CHROMATOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES

The term chromatography embraces a family of closely

related separation methods based on Tswett and Days
experiments described in 1903 1906. The importance
of chromatography lies primarily in its use as an
analytical separations tool although preparative
applications have gained prominence as a production
tool since last two decades. It serves as a means of
resolution of mixtures and for the isolation and partial
description of the components whose presence may be
known or suspected.

In chromatography, the components to be separated

are distributed between a stationary bed of large
surface area and a fluid that percolates through or
along the stationary bed. Mass transfer between the
mobile phase and the stationary phase occurs either
because of the molecules of the mixture are absorbed
on particle surfaces or absorbed into particle pores or
they partition into pools of liquid held on surfaces or
within the pores. This process is known as sorption.

Separation of the components in a sample is based on

the fact that the rate of travel of an individual solute
molecule through a column or thin layer of adsorbant
is directly related to the partition of that molecule
between the mobile and stationary phase. The
partition coefficient of each component determines
how much of it is in each phase at any time and how
long it remains in that phase. If selective retardation
differences prevail, each component can travel through
a column or along the stationary phase at a rate
dependant upon the sorption characteristics.
4

After some time interval they will be distributed in space

over the stationary phase and subsequently emerge out of
the stationary phase as a single components. Several
techniques result depending upon the choice of stationary
and mobile phases . Thus we can have

MOBILE

STATIONARY PHASE

TECHNIQUE

Liquid

Liquid

Partition
chromatography

Gas

Liquid

Gas - Liquid
chromatography

Gas

Solid

Gas - Solid
chromatography

Liquid

Ion exchange resin

Ion exchange
chromatography

Liquid

Molecular sieves

Ion Exclusion / Gel

permeation

Liquid

Thin layer of Silica/Alumina

Thin layer
chromatography

Liquid

Paper

Paper chromatography
6

The chromatographic behavior of a solute can be

described either by its retardation factor(R) or by
retention volume (VR). By varying sorbent-solvent
combinations and operating parameters, the degree of
retardation can be varied over a wide range from nearly
total retention to a state of free migration. Let us define
some technical terms related to chromatography.
1. Partition coefficient
K d = C s / Cm
where Cs & Cm are the concentration of the solute in
the stationary phase and mobile phase.
7

2. Retardation factor

R =

tm
tm + ts

tm and ts time spent by the molecule in mobile and

stationary phases.
Rf = Distance traveled by the solute
Distance traveled by the mobile phase
In paper chromatography and thin layer chromatography
R is greater than Rf by about 15%.
8

R
1-R

CmVm
CsVs

where Cm and Vm are the volumes of mobile and

stationary phases.
R =

Vm
Vm + KdVs

1
1 + Kd(Vs/Vm)

3. Retention volume
In column elution methods, it is the amount of mobile phase
which has left the column at the instant the maximum of
the solute zone emerges from the column. At its peak ,
maximum 50% solute has eluted in retention volume VR and
50% is retained in mobile phase and stationary phase. Thus
VR Cm= Vm Cm+ VsCs
VR = Vm + kdVs
Since VR = tR .Fc (time x volume rate of flow of mobile phase)
and VR = L.Fc/R
where L is the length of the column and is the linear flow
rate of the mobile phase.
10

VR = L . Fc (Vm + Kd.Vs )/ .Vm

The ratio [LFc/ ] is the volume of mobile phase. The
first term is called the bed void or free column volume.
It represents the retention volume of a substance that
is unadsorbed or insoluble in stationary phase (for Kd = 0).

11

4. Column capacity
k = CsVs/CmVm
The volumetric phase ratio in a column is designated
as Vm/Vs.
Thus k = kd/
R = 1/(1-k)
k = (VR - Vm) / Vm
12

5. Temperature effects
Temperature effects are very important parameters in
the operation of columns due to the marked dependence
of partition coefficients on the temperature.
kd = e S0/RT - e H0/RT

~ ae H0/RT

where S0 and H0 are standard entropy and enthalpy of

sorption.
Usually S0 = 0-12 kcal and at 200C, Kd will decrease by
50%. This leads to a large value of R or large decrease in
retention volume.
13

ADSORPTION ISOTHERMS

14

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHROMATOGRAM

The sample is generally introduced at the top of a column
or near one edge of a sheet or thin layer of sorbent. When
mobile phase is allowed to percolate through a stationary
phase, sample components develop into separate zones
(bands, peaks). This is known as chromatographic
development. Development of chromatograms may be
conducted either by frontal analysis or elution analysis or
by displacement development.

15

1. Frontal Analysis
In this we pass the sample solution continuously through
an adsorbant. The active centres of the adsorbant are
occupied by the more strongly adsorbed components
and the least strongly adsorbed components
accumulate in the traveling front. The solvent comes out
first followed by the least strongly adsorbed components
followed by additional solutes which are more strongly
adsorbed.

16

Frontal analysis leads to resolution only of the least

strongly absorbed solute. Processes of this type are
used for the removal of relatively small components of
undesirable components when then are strongly
absorbed.
17

2. Elution development
A small sample is introduced at the upstream end of
the stationary phase. Pure solvent, called as the eluent is
passed through the system which leads to a differential
migration of the solutes in the mobile phase.
Subsequently the solutes will emerge out of the column
depending upon the individual partition coefficients. If
these are sufficiently different for different components
the mixture will split into separate bands that migrate at
different rates and emerge out.

18

ELUTION DEVELOPMENT

19

ELUTION DEVELOPMENT

20

3. Displacement Development

In this type of development separation of the sample

ingredients is achieved by running a more strongly
adsorbed displacing agent through the column. All the
sample components are forced out of their sorption sites
and compelled to move ahead of the front produced by the
displacer. In their turn, the sample components displace
each other. The first to leave the column will be the least
adsorbed followed by the next least etc.

21

DISPLACEMENT DEVELOPMENT

22

It is common practice to choose as a displacer a

substance that is closely related to the substances
(a higher homologue) undergoing separation.
In this system a rather heavy loading of the column is
permissible. This is useful for the preparative work.

23

GRADIENT ELUTION
Gradient elution development is characterized by the
intentional variation of the eluting conditions during the
course of separation. These include composition of the
mobile phase, column pressure and column temperature.
In gas chromatography this is easily achieved by varying
the column temperature and/or gas glow.
In liquid chromatography, composition of the eluent is
easily varied. Thus mobile phase with stronger
displacing properties is continuously run through the
column. Thus the zones are forced more closely together
and they become narrower. Several solvent mixing
devices are available today for efficient separation of the
solutes.
24

DYNAMICS OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
(i) Efficiency
The measure of the column efficiency is expressed by
the plate number N given by,
N = 16(VR/W)2 or 8 (VR/We)2
where W is the width of the elution peak measured in
volume units, We is the width at Cmax or 0.368 Cmax.
Cmax is the concentration of the material in the
effluent at peak maximum.
25

COMMON ELUTION CURVES AND

TERMINOLOGY

26

The retention volume may be replaced by retention time

and the width by time.
Under ideal conditions, the chromatogram approaches a
Gaussian curve and the width could be 4. Basically
plate number compares the narrowness of a peak to the
length of time (tR = VR/Fc) the component has been in a
column .
Plate height H is the length of the column/number of
plates (2/L).
27

(ii) Zone spreading

When a mobile phase boundary passes the solute zone
the rate of sorption and desorption can not keep pace
with that of the solvent. Hence the progress down the
column by individual solutes resembles a random stop and
go process. The net forward travel of each component is
actually an average value and there is a normal dispersion
of values around the mean.
Further the solutes initially occupy a number of plates. The
effect will be that a number of chromatograms are started
successively which lead to zone width. Zone spreading is
considered to be due to a series of molecular diffusion and
local non equilibrium patterns originating in the velocity in
equalities of the flow pattern but the extent of spreading is
governed by diffusion between fast and slow stream paths.

28

(iii) Resolution
The degree of separation of two components is a problem
common to all chromatographic methods. In truth
complete separation can never be achieved because a
chromatographic peak approaches in shape a gaussian
distribution. In actual practice minimization of the degree
of overlap or cross contamination between the adjacent
zones to a desired experimental level is aimed at.
Resolution is thus essentially a measure of the degree of
separation of zones.

29

Mathematically,
RS = Z / 4
where Z is the separation of the zone centres.
For column elution methods,
RS = (VR,2 - VR,1) / 0.5 (W2 + W1)
Resolution is influenced by relative retention ratio,
partition coefficients ratio, plate number and column
length.
30

QUANTITATIVE EVALUATION AND SEPARATION

Elution is generally continued until all the components
have left the column. This permits reuse of the column.
Analysis of column effluent can be done by any method
suitable for continuous analysis e.g spectrophotometry,
refractometry, polarography, radiochemical etc.
Frequently automatic equipment is employed in
conjunction with fraction collector and recording. Ideally
the property chosen for monitoring the effluent should be
linear function of the solute concentration and the
detector response should also be linearly related to the
operative property of the mobile phase.
Quantitatively the total amount of a solute eluted is
measured by the area under a peak or peak height or
gravimetric methods.
31

FRACTION COLLECTION
Fraction collectors enable the elute to be collected in
portions as desired and permits one to characterize
various species present in each fraction by
independent methods. These are based on lapse of
equal interval of time, constant fraction size or detector
out put or drop counting. A high degree of automation
is possible in all these cases.

32

GAS CHROMATROGRAPHY

33

Gas chromatography differs from other forms of

chromatography in that the mobile phase is a gas and the
components are separated as vapours. The separation is
accomplished by partitioning the sample between the gas
and a thin layer of a nonvolatile liquid held on a solid
support. A sample containing the solutes is injected onto
a heated block where it is immediately vaporized and
swept as a plug of vapour by the carrier gas stream into
the column inlet. The solutes are adsorbed by the
stationary phase and then desorbed by fresh carrier gas.

34

ELUTION METHOD OF GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY

35

The process is repeated in each plate as the sample is

moved toward the outlet. Each solute will travel at its
own rate through the column. Their bands will
separate into distinct zones depending on the partition
coefficients, and band spreading. The solutes are
eluted one after another in the increasing order of their
kd, and enter into a detector attached to the exit end of
the column. Here they register a series of signals
resulting from concentration changes and rates of
elution on the recorder as a plot of time versus the
composition of carrier gas stream.

36

The appearance time, height, width and area of these

peaks can be measured to yield quantitative data. Use
of longer columns and higher velocity of carrier gas
permits the fast separation in a matter of few minutes.
Higher working temperatures up to 5000 C and
possibility of converting any material into a volatile
component make gas chromatography one of the most
versatile techniques.

37

Gas chromatography is composed of six parts:

Supply of carrier gas in a high pressure cylinder with
attendant pressure regulators and flow meters
Sample injection system
The separation column
Detector
Recorder
Separate thermostated compartments for columns
and detectors

38

SCHEMATIC OF GAS CHROMATOGRAPH

39

GAS CHROMATOGRAPH

40

1.

Pressure regulator

Carrier gas from the tank passes through a toggle valve, a

flow meter, (1-1000 ml / min), capillary restrictors, and a
pressure gauge (1-4 atm). Flow rate is adjusted by means
of a needle valve mounted on the base of the flow meter and
controlled by capillary restrictors.
The operating efficiency of the gas chromatograph is
directly dependant on the maintenance of a constant gas
flow, but the contaminants in the carrier gas may affect the
column performance and detector response. When
ionization detectors are used. Hence a molecular sieve of
5A0 is used as a trap for the removal of hydrocarbons and
water vapour.
41

Helium, N2, H, Ar are used as carrier gases. He is

preferred for thermal conductivity detectors because of
its high thermal conductivity relative to that of most
organic vapours. N2 is preferable when large
consumption of carrier gas is employed.

42

2. Sample Injection
Liquid samples are injected by a micro syringe with
needle inserted through a self scaling, silicon-rubber
septum into a heated metal block by a resistance
heater. The insertion of sample is the most exacting
problem in gas chromatography which needs lot of
practice like an art. Insertion, injection and withdrawal
of the needle should be performed quickly, smoothly
and with proper reproducibility. Gaseous samples are
injected by a gas tight syringe or through a by-pass
loop and valves. Typical sample volumes range from
0.1 to 0.2 ml.

43

SAMPLE INLET SYSTEM

44

GAS SAMPLE INJECTION

45

3. Chromatographic column

The heart of the gas chromatography is the column which

is made of metals bent in U shape or coiled into an open
spiral or a flat pancake shape. Copper is useful up to
2500C. Swege lock fittings make column insertion easy.
Several sizes of columns are used depending upon the
requirements.

46

COLUMN SPECIFICATIONS
Parameters

Open
tubular

1/16 *

ID (mm)

0.25 0.50

1.2

1.65

3.94

Length (m)

100

20

20

20

30

Plates

3,00,000

60,000

48,000

30,000

15,000

Plates / m

3000

3000

2400

1500

750

Liq.phase

..

10

20

Film
thickness

10

20

Sample size
(1)

0.01

1.0

2.0

20

1000

* All dimensions in inches

1/8 *

1/4

3/8

47

4. Supports
Plays a key role. Structure and surface characteristics
of the support materials are important parameters,
which determine the efficiency of the support and the
degree of separation respectively.
The support should be inert but capable of immobilizing
large volume of liquid phase as a thin film over its
surface. But surface area should be large to ensure
rapid attainment of equilibrium between stationary and
mobile phases. Support should be strong enough to
resist breakdown in handling and be capable of packed
into a uniform bed.
48

Diatomeceous earth, kiesulguhr treated with Na2CO3 for

9000 C causes the particle fusion into coarser aggregates.
Micro amorphous silica is converted into crystobalite
which is marketed as chromosorb w, celite, diatoport w,
gas-chrom, ana-chrom etc.
Diatomite is crushed, blended and calcined above 9000 C
which forms a pink powder known as chromosorb P. This
is less fragile, high density, free flowing and capable of
holding a large volume of liquid phase. This has 80% void
space with 9 pore size but the white one has 90% void
space and 2 pore size. These pink columns are more
efficient.
49

Both these have active sites on their surfaces which

cause tailing with more polar solutes. These are due to
metallic impurities, silanol (SiOH) and siloxane groups
which give rise to H bonding effects. Acid washing
removes mineral impurities and reduces the surface
activity caused by OH groups associated with Fe and Al
but not silanol and siloxane groups. Silinization by
dimethyl dichlorosilane or hexamethyl disilazane reduces
surface activity and tailing. Since this reduces surface
area of the support also more than 10% loading can not be
used.

50

Coating of the support with stearic acid incorporated in

silicone oil eliminates tailing in the separation of fatty
acids. For amines KOH may be used for coating.
Glass beads with a low surface area and low porosity
can be used to coat up to 3% stationary phases.
0.05 0.2% loadings permit the analysis of high boiling
substances at fairly low temperatures.
Porous polymer beads differing in the degree of cross
linking of styrene with alkyl-vinyl benzene are also
used which are stable up to 2500 C. These are
marketed as Porapak P,Q,R,S etc.
51

The mesh size of the support determines the average

particle diameter which in turn determines the HETP.
Thus theoretically smallest particles should be used but
it causes the permeability {(particle dia)2} and pressure
drop {1/(dia)2} to drop in longer columns. Coarser
particles can hence be used. Best columns are 80/100
mesh for 1/8 inch with diatomaceous earth type
supports. For effective packing of any column the
internal diameter should be at least 8 times the diameter
of the supports.

52

5. Liquid phases
An infinite variety of liquid phases are available limited
only by their volatility, thermal stability and ability to
wet the support. No single phase will serve for all
separation problems at all temperatures.
(i)

Non Polar Parafin, squalane, silicone greases,

apiezon L, silicone gum rubber (SE-30). These
materials separate the components in order of
their boiling points.

(ii) Intermediate Polarity These materials contain a

polar or polarizable group on a long non polar
skeleton which can dissolve both polar and non
polar solutes. For example diethyl hexylphthalate
is used for the separation of high boiling alcohols.

53

(iii) Polar Carbowaxes Liquid phases with large

proportion of polar groups. Separation of polar and
non polar substances.
(iv) Hydrogen bonding - Polar liquid phases with high
hydrogen bonding bonding e.g. Glycol.
(v) Specific purpose phases Relying on a chemical
reaction with solute to achieve separations.
e.g AgNO3 in glycol separates unsaturated hydrocarbons.

54

The maximum temperature at which a liquid phase may

be used is determined by its volatility. Excessive
volatility shortens the column life, contaminates the
gas stream and affects the baseline stability. The
operating temperature is determined by its viscosity or
solidification point.

55

6. Column loading
15% loading means 15% liquid phase and 85% support.
The lower the amount of the solid phase, the smaller is
the sample that can be handled.
7. Open tubular columns (capillary)
An open glass capillary tube coated with liquid phase
on the interior of the tubing. This permits use of very
long columns (30-100 meters). Because of the low
pressure drop, such columns give a very high overall
column efficiency. Theoretical plates of 100,000 are
possible. The diameter could be 0.07 0.25 mm. But
the sample capacity is only about 0.1 to 0.3% of normal
samples.
56

8. Support coated open tubular columns

These are fuzzy-wuzzy columns. A thin layer of porous
material is deposited on the inner wall of an open tube
and then coated with a liquid phase. This causes the
internal surface area to increase. Thus the value and
film thickness are reduced by an order of magnitude.
Thus fewer theoretical plates are necessary
(shorter columns), resulting in shorter analysis time,
and better resolution.

57

9. Detectors
Detectors sense the arrival of the separated components
and provide a signal. These are either concentration
dependant or mass dependant. All detectors are
characterized by linear dynamic range (LDR - largest
signal / smallest signal). Signal to noise ratio is 2 for the
smallest signal. The detector should be close to the
column exit and correct temperature to prevent
decomposition.

58

(i) THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY DETECTOR

It consists of 4 heating elements located in a heating
cavity of brass or steel block which serves as a heat
sink . Thermistors or resistance wires are used with Pt-Ir
springs. Filaments are gold sheathed tungsten or teflon
coated tungsten with high temperature coefficient of
resistance. The cell cavity has 2.5 ml capacity for large
TCDs or 0.025 ml for micro TCDs (5 ml).

59

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY DETECTOR

60

Thermal conductivity of the carrier gas and sample +

carrier gas is measured. The TCD cells are connected
to form the arms of a Wheatstone bridge. When pure
gas passes both reference and sample wires are
cooled to the same extent. When the solute emerges,
the rate of cooling in the sample changes and the
Wheatstone bridge is out of balance. This is recorded
as a peak. Both He and H are useful as carrier gases
since their thermal conductivities are different from the
sample components.
61

(ii) GAS DENSITY DETECTOR

The sample and carrier gas are split into two streams,
where cooling is monitored. Two flow meters B1 and B2 are
installed into the stream and are wired in a Wheatstone
bridge. The reference gas enters at A, splits into two and
exits at D. The effluent enters at C, splits into two mixes
with the carrier gas and exits at D. The effluent does not
come into contact with detector elements and hence no
contamination and carbonization. But it takes the path AB2D
with a temperature rise in B2 and decreases in temperature of
B1 in AB1D. The bridge imbalance is recorded as a signal.
The detector accommodates a sample volume 5 ml sample
volume of 5 ml, operating temperatures of 100-3000 C.
62

GAS DENSITY DETECTOR

63

FLAME IONIZATION DETECTOR

64

(iii) FLAME IONIZATION DETECTOR

The column effluent enters the FID after a particulate
filter. Hydrogen and air mixture is burnt to obtain a
plasma of around 21000 C which has sufficient energy
to ionize any organic solute passing through it. The
ions are collected at the anode and electrons are
collected at the cathode. The resulting ionic current is
monitored by measuring the voltage drop across a
series resistor (300V). Up to 107 - 1010 resistors are
used. Currents as low as 10-14 A can be measured.

65

When the solute is burnt, a large increase in the electrical

conductivity is seen due to the number of carbon atoms.
The detector is insensitive to water, permanent gases,
inorganic components, CO, CO2 and etc. It is useful for
aqueous extracts and for air pollution studies. But current
decreases for substituted amines, halogens, OH groups
etc. Linear dynamic range (LDR) is 106. A sample splitter is
necessary. Precise temperature control is not a rigid
requirement.

66

FID is insensitive to water and permanent gases such

as CO, CO2, CS2, SO2, H2S, NH3, N2O, NO, NO2, SiF4,
SiCl4 etc. Therefore it is advantageous in moist air
samples for the analysis of organic components. CO
and CH2 get converted to CH4 over nickel catalyst and
the sensitivity is 5 ng / sec-1. For higher organic gases
the sensitivity is 10 pg / sec-1 . LDR is 7.

67

(iv) PHOSPHOROUS DETECTOR

This is a modified flame ionization detector with the tip
being made of CsBr. When a compound containing
phosphorous is burned, alkali metals are released
which ionizes and increases the current flow. Up to 10-12 g
phosphorous compounds can be analysed in this way. The
LDR is 1000. This detector is useful for the determination
of phosphate additives in gasoline and pesticides.

68

(v) ELECTRON CAPTURE DETECTOR

This is based on the electron capture by compounds
having affinity for free electrons. This causes the loss of
signal due to recombination phenomena.
As the nitrogen carrier gas flows through the detector,
particles from a tritium source (or Ni-63) ionize the
nitrogen molecules and form slow electrons. These
migrate to the anode under a fixed potential which can be
varied from 2-100 V and generate 10-8 10-9 A base
current.

69

ELECTRON CAPTURE DETECTOR

70

When an electron capturing solute emerges from the

column, it passes through a low energy free electron
moving area. The solute reacts with an electron to
form a negative molecular ion or a neutral radical or a
negative ion. Since these ions move more slowly than
the free electrons, a reduction in net current occurs
which is proportional to its concentration.
i = i0 e-kxc
where k is constant depending on the field strength, c is
the absorption cross section of the vapour, x is a
geometric factor, i0 is the initial current and i is the final
current.
71

The ECD can be operated either in pulsed mode or

under a constant voltage. Thus either a season signal
results or a pulsed current.
ECD is extremely sensitive to organic and inorganic
halogen containing compounds, hydroxides, peroxides
conjugated carbonyls, nitrites, nitrates, ozone,
oxygen, organo metallic and sulphur containing
compounds.
But it is insensitive to hydrocarbons, amines, ketones
etc. Pesticides and organo metallics in gasoline are the
most preferred applications.
72

(vi) OTHER DETECTORS

Flame emission, conductivity detectors, rf discharge
detectors, infrared and mass spectrometer are other
detectors.

RECORDING
The recorder should be generally 10 mv (full scale) fitted
with a fast response pen (1 sec or less). The recorder
should be connected with a series of good quality
resistances connected across the input to attenuate the
large signals. An integrator is a good addition too.
73

THERMAL COMPARTMENT
Precise control of column, injection block, and column
oven and detector units up to 0.10 C is desirable.
Maximum operating temperature should be 5000 C.
Separate heaters for each with a rapid heating is a
must. Also rapid cooling is essential for multiple
operations.

74

Gas chromatographic theory covers complex interactions

of all the variables. But a brief treatment of basic
parameters is considered here.
RETENTION BEHAVIOUR
For a given column operating at temperature Tc and carrier
gas flow rate Fc, the retention time for any component in the
column is a constant. On a chromatogram, the distance on
the time axis from sample injection to the peak of the eluted
component is called uncorrected retention time tr.
VR = tr Fc
75

IDEALIZED ELUTION PEAKS

76

Gas flow rate must be corrected to the column temperature

and outlet temperature P. The air spike measures the
transit time for a non retained substance. Converted to
volume Vm, it represents the interstitial volume of the
gaseous phase in the column plus the effective volume
contribution of the injector port and detection. Thus VlR has
to be corrected for dead space.
VlR = tr Fc tair Fc = VR VM
Since gas moves more slowly near the inlet than at the
exit of the column, a pressure gradient correction or a
compressibility factor j to VlR must be applied to get the net
retention volume.

77

VN = j VlR

3 [ (Pi/Po)2 1 ]
where J =
2 [ (Pi/Po)3 1 ]

Since VRCM = VMCM + VSCS

VR = VM + KdVS
or KdVS = VR - VM = Kd (wL/L)
where wL = weight of liquid phase,
L = density of liquid phase
Vg = (273/ L) (Kd/TC) = specific retention volume
where or Kd = Vg. L ( TC/273) or Vg = (273/ L) (Kd/TC)
78

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE
log Vg

H
= 2.3 RT + const
C

H = partial molar heat of the solute in the liquid phase

By plotting, log VgL Vs 1/TC , H /2.3 R may be
obtained which is a linear function.
Lower operating temperature leads to increased
retention. Every 300 C reduction will double the retention
volume.
79

A knowledge of H and Vg helps in calculating the order in

which peaks will emerge.
e.g > 670 C methyl cyclopentane and 2,4 dimethyl pentane
< 670 C 2,4 dimethyl cyclopentanone and methyl
cyclopentane

80

RELATIVE RETENTION
Expressed as ratio of the retention time of a standard.
= tlR / tlR std

= (Kd)2 / (Kd)1

is independent of column length, carrier flow rate,

compressibility factor , liquid solid support ratio etc.
Retentions for various solute classes are tabulated for
typical stationary phases which helps in estimating
whether a mixture can be separated or not. Such
tabulations will be found in the J.chrom, science, journal of
gas chromatography, chromatography reviews, texts etc.
81

Kovats Retention Index relates isothermal data i.e

retention volume to those of n paraffins eluting directly
before the sample.
I = 100 n where n is the number of carbon atoms.
= 100 i log Rx log RN
log R(N+i) - log RN

+ 100 n

where Rx, RN, R(N+i) are retentions of unknown, paraffins

of carbon n and (n+i). Hence it is carbon n-retention
relation.

82

LINEAR AND LOG PLOTS

83

APPLICATIONS OF GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY

1. Reaction gas chromatography
The injected substances pass through a reaction zone
ahead or within the injection port or in a column or post
column.

84

(a) Subtractive processes

0
5A
1. St.chain alkanes + cyclic alkanes and branched alkanes
Mol.size
0
Hexane , heptane, octane 268 C hexane is not absorbed
from a mixture of hexane ,
heptane, octane

2. Olefins + aromatics

20% HgSO4
in 20% H2SO4

only aromatics

85

4% Ag2SO4

Retains both olefins

and aromatics

in 95% H2SO4
(MgClO4 )2

3.

Water

Removed
Mol.siev 4 A0
P2O5/CaSO4
CaC2

4.

CO

I2O5

C2H2
CO2

86

2. Pyrolysis
Useful for nonvolatile compounds. Sample is cracked
in a flash pyrolysis unit containing a heated filament
for 15-20 seconds at high temperatures or passed
through a high voltage corona discharge in a ceramic
cylinder. Smaller fragments with lower boiling
compounds give chromatograms of the pyrolysis
products which are characteristic of specific
compounds under specific conditions.
(a) Elemental analysis high temperature - C, CO2 ,
water and small molecules.
87

(b) Class reactions

Fatty acids

BF3
Methanol

Sterols, sugars, OH groups

Fatty alcohols, OH
Amino acids

Methyl esters
Hexamethyl di silazane
Trimethyl chlorosilane

Silane
derivatives

acetylation
(AC2)O + pyridine

Methyl ester hydrochlorides

Kits for these reactions are available.

88

PROGRAMMED TEMPERATURE GAS

CHROMATOGRAPHY
Separation of compounds having a wide range of boiling
points can be improved or accelerated by heating the
entire column at a fixed rate during the run. As the
temperature is raised, solubilities will decrease and
vapour pressure will increase and the compounds will
start migrating.
Temperature programming results in time saving,
sharper peaks and uniform peaks. Heating from ambient
to 4000 C within 8 minutes is possible while cooling can
be effected from 400 1000 C within 3 minutes.
89

ANALYSIS OF GAS MIXTURES BY

TEMPERATURE PROGRAMMING

90

The number of theoretical plates for a programmed

temperature GC is given by,
N = 16 [(VT)R / W]2 (equivalent to isothermal GC)
Essentially same degree of resolution is obtained
provided heating rate is 1.50 T above the isothermal
temperature.

91

FLOW PROGRAMMING
Here carrier gas flow rate is progressively increased
during analysis thus sweeping the components more
rapidly through the column. Since peak height is
proportional to the retention time and hence the flow
rate, the height of the emerging peaks is raised as the
analysis proceeds. A major advantage of flow
programming is that, thermally unstable compounds
can be analysed without the loss of the material and
so also volatile liquid phases.

92

The flow programmer is a numatically controlled

system which permits the pressure along the column
to rise logarithmically during a predetermined time
interval. It is a differential flow valve installed in the
carrier gas supply line.
Higher gas flow rates generally cause lower column
efficiency and the resolution may be poorer than
optimum conditions. Higher flow rate also improves
base line drift problems. Both FID, TCD are useful with
flow programming.

93

GAS SOLID CHROMATOGRAPHY

Permanent gases are usually analysed using silica
columns. In these columns for CO2 can be separated
from acetylene but other gases emerge as a single
peak.
H2, O2, N2, CO can be separated on a 4ft column
packed with 5A0 molecular sieve
Isomers + St. chain alkanes

5A0

st. chain alkanes

are absorbed
94

QUANTITATIVE EVALUATION
1.

Output of the recorder and the detector must be

linear.

2.

Carrier gas flow rate must be constant. Then the peak

area can be measured by triangulation, integration or
planimetry or gravimetry.

Planimetry
Triangulation
Height X1/2 width
Gravimetry
Electronic

Std. Deviation
4.0
4.0
2.6
1.7
0.44
95

PREPARATIVE-SCALE GAS
CHROMATOGRAPHY
1)

Useful for IR, NMR, MS etc.

2)

Columns of 1.0 to 1.5 cm in diameters and sample

size can vary from 1-1000 mg
1-2.00 g.

Danger of overloading is there if vapour phase of the

sample is larger than (0.5 VR/N).
Column diameter may be increased up to 3.2 cm dia
(10 times more sample than 1 cm column).
96

Another approach is repetitive (automatic) injections of

small samples on narrow dia columns of 3/8 - 3/4 dia.
Sample size ranges from 5-30 ml. A high % of liquid
phase is essential.
SHORT FAT COLUMNS High volume preparative
work etc.

97

HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID

CHROMATOGRAPHY

98

Earlier liquid chromatographic work was usually carried out

in 1.5 cm Diameter and 50-500 cm length columns with
stationary phase particles diameters of 150-200 m. These
separations took long time, lasted for several hours and
output flow rates were a few tenths of milliliters per minute.
Attempts to increase the speed by applying vacuum or
pumping were not effective because increase in flow rates
increased the plate heights according to Van Deemter
equation:

99

H = A + B/u + Cu
= A + B/u + (Cs + Cm) u
where H is the plate height (cm), u is the linear velocity
of the mobile phase (in cm/sec), A,B and C are
coefficients related to the phenomena of multiple flow
paths, longitudinal diffusion and mass transfer
between the mobile and solid phases.

100

Therefore decreased efficiencies were obtained. Soon

scientists realized that major increases in column
efficiency could be brought about by decreasing the
particle size of the stationary phases to 3-10 m. This
technology required sophisticated instruments operating
at high pressures.
Once these techniques were developed it was realized
that HPLC provided best analytical separations
technology with high sensitivity, adaptability for
quantitative separations. It was suitable for separating
nonvolatile or thermally fragile molecules such as amino
acids, proteins nucleic acids, hydrocarbons,
carbohydrates, drugs, terpenoids, pesticides antibiotics,
steroids, metal organic species and metal compounds
polymers and several other classes of compounds.
101

EFFECT OF PARTICLE SIZE ON PLATE

HEIGHT

102

Molecular weights up to
10,000

Exclusion chromatography
reverse phase partition

Lower molecular weight

ionic species

Ion exchange chromatography

Reverse phase partition

Smaller polar nonionic

Partition chromatography
Reverse phase partition

Homologous series
structural isomers

Adsorption chromatography
Reverse phase partition
103

CLASSIFICATION OF HPLC TECHNIQUES

104

Early chromatographers used highly polar stationary

phases such as water or triethylene glycol supported
on silica or alumina and hexane or isopropyl ether as
mobile phase. This is called as normal phase
chromatography in which least polar compound eluted
first.
In reverse phase chromatography, stationary phase is
non polar (usually a hydrocarbon) and mobile phase is
polar such as water, methanol, acetonitrile etc. Here
most polar component appears first and increasing
polarity increases the elution time.
105

Bonded phase coatings are siloxanes formed by the

reaction of hydrolysed surface with an organochloro
silane.

The coating is of the order of 4 mol. m-2 in the bonded

phase. Packings are classified as reverse phase when
the bonded coating is nonpolar. R is n-octyl or n-octyl
decyl groups. The particles have a brush or bristle like
appearance.
Nearly 75% HPLC work now is composed of reverse
phase partition chromatography and world wide HPLC
market is of the order of 1 billion dollars.
106

Pumping pressures of several thousand pounds per

square inch are required. Hence equipment tends to
be more elaborate and expensive.
Reservoirs of 200 - 1000 ml, equipped with sprayers,
vacuum pumping , distillation system, heating and
stirring, dust filters, Millipore filters under vacuum
constitute other HPLC components.
A single solvent used as mobile phase is called
isocratic elution. A mixture of 2-3 solvents
programmed to increase polarity in a series of steps or
continuously is called gradient elution.
107

COMPARISION OF GRADIENT AND ISOCRATIC ELUTION

108

Benzene, monochlorobenzene, o- dichlorobenzene ,

1,2,3 trichlorobenzene, 1,3,5 trichlorobenzene, 1,2,3,4
tetra chlorobenzene, penta chlorobenzene and
hexa chlorobenzene.

109

INSTRUMENTATION FOR HPLC

110

Pumping systems must have the following capabilities:

(1) Generation of 6000 psi(lb/in)
(2) Pulse free input
(3) 0.1-10 ml/min flow rate with 0.5% reproducibility
(4) Corrosion resistance
(5) No explosion hazard but no leaking
A variety of pumps are being employed in HPLC work as
shown below.
1) Reciprocating pumps
2) Displacement pumps
3) Pneumatic pumps
Computer controlled servo type delivery type systems are
ideal.
111

Sample injection:
(i) Syringe which can with stand up to 1500 psi.
(ii) Stop flow injections.
(iii) Sampling loops must be capable of with standing
7000 psi.
(iv) Micro sample injection valves can introduce 5-500 l
sample size.
112

Columns:
Stainless steel, or heavily walled glass tubing of
10-30 cm, capable of withstanding 6000 psi, 4 to 10 mm
inside dia meter, 0.5 m particles provide 40-60000
plates/meter.
1 - 4.6 mm dia, 3.5 mm particles, 3-5 cm length columns
offer 1, 00,000 Plates/meter. Such columns have low
solvent consumption and speed up the separations.

113

Guard column:
Filter and separate irreversibly bonding compounds.
The particles have similar composition to that of the
analytical column but slightly larger particle size to
minimize pressure drop.
Column thermostats must be capable of controlling
0.10 C. This is accomplished by using column heaters
or water jackets.

114

(I)

Pellicular nonporous, spherical glass or polymer

beads of 30- 40 m coated with a thin layer of
silica, alumina, polystyrene, divinyl benzene or
ion exchange resins are used for guard columns
preferably.

(II)

Porous particle packing, 3-10 m, of Si, Al2O3,

DVB, ion exchange resin are also useful
materials.

115

Detectors are of two types. These are based on the

bulk property of the eluents or solute properties such
as absorption, fluorescence etc.
1.

Bulk property RI, dielectric constant, or density.

2.

Solute property UV absorbance, fluorescence

diffusion current etc. Most of the HPLC work is
accounted by 71% UV, 15% fluorescence and 14 %
by other measurements.
116

Detector

Mass LOD

State of the art

UV-vis

100pg - 1ng

1 pg

Fluorescence

1 10 pg

10 fg

Electrochemical

10 pg - 1ng

100 fg

RI

100 ng 1g

10 ng

Conductivity

500 pg - 1 ng

500 pg

M.S

100 pg 1ng

1 ng

FT IR

1 g

100ng

* Quantitation is accomplished by peak height or peak area

117

ASSIGNMENT

LC Pumps

HPLC Columns & Pickings

HPLC Detectors
Sample injection systems
Solvent handling in HPLC
Typical applications of HPLC to Separations of Pesticides
Typical applications of HPLC to separations of Insecticides
Typical applications of HPLC to separations of Polymers
Ion chromatography
Biochemical applications
High pressure thin layer chromatography
118

119