HUMAN-MACHINE SYSTEM
SAKARYA UNIVERSITY
NATURAL SCIENCES INSTITUTE
INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING
AGENT SYSTEM ENGINEERING 2009
BERNA KÖKSAL 0850Y06003
OUTLINE
HUMAN-MACHINE SYSTEM
What is Human-Machine system?
Human-Machine System Engineering
The role of human in Human-Machine System.
Components of Human-Machine System
Human-Machine Interaction
Human-Machine Interface
Human Reliability
Human Error
Automation Surprise
Human-Machine Laboratories Projects
Glossary
References
What is Human-Machine system?
Systems are composed of components,attributes and relationships. [1] Human-
machine system is defined as an system that least one of the components is a human
operator who intervenes in the operation of the machine components. In such a system
with bilateral communication, an information transfer delay possibly causes a
degradation of control performance [2].
Human-Machine System term can also be used to emphasize the view of such a
system as a single entity that interacts with external environment .[3]
What is Human-Machine system?
Classical Human-Machine Systems, often called human factors engineering or
ergonomics,was focused on traning for skill based behaviour and associated
physiological [Link] today’s efforts necessarily also emphasize the integration of
physiological concerns with cognitive concerns.[5]
One observation is that any machine system is by its nature a human-machine system
because a machine system will eventually be used by humans. Another observation is
that the human emotional behavior, which is regarded as the highest intelligent behavior
in the humankind, can affect his or her functional performance. Yet, another observation
is that a human and a machine should be mutually adaptive, more intelligently at the
emotional behavior level [6]
Figure 1 Human-Machine System [4]
Human-Machine System Engineering
Human-machine systems engineering is the analysis, modeling, and design of HMS. It is
distinguished from the more general field of human factors and from the related fields of
human-computer interaction, engineering psychology, and sociotechnical systems
theory in three general ways.
[Link]-machine systems engineering focuses on large, complex, dynamic
control systems that often are partially automated (such as flying an airplane,
monitoring a nuclear power plant, or supervising a flexible manufacturing system).
[Link]-machine systems engineers build quantitative or computational models
of the human-machine interaction as tools for analysis and frameworks for design
[Link]-machine systems engineers study human problem-solving in
naturalistic settings or in high-fidelity simulation environments.
Thus, human-machine systems engineering focuses on the unique challenges
associated with designing joint technological and human systems.
Human-Machine System Engineering
The four major aspects of human-machine systems are, in roughly historical order,
systems in which the human acts as a manual controller,
systems in which the human acts as a supervisory controller,
human interaction with artificial-intelligence systems,
human teams in complex systems.
This general progression is related to advances in computer and automation technology.
With the increasing sophistication and complexity of such technology, the human role
has shifted from direct manual control to supervisory control of physical processes, to
supervision of intelligent systems, and finally, with an increasing emphasis on the social
and organizational aspects of complex systems, to teamwork in complex environments. .
[3]
The Role of Human in Human-Machine System
Assesing the situation at hand,in the terms of system operation,such as to identify needs
for human supervisiory control ,objectives to be fullfilled, and issues to be resolved
Identifying task requirements,such as to enable determination of the issues to be
examined further and the issues not to be considered further
Identifying alternative courses of actions which may resolve the identified issues
Identifying probable impacts of the alternative courses of action on the functioning of the
system
Interpreting these impacts in terms of the objectives or needs that are to be fullfilled
selecting an alternative for implementation and implement the resulting control
Monitoring performance such as to enable determination of how well the Human-
Machine system is performing .[5]
Figure 2 Human Behaviour in Human-Machine system [8]
Human Information Processing Subsystem
When human actualize requirements in this system,many factors are effective for
achievement. These factors ;
Enviromental consideration
Economical, Ecological,Political,Societal,Technological
Personnel factors
Anthropometric ,Human sensory, Physiological, psychological and other).
With the preceding basic characteristics in mind,the human must now be viewed as a
component of the system.A key issue is information processing as shown in Figure 4. .
[1]
Figure 3 Human Information Processing Subsystem [1]
Components of Human-Machine System
Human-Machine Interaction
The design of machines and especially the interface between the humans and the
machine is crucial for the performance of the human–machine system. It also
influences the effort needed for the human/operator as well as the risk for adverse
effects on the operator.[9]
Components of Human-Machine System
Human-Machine Interface
Human factors research on the interactions between users and system is very
[Link] human-machine interface can be significantly improved by screen
formats,data entry and display methods,menu structures and graphical interfaces that
reflect the cognitive abilities of humans. [5]
Figure 4 Human Machine Interaction [10]
Components of Human-Machine System
Human-Machine Interface
The human-machine interface (also known as human computer interface or man-
machine interface (MMI)) is the aggregate of means by which people the users interact
with the system a particular machine , device, computer program or other complex tool.
The user interface provides means of:
Input, allowing the users to manipulate a system
Output, allowing the system to indicate the effects of the users' manipulation. [3]
Human-Machine Interface Usability
The task of an HMI is to make the function of a technology self-evident. Much like a well-
designed hammer fits the user's hand and makes a physical task easy, a well-designed
HMI must fit the user's mental map of the task he or she wishes to carry out. Usability is
the degree to which the design of a particular user interface takes into account the
human psychology and physiology of the users, and makes the process of using the
system effective, efficient and satisfying. [11]
Components of Human-Machine System
Human Reliability
Human reliability is usually defined as the probability that a person will correctly
performs some system-required activity during a given time period (if time is a limiting
factor) without performing any extraneous activity that can degrade the system. Human
Reliability Analysis (HRA) was the need to describe incorrect human actions in the
context of Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA) ,Cognitive Control Based Tecniques and
Probabilistic Safety Analysis (PSA). [12]
Human reliability is related to the field of human factors engineering, and refers to the
reliability of humans in fields such as manufacturing, transportation, the military, or
medicine. Human performance can be affected by many factors such as age, state of
mind, physical health, attitude, emotions, propensity for certain common mistakes, errors
and cognitive biases, etc. [3]
Components of Human-Machine System
Human Error
Humans are able to do many [Link] these are done in a quite correct and
appropriate [Link],errors are [Link] often than not ,errors are
[Link] it isn’t clear,so systens that assist in amelioreation of the effects of human
error and ultimately of eliminating most possibilitiesfor human [Link] designers
wish to support human efforts in such way that errors,to the extent possible,do not
occur. [5]
Components of Human-Machine System
Categories of Human Error
There are many ways to categorize human error exogenous versus endogenous (i.e.,
originating outside versus inside the individual) [13]
situation assessment versus response planning and related distinctions in
errors in problem detection (signal detection theory)
errors in problem diagnosis (problem solving)
errors in action planning and execution
By level of analysis; for example, perceptual (e.g., optical illusions) versus cognitive
versus communication versus organizational.
Components of Human-Machine System
Automation Surprise
Automation surprises are phenomena such that the underlying machine’s behavior
diverges from user’s intention and may lead to critical situations. [14]
An automation surprise is when an automation system performs an action that is
unexpected by the user. A mode error can be a common cause of an automation
surprise. Automation surprise can be dangerous when it upsets the situational
awareness of a control operator .[3]
PROJECTS OF HUMAN MACHİNE LABORATORİES
MIT Human-Machine Science Laboratories Projects .[15]
Teleoperation
Telesurgery - J. Ren, J. Thompson, J. Hu, M. Ottensmeyer
The laboratory is involved in a nation-wide project to develop an integrated "tele-
medical" system. The project will involve: the monitoring of patient condition and
location; diagnosis and surgery using teleoperators; and techniques for the required
communications. Our areas of research are (i) investigating and solving the problem of
time-delay in tele-operation, and (ii) examining the benefits of surgical "tele-
cooperation".
MIT Human-Machine Science Laboratories Projects
Telepresence - D. Schloerb
The goal of this project is to develop a theory of presence in order to answer some
important questions about telepresence and virtual presence. The study involves an
experimental investigation of how control/sensory transformations affect performance
in hand-eye tasks.
Vehicular Systems
Human Factors in High-Speed Rail Systems - S. Askey, E. Lanzilotta, J. Einhorn, S.
Villareal
This research is involved with investigating human-factors issues relevant to the
operation of high-speed rail systems. The pertinent issues include areas such as
situation awareness, the role of automation, and the role of in-cab information displays.
A distributed interactive simulation of a high-speed rail system has been implemented
for use in human factors experiments.
MIT Human-Machine Science Laboratories Projects
Human Factors for Boston's Central Artery/Tunnel - S. Kim, M. Kilaras
The main objectives of the human factors research in the Central Artery/Tunnel Project
are to carry out the task analysis for operators in the Operations Control Center (OCC),
and to develop an operator-in-the-loop simulation of the OCC for incident management
scenarios. Other research topics include the design of the specific layout, the design of
displays and controls, computer aiding, and human-computer function allocation for the
OCC.
CASE STUDY IN NASA
BrahmsVE, a methodology that introduces a new approach: holistic, agent-based
Human-Machine systems modeling linked to state-of-the-art, distributed 3D simulation
techniques. People, machines, and the environment are modeled. Daily activities of
individuals and groups are modeled in great detail, including movements, use of tools,
and inference. A virtual environment by itself is of little use without a powerful back-end
architecture that can represent the complexity of human-machine systems. For over a
decade, teams at NYNEX, the Institute for Research on Learning and now. NASA Ames
and RIACS, have been developing Brahms, an intelligent multi-agent environment used
for modeling, simulating and analyzing work practice.
For the upcoming new exploration initiative to the Moon, Mars and beyond, this
platform will support concept design for long duration missions, Lunar and Mars
surface operations as well as just-in-time crew in situ training and evaluation of safety
and crew health .[16]
Glossary
Human Supervisory Control
Figure 5 Human Supervisory Control .[7]
The situation where the operator has a supervisory function and where the process
computer takes care of many of the functions. The full (black) arrows indicate that the
process to a considerable extent may be controlled by the computer alone, without
displaying any information or allowing the operator actually to control the process. In
relation to the cyclical behaviour model discussed above, this depicts a situation where
the operator is out of the loop, in the sense that he does not get any information about
what happens in the process. Although a link to the operator remains, shown by the
perforated (grey) lines, this is only active part of the time. The effect of that is that the
operator sometimes will receive either no information or too little information to maintain
a sufficient level of situation awareness .[7]
Anthropometric Factors
Refers to the measurement of the human individual for the purposes of understanding
human physical variation[3]
Other Factors
human sensory factors
vision,hearing
physiological factors
temperature,humidity,vibration,noise,effects of gas,air
psychological factors
motivation dependability,self-confidence,communication skills .[1]
Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA)
One method for analyzing human reliability is a straightforward extension of probabilistic
risk assessment (PRA): in the same way that equipment can fail in a plant, so can a
human operator commit errors. In both cases, an analysis (functional decomposition for
equipment and task analysis for humans) would articulate a level of detail for which
failure or error probabilities can be assigned. This basic idea is behind the Technique for
Human Error Rate Prediction (THERP) .THERP is intended to generate human error
probabilities that would be incorporated into a PRA. The Accident Sequence Evaluation
Program (ASEP) Human Reliability Procedure is a simplified form of THERP; an
associated computational tool is Simplified Human Error Analysis Code (SHEAN). More
recently, the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission has published the Standardized Plant
Analysis Risk (SPAR) human reliability analysis method also because of human error
(SPAR-H). .[3]
Cognitive Control Based Techniques
Erik Hollnagel has developed this line of thought in his work on the Contextual Control
Model (COCOM) and the Cognitive Reliability and Error Analysis Method (CREAM).
COCOM models human performance as a set of control modes—strategic (based on
long-term planning), tactical (based on procedures), opportunistic (based on present
context), and scrambled (random) -- and proposes a model of how transitions between
these control modes occur. This model of control mode transition consists of a number
of factors, including the human operator's estimate of the outcome of the action
(success or failure), the time remaining to accomplish the action (adequate or
inadequate), and the number of simultaneous goals of the human operator at that time.
CREAM is a human reliability analysis method that is based on COCOM.[3]
Related Techniques
Related techniques in safety engineering and reliability engineering include Failure
mode and effects analysis, Hazop, Fault tree, and SAPHIRE: Systems Analysis
Programs for Hands-on Integrated Reliability Evaluations.
Signal detection theory
Signal detection theory is a means to quantify the ability to discern between signal and
noise. According to the theory, there are a number of psychological determiners of how
we will detect a signal, and where our threshold levels will be. Experience, expectations,
physiological state (e.g. fatigue) and other factors affect thresholds.
Detection theory has applications in many fields such as diagnostics of any kind, quality
control, telecommunications, and psychology. The concept is similar to the signal to
noise ratio used in the sciences, and it is also usable in alarm management, where it is
important to separate important events from background noise .[3]
Problem solving
Problem solving is a mental process and is part of the larger problem process that
includes problem finding and problem shaping. Considered the most complex of all
intellectual functions, problem solving has been defined as higher-order cognitive
process that requires the modulation and control of more routine or fundamental
[Link] solving occurs when an organism or an artificial intelligence system needs
to move from a given state to a desired goal state. .[3]
SAPHIRE
SAPHIRE can be used to model a complex system’s response to initiating events and
quantify associated consequential outcome frequencies. Specifically, for nuclear power
plant applications, SAPHIRE can identify important contributors to core damage (Level 1
PRA) and containment failure during a severe accident which lead to releases (Level 2
PRA). It can be used for a PRA where the reactor is at full power, low power, or at
shutdown conditions. Furthermore, it can be used to analyze both internal and external
initiating events and has special features for transforming an internal events model to a
model for external events, such as flooding and fire analysis. It can also be used in a
limited manner to quantify risk in terms of release consequences to the public and
environment 17
References
1.B. Blanchard,W. Fabrycky,Systems Engineering And Analysis,Third Edition,Prentice
Hall,USA,1998
2. Koki Shibasato,Hirofumi Ohtsuka, Shigeyasu Kawaji ,CONCEPT, STRUCTURE AND
DESIGN OF“COLLABORATER” IN HUMAN-MACHINE SYSTEM, Kumamoto
National College of Technology, IFAC, Japan ,2005
3. [Link]
4. [Link]/flow_man_machine
5. A. Sage,[Link],Introduction To Systems Engineering,John Wiley&Sons
Publication,2000
6.[Link]
7. A. Bye, E. Hollnagel, T. [Link], Human–machine function allocation: a
functional modelling approach, Reliability Engineering and System Safety 64,291-
300,1999
[Link] Human-Machine Laboratory Technische Universitat Berlin
9. K. N. Solman, Analysis of interaction quality in human–machine systems:applications
for forklifts, Applied Ergonomics 33,155–166,2002
10. [Link]/Informatics-A03/eng
11. [Link] international enginneering Consortium
12. [Link]/~eriho/HRA_M.htm
[Link], B. and Ross, A. Beyond human error. CRC Press., 2006.
14. M. ADACHI, T. USHIO, Analysis of Automation Surprises in Human-Machine
Systems with Time Information, IEICE TRANS. FUNDAMENTALS, VOL.E89–A, NO.4
APRIL ,2006
15. [Link]
16. B. Farkin, B. Bertelshems et al, BrahmsVE: from Human-Machine Systems
Modelling to 3D Virtual Environments, NASA Ames Research Center,2004
17. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) [Link]
collections/nuregs/contract/cr6952/
