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4.1 Introduction
The fastening of wood and steel members is typically
accomplished with nails and/or screws. This chapter
provides a brief description of the different fasteners used for
each material and the recommended fasteners to be used to
fasten the two materials together.

4.2 Steel Fastening

Methods
Cold-formed steel framing members can be fastened by
using any of the following fastening methods:
Screws

Welds

Powder-Actuated Fasteners Bolts

Clinches

Rivets

Pneumatically Driven Pins

Adhesives
Figure 4.1Screws

4.2.1 Screws
Screws are the most common fasteners used in framing
cold-formed steel members (see Figure 4.1). Self-drilling,
tapping screws are the most prevalent fastener. Screws are
typically applied with a positive-clutch electric screw gun.
Clamps (such as locking C clamps) are essential to the
steel framer; they hold the steel members together during
fastening.
Screws are available in sizes ranging from No. 6 to No. 14,
with No. 6 to No. 10 the most common. Lengths typically
vary from 1/2 inch (12.7 mm) to as much as 3 inches
(76 mm) depending on the application. Screws are generally
3
/8 inch (9.5 mm) to 1/2 inch (12.7 mm) longer than the
thickness of the connected materials so that a minimum of
three threads extends beyond the connected material. For
effective drilling, it is important that the drill point be as long
as the material thickness to be fastened. The correct
fastener type and length of each application should be
selected by consulting the screw manufacturers
specifications and catalogs.

Screw Point Type

1. Self-drilling tapping screws (see Figure 4.2) are
externally threaded fasteners with the ability to drill their
own hole and form or cut their own internal mating
threads into which they are driven without deforming
their own thread and without breaking during assembly.
Self-drilling screws are high-strength, one-piece, oneside-installation fasteners. They are typically used with
33-mil (0.8 mm) steel or thicker. They are also used
when fastening two or more pieces of steel of any
thickness. Self-drilling point styles are listed as No. 2,
No. 3, No. 4, and No. 5. The higher the number, the
thicker is the material the screw is designed to drill. The
self-drilling point style requires more consideration due
to the variety of thicknesses and possibility that multiple
layers must be joined.
2. Self-piercing tapping screws (see Figure 4.3) are
externally threaded fasteners with the ability to selfpierce metallic material, form a sleeve by extruding
metallic material, and tap their own mating threads
when driven. Self-piercing screws are high-strength,
one-piece, one-side-installation fasteners with sharp
point angles. The self-piercing point style is
recommended for connections of 33-mil (0.84 mm) steel
thickness and less.
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Screw Body Diameter

The body diameter of a screw is related to the nominal
screw size as shown in Table 4.1. Most connections are
made with a No. 8 screw, except when attaching gypsum
wallboard, when a No. 6 screw is typically used.

Screw Length
Figure 4.2Self-Drilling Tapping Screw

The length of the screw is measured from the bearing

surface of the head to the end of the point as shown in
Figure 4.4. For example, the length of a flat or countersunk
head is measured from the top of the head to the end of the
point. A pan head screw length is measured from under the
head (bearing surface) to the end of the point.
The length of self-drilling screws may require special
consideration since some designs have an unthreaded pilot
section or reamer with wings between the threads and the
drill point (see Figure 4.5). These features may be
necessary for certain applications such as applying wood
sheathing to a steel floor joist. The long pilot point or reamer
is required to allow the screw to drill through the material
before engaging the threads. If the threads engage before
the pilot hole is drilled completely, a gap may result in the
connection. The result can be a squeaky floor or screwpops through certain finishes.

Figure 4.3Self-Piercing Screw

Table 4.1Screw Body Diameter

Threads
Screw Number
Designation
6

0.1380

0.1510

0.1640

10

0.1900

12

0.2160

0.2500

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm.

20

Nominal Diameter, d,
(inch)

Self-piercing and self-drilling screws (see Figures 4.2 and

4.3) intended for cold-formed steel applications generally
have a coarse thread (e.g., 10-16x5/8 HWH SD would
indicate a 10 diameter, 16 threads per inch, 5/8-inch (16 mm)
length, hex washer head, self-drilling screw). Many selfdrilling screws have fine threads for use in thicker steel.
Manufacturers recommendations should be followed.

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Head Styles
Common head styles include flat, oval, wafer, truss,
modified truss, hex washer head, pan, bugle, round washer,
and pancake (see Figure 4.6). Specialty features may also
be on the head, one of which is cutting nibs under the head
of a flat head design. Cutting nibs are designed to aid in
countersinking the flat head design in dense materials. The
drive system may be a phillips, square, or other proprietary
design. The specified style may be determined by
application, preference, and availability. However, hex head
screws are typically used for heavier structural connections,
round washer screws for general framing connections, lowprofile heads for surfaces to be finished with gypsum board,
and bugle head screws for attaching sheathing products.

Screw Body

Figure 4.4Screw Length Measurement

The body of the screw includes the threads and any

designed special features. Special features may include a
shank slot, which is a section cut out of the shank for chips
of material to have a place to escape, thereby relieving
driving torque. The shank slot is located directly above the
drill point of the screw.

Drive Types
Drive types are usually determined by availability and
preference. Figure 4.7 shows common drive types.

Screw Requirements
For all connections, screws should extend through the steel
a minimum of three exposed threads as shown in Figures
4.8 and 4.9. Screws should penetrate individual components
of a connection without causing permanent separation
between the components. Screws should be installed in a
manner such that the threads and holes are not stripped.

Figure 4.5Screw Grip Range

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Figure 4.6
Screw Head Types

Figure 4.7
Screw Drive
Types
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Drill Capacity
Drill capacity is defined as the total thickness the screw is
designed to drill. If a fastener is chosen with a drill point that
is too large, the result may be a stripped connection. If the
drill point is too small, the screw may fracture and break.
The drive type and head style are typically related to

individual preference but may be a consideration for each

application. An example of a misapplication is the use of a
hex washer head in a framing connection. If drywall is
specified as the finish material, the hex washer head will
cause a bulge in the drywall finish.

Figure 4.8Fastening Sheathing to Steel

Figure 4.9Fastening Steel to Steel

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summary of the design capacities (shear and pullout) for

screws that are typically used in residential and light
commercial applications.

Design Values
Screw capacity is determined in accordance with the AISI
Design Specification. Tables 4.2a and 4.2b provide a

Table 4.2aAllowable Loads for Screw Connections (Pa)1,2,3,4

33 ksi Steel with a 3.0 Safety Factor
Material
Thickness
(mil)

Design
Thickness

Steel
5

Strength

#6 Screw

#8 Screw

#10 Screw

#12 Screw

DIA. = 0.138

DIA. = 0.164

DIA. = 0.190

DIA. = 0.216

SHEAR

PULLOUT

SHEAR

PULLOUT

SHEAR

PULLOUT

SHEAR

PULLOUT

(lb.)

(lb.)

(lb.)

(lb.)

(inch)

Fu
(ksi)

Fy
(ksi)

(lb.)

(lb.)

(lb.)

(lb.)

18

0.0188

45

33

60

33

66

39

27

0.0283

45

33

111

50

121

59

30

0.0312

45

33

129

55

141

65

151

76

33

0.0346

45

33

151

61

164

72

177

84

190

97

224

79

244

94

263

109

280

124

344

11 8

370

137

394

156

523

173

557

196

902

284

43

0.0451

45

33

54

0.0566

45

33

68

0.0713

45

33

97

0.1017

45

33

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 lb. = 4.448 N.

1
Screw allowable loads are based on the 1996 AISI Specification [19].
2
Values include a 3.0 factor of safety.
3
The nominal strength of the screw must be at least 3.75 times the allowable loads.
4
When connecting materials of different steel thicknesses or tensile strength (Fu ), the lowest applicable values should be used.
5
Minimum thickness represents 95 percent of the design thickness and is the minimum acceptable thickness delivered to the
job site.

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Table 4.2bAllowable Loads for Screw Connections (Pa)1,2,3,4

50 ksi Steel with a 3.0 Safety Factor
Material
Thickness
(mil)

Design
Thickness

Steel
5

Strength

#6 Screw

#8 Screw

#10 Screw

#12 Screw

DIA. = 0.138

DIA. = 0.164

DIA. = 0.190

DIA. = 0.216

SHEAR

PULLOUT

SHEAR

PULLOUT

SHEAR

PULLOUT

SHEAR

PULLOUT

(lb.)

(lb.)

(lb.)

(lb.)

(inch)

Fu
(ksi)

Fy
(ksi)

(lb.)

(lb.)

(lb.)

(lb.)

18

0.0188

65

50

87

48

95

57

27

0.0283

65

50

161

72

175

85

30

0.0312

65

50

186

79

203

94

219

109

33

0.0312

65

50

218

88

237

105

255

121

274

140

43

0.0346

65

50

324

11 5

353

136

380

158

408

182

54

0.0451

65

50

496

171

534

198

573

228

68

0.0566

65

50

755

249

8 11

288

97

0.0713

65

50

1303

410

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 lb. = 4.448 N.

1
Screw allowable loads are based on the 1996 AISI Specification [19].
2
Values include a 3.0 factor of safety.
3
The nominal strength of the screw must be at least 3.75 times the allowable loads.
4
When connecting materials of different steel thicknesses or tensile strength (Fu ), the lowest applicable values should be used.
5
Minimum thickness represents 95 percent of the design thickness and is the minimum acceptable thickness delivered to the
job site.

Screw Designation
Screws are typically designated by their diameter, thread,
head style, point type, and length as shown in Figure 4.10.

Figure 4.10Typical Screw Designation

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4.2.2 Pneumatically Driven Pins
Pneumatic pins and nails are designed with spiral grooves
or knurls on the nail shaft to penetrate the steel (see Figure
4.11). As with wood framing, drive pins and nails are used
with air guns. Wood sheathing (such as subflooring) can be
fastened to steel members with drive pins. Care should be
taken to follow manufacturers recommendations to avoid
problems such as squeaky floors. Additional guidance on
pneumatically driven pins is provided in the Light Gauge
Steel Engineers Association Tech Note Pneumatically
Driven Pins for Wood Based Panel Attachment [20].

Figure 4.11Pneumatically Driven Pins

4.2.3 Bolts

4.2.4 Welds

Bolts are typically used to anchor cold-formed steel

members to foundations. The most common anchors used
in steel construction are anchor bolts, mudsill anchors,
anchor straps, mushroom spikes, and powder-actuated
anchors. Washers and nuts should be properly installed and
tightened where required. Bolts connecting CFS to concrete
shall have boltholes spaced a minimum of three bolt
diameters on-center. The distance from the center of the
bolthole to the edge of the connecting member shall not be
less than one and one-half bolt diameters.

Welds are not common in residential steel construction but

are used in light commercial and mid-rise construction.
Field welding of thin steel members (less than 43 mil in
thickness) is not recommended. Factory welds are common
because they are usually performed in a controlled
environment. Welded areas (see Figure 4.12) must be
treated with a corrosion-resistant coating, such as a zincrich paint, to maintain acceptable durability of the welded
connection. Additional guidance on welding of cold-formed
steel members is provided in the Light Gauge Steel
Engineers Association Tech Note Welding Cold-Formed
Steel [21].

Mudsill Anchors. Anchors that fit in the bottom

track to hold the wall down, usually available from
specialty fastener companies, such as Simpson
Strong-Tie, or fabricated in the field.
Anchor Straps. Steel straps that are embedded in
the slab and bend up to attach to the wall studs.
Mushroom Spikes. Expansion bolts that expand in
predrilled concrete holes, typically used to hold
down bottom track or rim joists.
Powder-Actuated Fasteners. Pins fired by a special
gun to hold the bottom track down to the foundation.

26

Welded areas shall be

treated with zincenriched paint or
other approved treatment to retain the
corrosion resistance
of the welded area.

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4.2.5 Clinches
Clinching is a method of joining two pieces of sheet metal
by pressing them together into a die that forms a connection
similar to a rivet. This technology, although not new, has
only recently been used for attaching residential steel
framing members. Clinched connections are especially
popular in factory settings and panelized construction.
Figure 4.13 illustrates some clinched joints that are
currently available.

Figure 4.12Welding of Cold-Formed Steel Framing

The majority of clinched connections are made with

pneumatic or hydraulic tools, although manual clinchers are
available. A clincher makes a connection by driving a punch
into a die through overlapping material. When the material is
forced to the bottom of the die, the die begins to mushroom
and then expands to allow full development of the
connection. When the punch reaches its final position, it is
withdrawn and the die returns to its original shape. The
result is a connection similar to that of a rivet. The strength
of a clinched connection is approximately the same as that
of a self-drilling screw. The clinching process does not harm
the galvanized coating on framing members. Many of the
currently available clinching tools are limited to use in a
warehouse/factory environment. It is usually difficult to
loosen connections when necessary. Clinching equipment is
currently not widely available.
Additional guidance on clinching of cold-formed steel
members is provided in the Light Gauge Steel Engineers
Association Tech Note Clinched (Integral) Fastening of
Cold-Formed Steel [22].

4.2.6 Adhesives
The use of adhesive in residential and light commercial coldformed steel structural application is not common.
Adhesives are primarily used in factory settings and
panelized construction. Adhesives are also used between
floor joists and floor sheathing and between wall studs and
wall covering.

Figure 4.13Clinches

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4.2.7 Powder-Actuated
Fasteners
Powder-actuated fastener systems consist of specially
designed fasteners, installation tools, and powder loads that
are designed to function in combination to provide optimum
performance. Powder-actuated fasteners need to be used
with precision and accuracy to ensure proper application.
The use of powder-actuated fastening systems in the
construction industry permits significant speed of
installation, which results in considerable cost savings. The
systems also provide the contractor with the ability to fasten
into concrete, masonry, and structural steel without
predrilling holes. For most applications, this eliminates time-

Always ask for an evaluation

report or an approved design if you
are considering using a proprietary
fastening system or method.

consuming layout or hole spotting, resulting in faster

installation and reduced costs. In addition, powder-actuated
fastening systems are completely portable and are ideal for
locations that are difficult to access. Today, powderactuated fastening technology has become the standard
method of attachment for many applications in the
construction industry.

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4.2.8 Rivets
Currently, the use of rivets in residential and light
commercial cold-formed steel framing is not common.

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4.3 Wood Fastening
Methods
Dimension lumber framing members can be connected
together or to a variety of materials by using any of the
following fastening methods:

Nails
Pneumatically Driven Nails
Screws
Bolts

Specialty Connection
Hardware
Lag Screws
Adhesives

In addition, a variety of specialty metal connectors (i.e., joist

hangers and strapping) are available for dimension lumber
and timber framing. For heavy timber construction,
commonly used connections include bolts, drift pins, lag
screws, shear plates and rings (used in combination with
bolts), and timber rivets. Finally, the metal truss plate (a flat
metal plate with preformed teeth) is instrumental to the
process of making and designing efficient wood trusses
manufactured from dimension lumber. This section presents
some basic descriptions and technical information on the
above fasteners.

4.3.1 Nails
Several characteristics distinguish one nail from another.
Figure 4.14 depicts important nail features for a few types of
nails that are essential to woodframe design and
construction. This section discusses some of a nails
characteristics relative to structural design; for additional
information the reader is referred to Standard Terminology of
Nails for Use with Wood and Wood-Base Materials (ASTM
F547) and Standard Specification for Driven Fasteners:
Nails, Spikes, and Staples (ASTM F 1667) [23][24].

Box nails are bright, coated, or galvanized nails with

a flat head and diamond point. They are made of
lighter-gauge wire than common nails and sinkers and
are commonly used for toe nailing and many other
light framing connections where lumber splitting is a
concern.
Cooler nails are generally similar to the nails above,
but with slightly thinner shanks. They are commonly
supplied with ring shanks (i.e., annular threads) as a
drywall nail.
Power-driven nails (and staples) are produced by a
variety of manufacturers for several types of powerdriven fasteners. Pneumatic-driven nails and staples
are the most popular power-driven fasteners in
residential wood construction. Nails are available in a
variety of diameters, lengths, and head styles. The
shanks are generally cement-coated (or adhesive) and
are available with deformed shanks for added
capacity. Staples are also available in a variety of wire
diameters, crown widths, and leg lengths. Refer to
NER-272 for additional information and design data
[25].
Nail lengths and weights are denoted by the penny weight,
which is indicated by d. Given the standardization of
common nails, sinkers, and cooler nails, the penny weight
also denotes a nails head and shank diameter. For other
nail types, sizes are based on the nails length and
diameter. Table 4.3 arrays dimensions for the nails
discussed above. Nail length and diameter are important
factors in determining the strength of nailed connections in
wood framing. The steel yield strength of the nail may also
be important for certain shear connections, yet such
information is rarely available for a standard lot of nails.

The most common nail types used in residential wood

construction follow:
Common nails are bright, plain-shank nails with a
flat head and diamond point. The diameter of a
common nail is greater than that of sinkers and box
nails of the same length. Common nails are used
primarily for rough framing.
Sinker nails are bright or coated slender nails with a
sinker head and diamond point. The diameter of the
head is smaller than that of a common nail with the
same designation. Sinker nails are used primarily for
rough framing and applications where lumber splitting
may be a concern.
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Table 4.3Nail Types, Sizes, and Dimensions1

Type of Nail
Common

Box

Sinker

Nominal Size
(penny weight, d)

Length
(inches)

Diameter
(inches)

6d

0.113

8d

2 /2

0.131

10 d

0.148

12 d

0.148

16 d

3 /2

0.162

20 d

0.192

6d

0.099

8d

2 /2

0.113

10 d

0.128

12 d

3 /4

0.128

16 d

3 1/2

0.135

6d
8d

Pneumatic

Cooler

0.092

0.113

1 /8
2 /8

10 d

2 /8

0.120

12 d

3 1/8

0.135

16 d
2

3 /4

3 /4
7

6d

1 /8 to 2

0.092 to 0.113

8d

2 3/8 to 2 1/2

0.092 to 0.131

10 d

0.120 to 0.148

12 d

0.120 to 0.131

16 d

3 /2

0.131 to 0.162

20 d

0.131

4d

0.067

0.080

0.092

5d
6d

3 /4

1 /8
1 /8
1 /8

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm.

1
Based on ASTM F 1667.
2
Based on a survey of pneumatic fastener manufacturer data and NER-272 [25].

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Figure 4.14Elements of a Nail and Nail Types

There are many types of nail heads, although three types
are most commonly used in residential wood framing.
The flat nail head is the most common head. It is
flat and circular, and its top and bearing surfaces are
parallel but with slightly rounded edges.
The sinker nail head is slightly smaller in diameter
than the flat nail head. It also has a flat top surface;
however, the bearing surface of the nail head is
angled, allowing the head to be slightly countersunk.
Pneumatic nail heads are available in the above
types; however, other head types such as a half-round
or D-shaped heads are also common.

The shank, as illustrated in Figure 4.14, is the main body of

a nail. It extends from the head of the nail to the point. It
may be plain or deformed. A plain shank is considered a
smooth shank, but it may have grip marks resulting from
the manufacturing process. A deformed shank is most often
either threaded or fluted to provide additional withdrawal or
pullout resistance. Threads are annular (i.e., ring shank),
helical, or longitudinal deformations rolled onto the shank,
creating ridges and depressions. Flutes are helical or
vertical deformations rolled onto the shank. Threaded nails
are most often used to connect wood to wood while fluted
nails are used to connect wood to concrete (i.e., sill plate to
concrete slab or furring strip to concrete or masonry). Shank
diameter and surface condition both affect a nails capacity.
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The nail tip, as illustrated in Figure 4.14, is the end of the

shankusually taperedthat is formed during manufacturing
to expedite nail driving into a given material. Among the
many types of nail points, the diamond point is most
commonly used in residential wood construction. The
diamond point is a symmetrical point with four
approximately equal beveled sides that form a pyramid
shape.
A cut point used for concrete cut nails describes a blunt
point. The point type can affect nail drivability, lumber
splitting, and strength characteristics.
The material used to manufacture nails may be steel,
stainless steel, heat-treated steel, aluminum, or copper,
although the most commonly used materials are steel,
stainless steel, and heat-treated steel. Steel nails are
typically formed from basic steel wire. Stainless steel nails
are often recommended in exposed construction near the
coast or for certain applications such as cedar siding to
prevent staining. Stainless steel nails are also
recommended for permanent wood foundations. Heattreated steel includes annealed, case-hardened, or
hardened nails that can be driven into particularly hard
materials such as extremely dense wood or concrete.
Various nail coatings provide corrosion resistance,
increased pullout resistance, or ease of driving. Some of the
more common coatings in residential wood construction are
described below.
Bright. Uncoated and clean nail surface.
Cement-coated. Coated with a heat-sensitive
cement that prevents corrosion during storage and
improves withdrawal strength depending on the
moisture and density of the lumber and other factors.
Galvanized. Coated with zinc by barrel-tumbling,
dipping, electroplating, flaking, or hot-dipping to
provide a corrosion-resistant coating during storage
and after installation for either performance or
appearance. The coating thickness increases the
diameter of the nail and improves withdrawal and
shear strength.

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4.3.2 Pneumatically Driven Nails

Nails for nail guns and pneumatic tools come in two forms:
Some manufacturers clip the nail head to form clips
with the nail shanks side by side, allowing more nails
per clip and reducing the frequency of reloading.
Other manufacturers use plastic to hold the individual
nails far enough apart to allow for full heads.
Nails made for pneumatic tools are not all the same. Nails
produced by one manufacturer may not fit another
manufacturers tool. Pneumatic nails are typically collated
or arranged into strips or rolls with the nails joined by plastic
or paper strips or fine wire. Collated nails are available in a
variety of metals such as copper, galvanized, or steel and
are identified or classified by their head shape, shank type,
and length.

4.3.3 Screws
Although screws are widely used in the residential wood
construction market, their use is not as common as nails.
Screws are mostly used to fasten floor sheathing to wood
joists and gypsum board to wall studs. Unlike screws used
for steel-framed members, wood screws are coarse threads
and do not have a drill point. Table 4.4 summarizes
traditional wood screws.

4.3.4 Bolts
Bolts are often used for heavy connections and to secure
wood to other materials such as steel or concrete. Bolts are
typically used to anchor wood members to foundations,
ledger plates to wall framing, or in wood decks. In many
construction applications, however, special power-driven
fasteners are used in place of bolts. Refer to Figure 4.15 for
an illustration of some typical bolt types and connections for
residential use.
In residential wood construction, bolted connections are
typically limited to wood-to-concrete connections unless a
home is constructed in a high-hazard wind or seismic area
and hold-down brackets are required to transfer shear wall
overturning forces. Foundation bolts, typically embedded in
concrete or grouted masonry, are commonly referred to as
anchor bolts, J-bolts, or mud-sill anchors. Another type
of bolt sometimes used in residential construction is the

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Table 4.4Wood Screws

Gauge

10

12

14

11/64

13/64

13/64

1/4

9/32

5/16

11/32

23/64

25/64

7/16

1/2

Hardwood

1/16

1/16

5/64

5/64

3/32

7/64

7/64

1/8

1/8

9/64

5/32

Softwood

1/16

1/16

1/16

1/16

5/64

3/32

3/32

7/64

7/64

1/8

9/64

Head-Bore Size
(inch)
Pilot-Hole
Size
(inch)

Square-Drive Bit
Size
Phillips-Head Point
Size

#0
#1

#1

#2
#2

#3
#3

Available Lengths (inch)

1

/4

/8

/2

/8

/4

1
1 1/8
1 1/4
1 3/8
1 1/2
1 5/8
1 3/4
2
2 1/4
2 1/2
2 3/4
For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm.

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structural bolt, which connects wood to steel or wood to

wood. Low-strength ASTM A307 bolts are commonly used in
residential construction as opposed to high-strength ASTM
A325 bolts, which are more common in commercial
applications. Bolt diameters in residential construction
generally range from 1/4 to 3/4 inch (6 to 13 mm), although
1
/2- to 5/8-inch-diameter (13 to 16 mm) bolts are most
common, particularly for connecting a 2x wood sill to
grouted masonry or concrete.
Bolts, unlike nails, are installed in predrilled holes. If holes
are too small, the possibility of splitting the wood member
increases during installation of the bolt. If bored too large,
the bolt holes encourage nonuniform dowel (bolt) bearing
stresses and slippage of the joint when loaded. NDS
Section 8.1 [13] specifies that bolt holes should range from
1
/32 to 1/16 inch (0.8 to 1.6 mm) larger than the bolt diameter
to prevent splitting and to ensure reasonably uniform dowel
bearing stresses.

4.3.5 Specialty Connection

Hardware
Many manufacturers fabricate specialty connection
hardware. The load capacity of a specialty connector is
usually provided in the manufacturers product catalogue.
Thus, the designer can select a standard connector based
on the design load determined for a particular joint or
connection. However, the designer should carefully consider
the type of fastener to be used with the connector;
sometimes a manufacturer requires or offers proprietary
nails, screws, or other devices. It is also recommended that
the designer verify the safety factor and strength
adjustments used by the manufacturer. In some cases, as
with nailed and bolted connections in the NDS, the basis is
a serviceability limit state (i.e., slip or deformation) and not
ultimate capacity.
A few examples of specialty connection hardware are
illustrated in Figure 4.16 and discussed below.
Sill anchors are used in lieu of foundation anchor
bolts. Many configurations are available in addition to
the one shown in Figure 4.16.
Joist hangers are used to attach single or several
joists to the side of girders or header joists.

34

Rafter clips and roof tie-downs are straps or

brackets that connect roof framing members to wall
framing to resist roof uplift loads associated with highwind conditions.
Hold-down brackets are brackets that are bolted,
nailed, or screwed to wall studs or posts and
anchored to the construction below (i.e., concrete,
masonry, or wood) to hold down the end of a
member or assembly (i.e., shear wall).
Strap ties are prepunched straps or coils of strapping
that are used for a variety of connections to transfer
tension loads.
Splice plates or shear plates are flat plates with
prepunched holes for fasteners to transfer shear or
tension forces across a joint.
Epoxy-set anchors are anchor bolts that are drilled
and installed with epoxy adhesives into concrete after
the concrete has cured and sometimes after the
framing is complete so that the required anchor
location is obvious.

4.3.6 Lag Screws

Lag screws are available in the same diameter range as
bolts; the principal difference between the two types of
connectors is that a lag screw has screw threads that taper
to a point. The threaded portion of the lag screw anchors
itself in the main member that receives the tip. Lag screws
(often called lag bolts) function as bolts in joints where the
main member is too thick to be economically penetrated by
regular bolts. They are also used when one face of the
member is not accessible for a through-bolt. Holes for lag
screws must be carefully drilled to one diameter and depth
for the shank of the lag screw and to a smaller diameter for
the threaded portion. Lag screws in residential applications
are generally small in diameter and may be used to attach
garage door tracks to wood framing, steel angles to wood
framing supporting brick veneer over wall openings, various
brackets or steel members to wood, and wood ledgers to
wall framing.

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Figure 4.15Bolt and Connection Types

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Figure 4.16Specialty Connector Hardware

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4.3.7 Adhesives
The use of adhesive as a structural connection in wood
structural applications is not common. Adhesives are
primarily used in factory settings and panelized construction
(such as in manufactured homes). Adhesives are also used
between floor joists and floor sheathing and between wall
studs and wall covering.

4.4 Wood-to-Steel
Fasteners
4.4.1 Wood Structural Sheathing
to Steel Connections
Wood structural sheathing (such as plywood or OSB) is
typically fastened to steel framing (i.e., studs or joists) with
minimum No. 8 self-drilling tapping screws. Screws
connecting structural sheathing to steel members should
have a minimum head diameter of 0.292 inch (7 mm) with
countersunk heads. The screws should be installed with a
minimum edge distance of 3/8 inch (9 mm). The screw size
is based on the steel thickness as specified in Table 4.5
and screw point style as shown in Figure 4.17. A pilot point
self-drilling tapping screw is a specially designed screw
used to attach plywood to steel joists. The screw has
threads that start approximately 3/4 inch (19 mm) up from
the drill point to ensure that the spinning screw goes
through the plywood and does not climb the drive. Instead,
the screw penetrates the steel, and the screw threads
engage in the metal for a tight fit.
No. 8 self-drilling screws with pilot points are generally used
on plywood floors fastened to steel joists. Self-drilling
screws with bugle heads are designed to countersink
slightly in finishing material without crushing the material or
tearing the surface or in the plywood sheathing. Bugle head
screws leave a flat, smooth surface for easy finishing. Wafer
head screws have larger heads than flat head screws and
are typically used to connect soft materials to steel joists.
Flat head screws are designed to countersink and sit flush
without causing wood floors or finishes to splinter or split.

Table 4.5Suggested Screw Sizes for

Steel-to-Steel and Structural Floor
Sheathing-to-Steel Connections
Screw Size

Point Style1 Total Thickness of Steel 2

(inches)
(inches)

0.036 0.100

0.036 0.100

10

0.090 0.110

12

0.050 0.140

14

0.060 0.120

18

0.060 0.120

0.100 0.140

10

0.110 0.175

12

0.090 0.210

14

0.110 0.250

12

0.175 0.250

0.175 0.250

12

0.145 0.312

12

0.250 0.500

0.250 0.500

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm.

1
For screw point style, refer to Figure 4.19.
2
The combined thickness of all connected steel members.

Table 4.6 provides ultimate lateral and withdrawal loads for

sheet metal screws connecting plywood to cold-formed
steel. Figure 4.18 illustrates the wood sheathing to steel
connection.

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Table 4.6Plywood to 54 Mil (14 Gauge) Cold-Formed Steel

Connection Capacity Using Sheet Metal Screws1
Plywood
Thickness
(inch)

Ultimate Lateral Load (lb.)

Average Ultimate Withdrawal Load (lb.)

#8

#10

#12

Screw Size
#8
#14

360

380

400

410

130

150

170

180

700

890

900

920

350

470

500

520

700

950

1300

1390

660

680

800

900

/4
/2
/4

#10

#12

#14

Values are reproduced from APA Technical Note E830C [26].

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 lb. = 4.448 N.
1
Values are based on plywood panels of all-Group 1 construction. For plywood panels of
other species groups, the values in this table should be adjusted per Table 4.7.

Figure 4.17Screw Point Style

Table 4.7Load Adjustments for Screws into Plywood for Species

Group Noted1,2
Plywood Group
All-Group 1

All-Group 2

All-Group 3,4, and 5

Lateral

100%

78%

78%

Withdrawal

100%

60%

47%

Adjustments based on the species groups for plywood shown in Voluntary Product Standard
PS1 [17] and the equations in U.S. Agricultural Handbook No. 72 [27].
2
Face, back, and core veneer must be of the same species group. When species group is
unknown, assume all-Group 4.

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Figure 4.18Wood Sheathing to Steel Connection

Figure 4.19Wood to Steel Connection

4.4.2 Wood Structural Members

to Steel Connections
Wood structural members (such as top plates) are typically
fastened to steel members by using either screws or
common nails. Nails are typically used where tension or
pullout forces are nonexistent or negligible. Screws can be
either self-piercing or self-drilling depending on the thickness
of the steel. Refer to Table 4.8 for wood to steel connection
capacity. Refer to table 4.9 for fastener type. Figure 4.19
illustrates the wood to steel connection.

Table 4.8Fastener Capacity for Wood to Steel Connection

Substrate

OSB only

Fastener

10D Nail

Allowable Loads (lb.)

1
2

#8 Screw

#10 Screw
OSB and 33 mil Steel

10D Nail

10D Nail

Shear

Withdrawal

Shear

Withdrawal

92

24

331

120

115

59

414

295

173

61

623

305

107

42

385

210

107

106

385

530

126

65

454

325

128

206

461

1030

#8 Screw
OSB and 54 mil Steel

Nominal Loads (lb.)

#8 Screw

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1lb = 4.448N.

1
0.131" x 3.25" pneumatic nail.
2
#8 x 3" self tapping, flat head.
3
#10 x 3" self tapping, flat head.
4
#8 x 3" self drilling, bugle head.

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Table 4.9Fasteners for Hybrid Connections

Application

Fastener Type

Wood trim over single layer gypsum board to 20 to 25 gauge (33 - 18 mil)
steel studs or runners

No. 6 or 7 x 1" Trim head sharp point screws

Wood trim over double layer gypsum board to 20 to 25 gauge (33 - 18 mil)
steel studs or runners

No. 6 or 7 x 2 1/4" Trim head sharp point

screws

Wood trim over single layer gypsum board to 20 to 25 gauge (33 - 18 mil)
steel studs or runners

No. 6 or 7 x 1 5/8" Trim head self drilling

screws

Wood trim over single layer gypsum board to 14 to 20 gauge (68 - 33 mil)
steel studs or runners

No. 6, 7, or 8 x 2 1/4" Trim head self drilling

screws

Wooden cabinets through single layer gypsum board to steel studs

1 5/8" Oval head screws

Wooden cabinets through double layers gypsum board to steel studs

2 1/4 to 3 3/4 Oval head screws

3/8" to 3/4 Plywood to steel joists

1 15/16" Self tapping bugle head pilot point

screws

Plywood or wood to 16 to 20 gauge (54 - 33 mil) steel

Flat head pilot point self drilling screws

Plywood to 12 to 16 gauge (97 - 54 mil) steel

Thin wafer head winged self drilling screws

Flat head winged self drilling screws

20 gauge (33 mil) or thinner metal studs to OSB or plywood

No. 8 x 1 long Pancake head wood screw

with a No. 2 Phillips head or 8 x 1, 1/4
Hex head wood grip

18 gauge (43 mil) or thicker metal studs to wood

Drill a pilot hole in the steel and use wood

screws

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm.

4.5 Steel-to-Wood
Fasteners
4.5.1 Steel Structural Members
to Wood Connections
Steel structural members (such as L-headers) are typically
fastened to wood members by using either screws or
pneumatic nails. Nails are usually used when pullout or
tension forces are negligable or not present. When screws
are used, they must be coarse thread screws. Refer to table
4.9 for fastener type. Refer to Tables 4.10 through 4.12 for
steel to wood connection capacity. Figure 4.20 illustrates a
steel to wood connection.
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Table 4.10Screw CapacityMetal to Plywood Connections1

Depth of
Threaded
Penetration
(inch)

Ultimate Lateral Load (lb.)

Wood Screws

Sheet Metal Screws

#8

#10

#12

#8

#10

#12

415

500

590

465

565

670

500

600

705

590

655

715

/2
/8
/4

Values are reproduced from APA Technical Note E830C [26].

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 lb. = 4.448 N.
1
Values are based on 3/16" steel plate. For thinner plates, the values should be reduced.

Table 4.11Metal to Plywood ConnectionWood and

Sheet Metal Screws1
Depth of
Threaded
Penetration
(inch)

Average Ultimate Withdrawal Load (lb.)

Screw Size
#6

#8

#10

#12

#14

150

180

205

200

240

275

315

250

295

345

390

/4

300

355

415

470

625

775

1- /8

705

875

/8
/2
/8

2- /4

Values are reproduced from APA Technical Note E830C [26].

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1 lb. = 4.448 N.
1
Values are based on 3/16" steel plate. For thinner plates, the values
should be reduced.

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Figure 4.20Steel to Wood Connection

Table 4.12Fastener Capacity for Steel to Wood Connection

Steel Thickness

Substrate

Fastener Type

Allowable Loads (lb.)

Shear

33 mil

OSB

10D Nail1

10D Nail

OSB
OSB and 2x SPF

Withdrawal6

15

266

75

137

70

493

350

185

80

666

400

172

63

619

315

151

66

544

330

389

202

1400

1010

#8 Screw

#10 Screw

For SI: 1 inch = 25.4 mm, 1lb = 4.448N.

1
0.131" x 3.25" pneumatic nail.
2
#8 x 1.5" self-piercing, wafer head screw.
3
#8 x 3" self-piercing, wafer head screw.
4
#8 x 1-5/8" self-drilling, wafer head screw.
5
Self-drilling, pan head screw.
6
Values shown are based on SPF lumber with moisture content of 19% or less.

42

Shear6

74

#8 Screw
54 mil

Withdrawal

Nominal Loads (lb.)

6

#8 Screw
OSB and 2x SPF