{
String item = s[N-1];
s[N-1] = null;
N--;
return item;
}
avoid loitering
(garbage collector only reclaims memory
if no outstanding references)
12
stacks
dynamic resizing
queues
generics
applications
13
Stack array implementation: Dynamic resizing
Q. How to grow array when capacity reached?
Q. How to shrink array (else it stays big even when stack is small)?
First try:
push(): increase size of s[] by 1
pop() : decrease size of s[] by 1
Too expensive
Need to copy all of the elements to a new array.
Inserting N elements: time proportional to 1 + 2 + + N N2/2.
infeasible for large N
Need to guarantee that array resizing happens infrequently
14
Stack array implementation: Dynamic resizing
Q. How to grow array?
A. Use repeated doubling:
if array is full, create a new array of twice the size, and copy items
no-argument
constructor
public StackOfStrings()
{ this(8); }
public void push(String item)
{
if (N >= s.length) resize();
s[N++] = item;
}
create new array
copy items to it
private void resize(int max)
{
String[] dup = new String[max];
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++)
dup[i] = s[i];
s = dup;
}
Consequence. Inserting N items takes time proportional to N (not N2).
8 + 16 + + N/4 + N/2 + N 2N
15
Stack array implementation: Dynamic resizing
Q. How (and when) to shrink array?
How: create a new array of half the size, and copy items.
When (first try): array is half full?
No, causes thrashing
(push-pop-push-pop-... sequence: time proportional to N for each op)
When (solution): array is 1/4 full (then new array is half full).
public String pop(String item)
{
String item = s[--N];
sa[N] = null;
if (N == s.length/4)
resize(s.length/2);
return item;
}
Consequences.
any sequence of N ops takes time proportional to N
array is always between 25% and 100% full
Not a.length/2
to avoid thrashing
16
Stack Implementations: Array vs. Linked List
Stack implementation tradeoffs. Can implement with either array or
linked list, and client can use interchangeably. Which is better?
Array.
Most operations take constant time.
Expensive doubling operation every once in a while.
Any sequence of N operations (starting from empty stack)
takes time proportional to N.
"amortized" bound
Linked list.
Grows and shrinks gracefully.
Every operation takes constant time.
Every operation uses extra space and time to deal with references.
Bottom line: tossup for stacks
but differences are significant when other operations are added
17
Stack implementations: Array vs. Linked list
Which implementation is more convenient?
array?
linked list?
return count of elements in stack
remove the kth most recently added
sample a random element
18
stacks
dynamic resizing
queues
generics
applications
19
Queues
Queue operations.
enqueue() Insert a new item onto queue.
dequeue() Delete and return the item least recently added.
isEmpty() Is the queue empty?
public static void main(String[] args)
{
QueueOfStrings q = new QueueOfStrings();
q.enqueue("Vertigo");
q.enqueue("Just Lose It");
q.enqueue("Pieces of Me");
q.enqueue("Pieces of Me");
System.out.println(q.dequeue());
q.enqueue("Drop It Like It's Hot");
while(!q.isEmpty()
System.out.println(q.dequeue());
}
20
Dequeue: Linked List Implementation
last
first
it
was
the
best
of
item = first.item;
last
first
was
the
best
of
first = first.next;
last
first
was
the
best
of
return item;
Aside:
dequeue (pronounced DQ) means remove from a queue
deque (pronounced deck) is a data structure (see PA 1)
21
Enqueue: Linked List Implementation
last
first
it
was
the
last
first
it
was
the
first
it
was
the
first
it
best
was
the
best
of
last
best
of
last
best
of
x = new Node();
x.item = item;
x.next = null;
last.next = x;
last = x;
22
Queue: Linked List Implementation
public class QueueOfStrings
{
private Node first;
private Node last;
private class Node
{ String item; Node next; }
public boolean isEmpty()
{ return first == null; }
public void enqueue(String item)
{
Node x = new Node();
x.item = item;
x.next = null;
if (isEmpty()) { first
= x; last = x; }
else
{ last.next = x; last = x; }
}
public String dequeue()
{
String item = first.item;
first
= first.next;
return item;
}
}
23
Queue: Array implementation
Array implementation of a queue.
Use array q[] to store items on queue.
enqueue(): add new object at q[tail].
dequeue(): remove object from q[head].
Update head and tail modulo the capacity.
q[]
0
the
best
of
times
head
tail
capacity = 10
[details: good exercise or exam question]
24
stacks
dynamic resizing
queues
generics
applications
25
Generics (parameterized data types)
We implemented: StackOfStrings, QueueOfStrings.
We also want: StackOfURLs, QueueOfCustomers, etc?
Attempt 1. Implement a separate stack class for each type.
Rewriting code is tedious and error-prone.
Maintaining cut-and-pasted code is tedious and error-prone.
@#$*! most reasonable approach until Java 1.5 [hence, used in AlgsJava]
26
Stack of Objects
We implemented: StackOfStrings, QueueOfStrings.
We also want: StackOfURLs, QueueOfCustomers, etc?
Attempt 2. Implement a stack with items of type Object.
Casting is required in client.
Casting is error-prone: run-time error if types mismatch.
Stack s = new Stack();
Apple a = new Apple();
Orange b = new Orange();
s.push(a);
s.push(b);
a = (Apple) (s.pop());
run-time error
27
Generics
Generics. Parameterize stack by a single type.
Avoid casting in both client and implementation.
Discover type mismatch errors at compile-time instead of run-time.
parameter
Stack<Apple> s = new Stack<Apple>();
Apple a = new Apple();
Orange b = new Orange();
s.push(a);
s.push(b);
compile-time error
a = s.pop();
no cast needed in client
Guiding principles.
Welcome compile-time errors
Avoid run-time errors
Why?
28
Generic Stack: Linked List Implementation
public class StackOfStrings
{
private Node first = null;
public class Stack<Item>
{
private Node first = null;
private class Node
{
String item;
Node next;
}
private class Node
{
Item item;
Node next;
}
public boolean isEmpty()
{ return first == null;
public boolean isEmpty()
{ return first == null;
Generic type name
public void push(String item)
{
Node second = first;
first = new Node();
first.item = item;
first.next = second;
}
public void push(Item item)
{
Node second = first;
first = new Node();
first.item = item;
first.next = second;
}
public String pop()
{
String item = first.item;
first = first.next;
return item;
}
public Item pop()
{
Item item = first.item;
first = first.next;
return item;
}
}
29
Generic stack: array implementation
The way it should be.
public class Stack<Item>
{
private Item[] s;
private int N = 0;
public Stack(int cap)
{ s = new Item[cap];
public class StackOfStrings
{
private String[] s;
private int N = 0;
public StackOfStrings(int cap)
{ s = new String[cap]; }
public boolean isEmpty()
{ return N == 0; }
public boolean isEmpty()
{ return N == 0; }
public void push(Item item)
{ s[N++] = item; }
public void push(String item)
{ s[N++] = item; }
public String pop()
{
Item item = s[N-1];
s[N-1] = null;
N--;
return item;
}
public String pop()
{
String item = s[N-1];
s[N-1] = null;
N--;
return item;
}
}
@#$*! generic array creation not allowed in Java
30
Generic stack: array implementation
The way it is: an ugly cast in the implementation.
public class Stack<Item>
{
private Item[] s;
private int N = 0;
public Stack(int cap)
{ s = (Item[]) new Object[cap]; }
the ugly cast
public boolean isEmpty()
{ return N == 0; }
public void push(Item item)
{ s[N++] = item; }
public String pop()
{
Item item = s[N-1];
s[N-1] = null;
N--;
return item;
}
}
Number of casts in good code: 0
31
Generic data types: autoboxing
Generic stack implementation is object-based.
What to do about primitive types?
Wrapper type.
Each primitive type has a wrapper object type.
Ex: Integer is wrapper type for int.
Autoboxing. Automatic cast between a primitive type and its wrapper.
Syntactic sugar. Behind-the-scenes casting.
Stack<Integer> s = new Stack<Integer>();
s.push(17);
// s.push(new Integer(17));
int a = s.pop();
// int a = ((int) s.pop()).intValue();
Bottom line: Client code can use generic stack for any type of data
32
stacks
dynamic resizing
queues
generics
applications
33
Stack Applications
Real world applications.
Parsing in a compiler.
Java virtual machine.
Undo in a word processor.
Back button in a Web browser.
PostScript language for printers.
Implementing function calls in a compiler.
34
Function Calls
How a compiler implements functions.
Function call: push local environment and return address.
Return: pop return address and local environment.
Recursive function. Function that calls itself.
Note. Can always use an explicit stack to remove recursion.
gcd (216, 192)
static int gcd(int p, int q) {
if (q == 0) return
gcdp;
(192, 24)
p = 216, q = 192
else return gcd(q, p % q);
}
static int gcd(int p, int q) {
if (q == 0) returngcd
p;(24, 0)
p = 192, q = 24
else return gcd(q, p % q);
}
static int gcd(int p, int q) {
if (q == 0) return p;
p = 24, q = 0
else return gcd(q, p % q);
}
35
Arithmetic Expression Evaluation
Goal. Evaluate infix expressions.
value stack
operator stack
operand
operator
Two-stack algorithm. [E. W. Dijkstra]
Value: push onto the value stack.
Operator: push onto the operator stack.
Left parens: ignore.
Right parens: pop operator and two values;
push the result of applying that operator
to those values onto the operand stack.
Context. An interpreter!
36
Arithmetic Expression Evaluation
public class Evaluate {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Stack<String> ops = new Stack<String>();
Stack<Double> vals = new Stack<Double>();
while (!StdIn.isEmpty()) {
String s = StdIn.readString();
if
(s.equals("("))
;
else if (s.equals("+"))
ops.push(s);
else if (s.equals("*"))
ops.push(s);
else if (s.equals(")")) {
String op = ops.pop();
if
(op.equals("+")) vals.push(vals.pop() + vals.pop());
else if (op.equals("*")) vals.push(vals.pop() * vals.pop());
}
else vals.push(Double.parseDouble(s));
}
% java Evaluate
StdOut.println(vals.pop());
( 1 + ( ( 2 + 3 ) * ( 4 * 5 ) ) )
}
101.0
}
Note: Old books have two-pass algorithm because generics were not available!
37
Correctness
Why correct?
When algorithm encounters an operator surrounded by two values
within parentheses, it leaves the result on the value stack.
( 1 + ( ( 2 + 3 ) * ( 4 * 5 ) ) )
as if the original input were:
( 1 + ( 5 * ( 4 * 5 ) ) )
Repeating the argument:
( 1 + ( 5 * 20 ) )
( 1 + 100 )
101
Extensions. More ops, precedence order, associativity.
1 + (2 - 3 - 4) * 5 * sqrt(6 + 7)
38
Stack-based programming languages
Observation 1.
Remarkably, the 2-stack algorithm computes the same value
if the operator occurs after the two values.
( 1 ( ( 2 3 + ) ( 4 5 * ) * ) + )
Observation 2.
All of the parentheses are redundant!
1 2 3 + 4 5 * * +
Jan Lukasiewicz
Bottom line. Postfix or "reverse Polish" notation.
Applications. Postscript, Forth, calculators, Java virtual machine,
39
Stack-based programming languages: PostScript
Page description language
explicit stack
full computational model
graphics engine
Basics
%!: I am a PostScript program
literal: push me on the stack
function calls take args from stack
turtle graphics built in
a PostScript program
%!
72 72 moveto
0 72 rlineto
72 0 rlineto
0 -72 rlineto
-72 0 rlineto
2 setlinewidth
stroke
40
Stack-based programming languages: PostScript
Data types
basic: integer, floating point, boolean, ...
graphics: font, path, ....
full set of built-in operators
Text and strings
like System.out.print()
full font support
show (display a string, using current font)
cvs (convert anything to a string)
Square root of 2:
1.4142
like toString()
%!
/Helvetica-Bold findfont 16 scalefont setfont
72 168 moveto
(Square root of 2:) show
72 144 moveto
2 sqrt 10 string cvs show
41
Stack-based programming languages: PostScript
Variables (and functions)
identifiers start with /
def operator associates id with value
braces
args on stack
function definition
function calls
%!
/box
{
/sz exch def
0 sz rlineto
sz 0 rlineto
0 sz neg rlineto
sz neg 0 rlineto
} def
72 144 moveto
72 box
288 288 moveto
144 box
2 setlinewidth
stroke
42
Stack-based programming languages: PostScript
for loop
from, increment, to on stack
loop body in braces
for operator
1 1 20
{ 19 mul dup 2 add moveto 72 box }
for
if-else
boolean on stack
alternatives in braces
if operator
... (hundreds of operators)
43
Stack-based programming languages: PostScript
An application: all figures in Algorithms in Java
%!
72 72 translate
/kochR
{
2 copy ge { dup 0 rlineto }
{
3 div
2 copy kochR 60 rotate
2 copy kochR -120 rotate
2 copy kochR 60 rotate
2 copy kochR
} ifelse
pop pop
} def
0
0 moveto
0 81 moveto
0 162 moveto
0 243 moveto
stroke
81
27
9
1
243
243
243
243
See page 218
kochR
kochR
kochR
kochR
44
Queue applications
Familiar applications.
iTunes playlist.
Data buffers (iPod, TiVo).
Asynchronous data transfer (file IO, pipes, sockets).
Dispensing requests on a shared resource (printer, processor).
Simulations of the real world.
Traffic analysis.
Waiting times of customers at call center.
Determining number of cashiers to have at a supermarket.
45
M/D/1 queuing model
M/D/1 queue.
Customers are serviced at fixed rate of per minute.
Customers arrive according to Poisson process at rate of per minute.
inter-arrival time has exponential distribution
Pr[X x] = 1 e x
Arrival rate
Departure rate
Infinite queue
Server
Q. What is average wait time W of a customer?
Q. What is average number of customers L in system?
46
M/D/1 queuing model: example
47
M/D/1 queuing model: experiments and analysis
Observation.
As service rate approaches arrival rate , service goes to h***.
Littles Law
Queueing theory (see ORFE 309).
W =
1
+
,
2 ( )
L = W
wait time W and queue length L approach infinity as service rate approaches arrival rate
48
M/D/1 queuing model: event-based simulation
public class MD1Queue
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
double lambda = Double.parseDouble(args[0]);
// arrival rate
double mu
= Double.parseDouble(args[1]);
// service rate
Histogram hist = new Histogram(60);
Queue<Double> q = new Queue<Double>();
double nextArrival = StdRandom.exp(lambda);
double nextService = 1/mu;
while (true)
{
while (nextArrival < nextService)
{
q.enqueue(nextArrival);
nextArrival += StdRandom.exp(lambda);
}
double wait = nextService - q.dequeue();
hist.addDataPoint(Math.min(60, (int) (wait)));
if (!q.isEmpty())
nextService = nextArrival + 1/mu;
else
nextService = nextService + 1/mu;
}
}
}
49
