HYDROLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

RA Y K. LIN LEY, JR.

..._ ._

Profe !lor of Hydraulic Engiue ring

Stanford University

.;":

."

MAX A. KOHLER
Chi f Res arch Hydrologist
United States Weather Burea

. . ~. ~O~rlt
, '__,_ __

..../
~

",.,

~f:~ ' ' ' /

/~

I'

/
j

\"""

1"

JO EPH L. H. PAULH

.' .0
,0.

.';

"

\.
,

,\ _

Staff Hydrologist
United States Weather Bureau

MeGRA W-HIJ...L BOOK

New York

MPANY

Toronto London
1958

NBSS&LUP
Re&ional Centre LIbrary
BftogaJore 56\) 024

Aeces.ion No

~>

.....,

HYDROLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

MeGRA W-HILL CIVIL ENGINEER INO SERIES

HARMER

E. DAVIS, Consulting Editor

BABDITT, DOLAND, AND CLEASBY . Wnter upply Engineering

BENJAMIN' Statically Indeterminate tructures
CHOW' pen-channel Hydraulics
DAVIS, rrROXELL, AND WISKO IL . The Te tillg and In pection of
Engine ring Material
DUNHAM ' Advanced Reinforced Concrete
D NHAM . Foundation of tructures
DUNHAM . The Theory and Practice of Reinforced Concrete
DUNHAM AND YOUNG' Contract , Specifications, and Law for Engineers
HALLER'r . Photogrammetl'Y
HENNES AND 'KSE' Fundamentals of Transportation Engin ering
KRYNINE AND J UDD ' Principles of ' ngineering Geology and Geotechnic8
LEONARDS . Foundation Engineering
LIN LEY, I OHLER, AND PAULHUS' Applied Hydrology
LIN LEY, KOHLER, AND PAULHUS' Hydrology for Engineers
LUEDER' Aerial Photograhic Interpretation
MAT ON, S UTH, AND HURD' Traffic Engineering
MEAD, MEAD, AND AKERMAN . Contract , Specifications, and
Engineering Relations
NOlUUS, HANSEN, HOLLEY, BIGGS, NAMYET, AND MINAMI' Structural
Design for Dynamic Lads
PEURIFOY' on truction Planning, Equipment, and Methods
PEURU'OY . E timating Construction Costs
TROXELL AND D AVIS' Comp,o ition and Properties of Concr te
TSCHEBO'l'ARIOFF' oil l\1echanic l I ounqa.tions, and Earth Structures
WANG AD' CKEL . Elementn.ry Theory of Structure
WINTER, URQ HART, O'ROURKE;'AND NILSON' Design of Concrete
Structures
'

HYDROLOGY F R ENGINEERS. Copyright @ 1958 by the McGrawHill Book Company, Inc. Printed in the United States of America. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without
permi
n oPthe publish rs. Libr4rg of Gongress Catalog Card Number 58-9999

19 20- MAMB - 7 5 4 3 2

87968

To the memory of

MERRILL BERNARD
friend and colleague
whose enthusiasm was a source
of inspiration to the authors

~'

.'" "'-J

~.\:~.

"r

-~ C'
" - ____ ---.

:.

,"

~ I ~'r'" '" rt '

-.;_

The publication in 1949 of "Applied Hydrol gy" wa well re eiv d,

and that book has found ext nsive u e us a text in school of engin ring_
No single book can meet all ne ds, and "Hydrology for Engin 'rs" has
b en written specifically to erve as an elementary text. Th emphasis
throughout is on quantitative method of arriving at an w rs to hydrologic problems. The handbook approach, a exemplified by the many
empirical formulas widely used in the early days of hydrology, has been
avoided.
"Hydrology for Engineers" is not a mere ond nation of "Applied
Hydrology." While there i much similarity in the organization, 1.11
text has been completely rewritten. Where appropriate, new methods
and con epts developed since 1949 have been included. The experience
of the authors in teaching hydrology over s veral years ha be n utilized
as a basis for. electing topics to be included and methods of 1 r sentatioll.
The student should find hydrology an interesting subject but one much
different from mo t of his engineering cour es. The natural phenomenu.
with which hydrology is concerned do not lend them elves to rigorous
analyses such a are pos 'ible in engineering mechanic. There is, th r fore, a greater variety of methods, more latitude for judgment, and a
seeming lack of accuracy in problem solution. Actually, the accuracy
of sound hydrologic solutions compare favorably with other type of
engine ring computations.
ncertainties in engineering are fr quently
hidden by use of factors of safety, rigidly standardized working procedures, and conservative as umptions regarding properties of materials.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the splendid cooperation of their
many friends and colleague whose helpful Bugge. tions have added much
to this text.
pecial appreciation goes to Walter T . Wilson and avid
Rer hfield of the U.S. Weather Bureau for review and comment on
frequency analysis, to Profes or Stanley N. Davis of tanford niversity
for his helpful review of the chapter on groundwater, and to T. J. Nordenson of the Weather Bureau for many uggestions. Profes or J. B.
Franzini of tanford reviewed the entire manuscript, and many of his
worthwhile suggestions are incorporated in the final text. Miss Dianne
Linsley prepared the final manuscript.
Ray K. Linsley, Jr.
Max A. Kohler
Joseph L. H. Pattlhus

vn

CONTENTS

Preface

vii

Symbols and Abbreviations

Chapter I.

Xl

Introduction

The hydrologic cycle-History-Hydrology

Subject matter of hydrology
Chapter 2.

engineel'ing--

Weather and Hydrology

General circulation- Temperatur

Chapter 3.

1U

Humidity- Wind

23

Precipitation

Formation-Forms-Measurement- Interpretation of precipitation data- Variation in precipi tation- now cover and <:n owfall
Chapter 4.

Water stage-Discharg
Chapter 5.

52

Streamflow

Interpretation of streamflow data

Evaporation and Transpiration

90

Factors controlling evaporation- Estimates of evaporationEvaporation control- Transpiration- Evapotran spirati on- Potential evapotranspiration
Chapter 6.

122

Groundwater

Occurrence of groundwater-Moisture in the zone of aerationAquifers- Movement of groundwate Determination of permeability-Sources and discharge of groundwate Hydraulics of
wells- Groundwater yield
Chapter 7.

Characteristics of the Hydrograph

149

Components of runoff-Recessions- Hydrograph separation

Chapter 8.

162

Runoff Relation

Phenomena of runoff-Estimating the volume of storm runofiht

CONTENTS

Eatimating snowmelt runoff- easonal- and annual-runoff relations

Chapter 9.

Hydrograph of Runoff

193

Unit bydrographs- Overland Bow-Flood formulas

Chapter 10.

Streamflow Routing

216

Wave movement- hannel storage-Reservoir routing- Channel routing- Deriving basin outflow by routing-Gage relations
Chapter 11.

Frequency and Duration Stu die

245

Frequency analysis- Generalization of frequency data- Related

studi s
hapter 12.

Sedimentation

278

Erosion- Suspended sediment- Bed load- Sediment measurement- Re ervoir sedimentation

hapter 13.

Application of Hydrologic Technique

292

Storage-reservoir design- pillway design- Flood-control-reservoir design- Storm-drain design- River forecasting
Appendix A.

Graphical Correlation

311

Appendix B. Physical Con tants, Conversion Tables, and

Equivalents
323

Name Index

329

Subjed Index

333

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

SYMBOLS
A

area

a coefficien t
B width
b coefficient
C Chazy coefficient
C runoff co fficien t
C el ctrical capacitanc
Cp synthetic unit-hydrograph coefficient of peak
Ct synthetic unit-hydrograph coefficient of lag
c coefficien t
c. sediment concentration
D depth
D degree days
d diameter
d coefficien t
E evaporation
E erosion
E voltage
ET evapotranspiration
e vapor pressure
e base of Napierian logarithms
e. atmospheric vapor pressure
e. saturation vapor pressure
F fall
F force
F total infiltration
f relative humidity
f() function of
f. final infiltration capacity
fi infiltration rate
fo initial infiltration capacity
fp infiltration capacity
G safe yield of a groundwater basin
Gi bed-load transport
g gage height
g acceleration of gravi ty
H . heat of vaporization
h height, head
I inflow
1 antecedent-precipitation index
i rainfall intensity
electric current

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

i. supply rate (rainfall less 'r etention)

J probability of occurrence
j portion of streambed subject to shear
K Muakingum storage constant
K frequency factor
K oompaction coefficient
Kb base-How recession constant
Ka direct-runoff recession constant
K" coeffioient of permeability
Kr recession coefficient
K .. conductivity
k coeffici 'nt
L length
L. distance from outlet to center of a basin
L. length of overland flow
M snowmelt
M; suspend'd 8 diment transport
m coofficient or exponent
m rank
N normal precipitation
N number
n Manning roughness coeffici nt
n coefficient or exponent
n number
o outflow
V. subsurface seepage
P probability of nonoccurrence
P precipitation
p pressure
p porosity
pF logarithm of capillary potential in centimeters of wat.ar
Q volume of discharge or runoff
Qb net long-wave radiation
Q. energy used for evaporation
Q. groundwater-fiow volume
Q. sensible-heat transfer
\1.. )let radiant energy
Qr reBected short-wave radiation
Qs volume of surface streamflow
Q. short-wave radiation
Q. advected energy
Q9 change in energy storage
q discharge rate
q6 base-flow discharge
qd direct-runoff discharg
q. equilibrium flow rate
qA specific humidity
q" p a:k discharge
q. sediment discharge rate
R hydraulic radius
R Bowen's ratio

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

R
R.
T

S
S

s.
s.
S,
8

Bb
8.
8.

T
T
T
TL

Td
T.
'I'VI

t.
t,
tp
tR

t.
U
u
u
V.
Vo
v
v.
v,
W
Wp
W(u)

w.
w",
X

g
x

x
Y
Y

Y
y
y
1/-

resistance
gas constant
radius
storage
volume of surface retention
storage constant of au aquifer
groundwater storage
surface storage
slope
slope of channel bottom
slope of overland flow plane
dg /u dt
temperature
transmissibili ty
time base of unit hydrograpb
lag time
dewpoint temperat.ure
return period or re urrence interval
wet-bulb temperature
time
time of concentration
time to equilibrium
basin lag
duration of rain
unit duration of rain for synth ti' unit hydrograph
unit.-hydrograph ordinate
wave celerity
a factor in well hydraulics
volume of surface d tention at quilibrium
volume of surface detention when i = 0
velocity
horizontal velocity of sediment particles
settling velocity
infiltration index
precipitable water
well function of u
sp cific weight
specific weight of sediment
ultimate specifio weight of sediment deposits
a variable
the mean of X
the mode of X
distance
a constant or exponent
a variable
a vertical distance
t he mean of Y
a vertical distance
a reduced variate in frequency analysis
a statistical factor in frequency analysis
drawdown in a well

xiii

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Itlv

z a. vertical distance
c:

evaporation portion of advected energy

fJ constant
A slope of vapor pre8sure va. temperature curve
A an inorement
e mixing coefficient
II an angle
A total potential
p a.bsolute viscosity
. J! . kinematic visoosity
. t {atio of average sediment load to bottom concentration
"I ll~wen'l:r r~lb coefficient
'1r
3.1416 .. . "
p density
2: summntion
, .', Ilt.Andard deviation'
" sh

1'~ shear at ch'artnel bed

"
.1'"
critical shear
. ' .. ~.' du .Bo;,ts: coc.ffl i nt
4> infiltration index

'ar

x v./V(jl58
,p capillary potential
ABBREVIATIONS
aore-ft acre-foot
atm atmosphere
Bt,u British thermal unit
cal calories
Co centigrade d grees
cu cubic
efs cubio feet p r B cond
csm oubic f et per second per square mile
em oentimeters
FO Fahrenheit degr es
Fig. Figure
ft feet
ips feet per second
g gram
gpd gallons per day
gpm gallons per minute
hr hour
Hg mercury (chemical symbol)
in. incbes
log, logarithm to bas i)
loglo logarithm to base 10
ly Langley
mb millibar
III met r

SYM80LS AND A88REVIATIONS

mi
min
mgd
mo
mph
mst
oz
ppm
pt
sec
sfd
sfm
sq
yr

mile
minute
million gallons per day
month
miles per hour
mean sea level
ounce
parts per million
pint
s conds
second-foot-day
sccond-foot--minute
square
year

Xf

.,r-

INTRODUCTION

Hydrology is that branch of physical geography which is concern d

with the origin, distribution, and properties of the waters of the eo.rth.
Engineering hydrology includes those segments of the very broad field
of hydrology pertinent to the design and operation of engineering projects
for the control and use of water. The boundaries between hydrology
and other earth sciences such as meteorology, oceanography, and geology
are indistinct, and no good purpose is served by attempting to define
them rigidly. Likewise, the distinctions between engineering hydrology
and other branches of applied hydrology are vague. Indeed, the engineer
owes much of his present knowledge of hydrology to agriculturists,
foresters, meteorologists, geologi 'ts, and others in a variety of fields.
I- I. The hydrologic cycle. The concept of the hydrologic cycle is a
useful, if somewhat academic, point from which to begin the study of
hydrology. This cycle (Fig. 1-1) is visualized as beginning with the
evaporation of water from the oceans. The resulting vapor is transported
by moving air masses. Under the proper conditions, the vapor is
condensed to form clouds, which in turn may result in precipitation.
The precipitation which falls upon land is dispersed in several ways.
The greater part is temporarily retained in the soil near where it falls
and is ultimately returned to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration by plants. A portion of the water finds its way over and througb
the surface soil to stream channels, while other water penetrates farther
into the ground to become part of the earth's groundwater supply.
Under the influence of gravity, both surface streamflow and groundwater
move toward lower elevations and may eventually discharge into the
ocean. However, substantial quantities of surface and underground
water are returned to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration
before reaching the oceans.
This description of the hydrologic ycle and the schematic diagram of
Fig. 1-1 are enormously oversimplified. For example, some water which
enters surface streams may percolate to the groundwater, while in other

INTRODUCTION

cases groundwater is a source of surface streamflow.

ome precipitation
may remain on tIle ground as SllOW for many months before melting
releases the water to the streams or groundwater. The hydrologic cycle
is a convenient means for a rough delineation of the scope of hydrology
as that portion between pre 'ipitation on the land and the return of this
water to the atmo phere or the cean. The hydrologic cycle serves also
to eropha ize the four ba ic phll,'o of int r st to the hydrologi t: precipitation, evaporation and tran piration, surface treamflow, and groundwater. These topics are thc subje t of much more detailed di cus ion
later in this tcxt.

FIG. 1 1. The hydrologic cycle.

(Courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey.)

If the discussion of the hydrologic cycle gives any impre sion of a

continuous me hanism throu rh wru h water moves eadily at a constant
rate, this impr ssion should be di pelled at once. The movement of
water through the variou phase of the cy Ie is most errati , both in
time and ar 11. On oc asion, natur seems to work overtime to provide
torrential rains which tax surfac - hannel capaciti s to the utmost. At
other times it eems that the rna runery of the cycle has stopped completely and, with it, precipitation and str amflow. In adjacent areas
the variation in the y Ie roay be quite different. It is pI' i ely these
extremes of flood and drought that are often of most interest to the
engineering hydrologi t, for many of our hydraulic engineering projects
are d ign d to prote t against th ill efT t of extr meso The reasons
for the climatic extremes are found in the science of meteorology and

HISTORY

should be understood, in broad d tilll at least, by the hydrologist. This

aspect of hydrology is discus' d in the following chapter.
The hydrologist i interested in more than obtaining a qualitative
understanding of the hydrologic cycl and m u uring the quantiti of
water in transit in this cycle. He mu t be able to deal quantitatively
with the interrelations between the various factors so that he can accurately prediot the influenoe of man-made works on these relationships.
He must also concern himself with the frequency with whioh the various
extremes of the cycle may occur, for this is the basis of economic analysis
which is, or should be, the final d terminant for all hydraulic projects.
The final chapters of this text deal with the e quantitative probl ms.
1-2. History. The first hydraulic project has Leen 10 t in the mists
of prehistury. Perhaps some prehistoric man found that a pile of rooks
across a stream would raise the water level sufficiently to overflow the
land which wus the source of his wild food plants and thus water them
during a drought. Whatever the early history of hydraulics, abundant
evidence exists to show that the builders understood little hydrology.
Abandoned irrigation projects the world over, including Indian works in
the southwest United States dating from about A.D. 1100, nrc believed
to be evidence of developments inadequate to sustain a permanent
civilization.
Early Greek and Roman writings indicate that these people CQt.lld
accept the oceans as the ultimate source of all water but they could not
visualize precipitation equaling or exceeding strea.mflow. Typica.l of the
ideas of the time was a view that sea water moved underground to the
base of the mountains. There a natural still desalted the water and the
vapor rose through conduits to the mountain tops where it condensed
and escaped at the source springs of the streams. Leonardo da Vinci
(ca. A.D. 1500) seems to have been one of the first to recognize the hydrologic cycle as we accept it today, but Perreault of France offered the
first recorded proof about A.D. 1650. Using crude instruments, he
measured the flow of the Seine River and found it to be only one-sixth
of the precipitation. About A.D . 1700 the English astronomer Halley
confirmed thll,t oceanic evaporation was an adequate source of moisture
for precipitation.
Precipitation was measured in India as early as the fourth century
B.C., but satisfactory methods for measuring streamflow were a much
later development. Frontinus, water commissioner of Rome in A.D. 97,
based estimates of flow on cross-sectional area alone without regard to
velocity. In the United tates, organized measurement of precipitation
started under the Surgeon General of the Army in 1819, was transferred
to the Signal Corps in 1870, and finally to a n wly organized U.S. Weather
Bureau in 1891. Scattered streamflow measurements were made on the

INTRODUCTION

Mississippi River as early as 1848, but a systematic program was not

started until 1888 when the U.S. Geological urvey undertook this work.
It is not surprising, therefore, that little quantitative work in hydrology
was done before the early years of the twentieth century, when men such
as Horton, Mead, and herman b gan to explore the field. The great
expansion of activity in flood control, irrigation, soil conservation, and
related fields which began about 1930 gave the first real impetus to
organized research in hydrology, as the need for more preci e design
data became evident. Most of our present-day concepts of hydrology
date since 1930. Hydrology is, therefore, a young science with many
important problems only JIllQerfectly understood and much research
still ahead.
1-3. Hydrology in engineering. Hydrology is used in engineering
laainly in connection with the design and operation of hydraulic structures. What flood flows may be expected at a spillway or highway culvert
or in a city drainage system? What reservoir capacity is required to
assure adequate water for irrigation or municipal wn.ter supply during
droughts? What effect will reservoirs, levees, and other control works
exert on flood flows in a stream? These are typical of the questions
which the hydrologist is exp cted to answer.
Large organizations such as Federal and state water agencies can
maintain staffs of hydrologic specialists to analyze their problems, but
smaller offices often have insufficient hydrologic work for full-time
specialists. Hence, many civil engineers are called upon for occasional
hydrologic studies. It is probable that these civil engineers deal with a
larger number of project (without regard to size) than do the specialists,
although in respect to annual dollar volume the situation may be reversed.
In any event, it seems that knowledge of the fundamentals of hydrology
is an essential part of the civil engineer's training.
1-4. The subj ect mat ter of h ydrology. Hydrology deals with
many topics. Ihe subject matter as presented in this book can be
broadly classified into two phases: data collection and methods of
analysis and applict1tion. Chapters 2 to 6 deal with the basic data of
hydrology. Adequate basic data are essential to any science, and
hydrology is no exception. In fact, the complex features of the natural
proces es involved in hydrologic phenomena make it difficult to treat
many hydrologic pro e ses by rigorous deductive reasoning. One cannot always start with a basic physical law and from this determine the
hydrologic result to be expected. Rather, it is necessary to start with
a mass of observed facts, analyze these facts statistically, and from this
analysis establish the systematic pattern that governs these vents.
Thus, without adequate historical data for the particult1r problem area,
the hydrologist is in t1 difficult position. The collection of hydrologic

THE 3U8JECT MATTER OF HYDROLOGY

data has been the life work of many hydrologist and i a primary function
of the U .. G ological urvey and the U.. Weather Bureau. It is
importlmt, therefore, that the student learn how these data. are collected
and published, th limitations on their accuracy, and the proper methods
of interpretation and adjustment.
Generally, each hydrologic problem is unique in that it deals with a
distinct set of physical conditions within a specific river basin. Hence,
the quantitative conclusions of one analysis are often not directly transferable to another problem. However, the general solution for most
problems can be developed from the application of a few relatively
standard proc dures.
hapters 6 to 12 describe these procedures and
explain how they are utilized to solve specific phases of a hydrologic
problem. Chapter 13 summarizes the preceding material by describing
how the various steps are combined in the solu tion of typical engineering
problems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hydrology Handbook, ASCE Manual 28, 1949.

Johnstone, Don, and W. P. Cross: "Elements of Applied Hydrology," Ronald, New
York, 1949.
Linsley, R. K., M. A. Kohler, and J. L. H. Paulhus: "Applied Hydrology," McGrawHill, New York, 1949.
Mead, D. W.: "Hydrology," 1st ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1919 (revised by H.
W. Mead, 2d ed., 19qO).
Meinzer, O. E. (ed.): "Hydrology," Vol. IX, Physics of the Earth Series, McGrawHill, New York, 1942 (reprinted Dover Publicatioll$, New York, 1949).
Meyer, A. F.: "Elements of Hydrology," 2d ed ., Wiley, New York, 1928.
Wisler. C. 0 ., and E. F. Bratcr : " Hydrology, " Wiley, N w York, 1949.
PROBI ,EMS
1-1. List the agencies in your state which have responsibilities of a hydrologic
nature. What is the special problem of each agenc,Y?
1-2. Repeat Prob. 1-1 for Federal agencies.
1-3. List the major hydraulic projects in your arcll. What spacific hydrologic
problems did each project involve?

2
WEATHER AND HYDROLOGY

The hydrologic characteristics of a region are det rmined largely by

its climate and its g ological structure. Among the climatic factors that
establish the hydrologic feature of a region are the amount and distribution of precipitation; the occurrence of snow and ice; and the effects
of wind, temp rature, and humidity on evaporation and snowmelt.
Consequently, the design and operation of hydraulic projects involve
meteorological considerations. Hydrologic problems in which meteorology plays an important role include determination of probable maximum precipitation and optimum snowmelt condition for spillway design,
forecasts of pr cipitation and nowmelt for re ervoir operation, and determination of probable maximum wind over water surfaces for evaluating
resulting waves in connection with the design of dam and levees. Obviously, the hydrologist should have some under tanding of the meteorological processes determining a regional climate. The general features of
climatology are discussed in till chapter. Because of it special importance in hydrology, precipitation is treated separately and in more detail
in Chap. 3.
THE GENERAL

IR ULATJON

If th earth were a nonrotating phere,

a purely thermal circulation (Fig.
2-1) would result. The equator receives more solar radiation than the
higher latitudes. Equatorial air,
being warmer, is lighter and tends
to rise. As it rise , it is replaced
by cooler air from higher latitudes.
FIG. 21. Simple thermal circulation on
The only way the air from the
non rotating earth (Northern Hemisphere).
higher latitudes can be replaced is
from above-by the poleward flow of air rising from the equator. The
true circulation differ from that of Fig. 2-1 becau e of the earth's rotation and the effects of land and sea distribution and land forms.

2-1. Thermal cir ulation.

THE GENERAL CIRCULATION

2-2. Factor m odifying the thermal circulation. The earth

rotates fTom west to ea.st, and a point at the equator move at about
1500 fps while one at 60 lat. moves at one-half this speed. From th
principle of conservation of angular momentum, it follows that a parcel
of air at rest relativ to the earth's surface at the equator would attain
a theoretical eastward velocity of 2250 ips (relative to the earth' surface)
if moved northward to 60 lat. Conversely, if a parcel of air at the
North Pole were moved southward to 60 lat., it would reach a theoreti 'al
westward velocity of 750 fps . flowever, wind p :leds of this magnitud
are never observed in nature because of friction . The force that would

OQ L---------------------------~

FIG. 2-2. General circulation of Northern Hemisphere.

be required to produce these changes in velocity is known as the Coriolis

This apparent force always acts to the right in the N ortbern
Hemisphere and to the left in the outhem Hemispher .
The observed pattern of the general circulation in the Northern
Hemisphere is shown in Fig. 2-2. Unfortunately, the physical reasons
for this circulation are only partly known. The ri sing equatorial air
acquires an eastward component as it moves northward. At about 30
lat., it tends to subside because of cooling. Th subsiding air splits
into two currents, one moving southward as the northeast trade winds
and the second continuing northward and eastward.
In the polar cell, loss of heat in the lower layers results in subsidence,
the subsiding air spreading southward and westward. As it moves
southward the air is warmed, and at about 60 lat. it rises and returns
poleward as a southwesterly current aloft.
In the middle cell the southwe terly current in the lower layers me ts
the southern edge of the polar cell and is forc d upward over the colder
westward-moving air. This circulation would result in an accumulation of air in the polar cell were it not for outbreaks of excess polar air
southward.
The idealized circulation of Fig. 2-2 implies belts of low pressure
{surface) at the equator and at about 60 lat. where warmer air is rising.
force.

WEATHER AND HYDROLOGY

Similarly, high pressure would be expected at about 300 lat. and at the
poles. This pressure pattern (Fig. 2-3) is greatly distorted by the
effects of water and land masses. These effects are the results of differences in the specific heats, reflectivity, and mixing properties of water
and land and of the existence of barriers to air flow. Heat gains and

'20

FIG. 2-3. M ean-pressure pattern of the Northern Hemisphere.

lossos are distributed through rclativ ly great depths in large bodies of

water by mixing, while land is aft' cted only near the surface. Consequently, land-surface temperatures are far less equabl than those of the
surface f large bodies f water. This condition is further emphasized
by the lower specific heat of the soil and its higher albedo, especially
in winter when snow cover reflects most of the incident radiation back
to space. In winter there is a tendency for the accumulation of cold
dense air over land masses and warm air over the oceans. In summer,
the situation is reversed.

TEMPERATURE

2- 3. Migratory y t m. The emipermanent featur of the general, or mean, circulation (Fig. 2-3) are statisti 'al and at any time may
be distorted or displaced by trn.n itory, or migratory, systems. Both
semipermanent and tran itory feature ar cla ified as cyclones or
anticyclones. A cyclone is a mol' or Ie s 'ircular area of low atmospheric
pressure in which the winds blow counterclockwise in the North rn
Hemisphere. Tropical cyclones form at low latitudes and may develop
into violent hurricanes or typhoons with winds exceeding 75 mph over
areas as large as 200 mi in diameter. Extratropical cycloncs form along
fronts, the boundaries between warm and cold air mass s.
uch cyclones
are usually larger than tropical cyclone and may produce precipitation
over thousands of square miles. An anticyclone is an area of relatively
high pressure in which the winds tend to blow spirally outward in a
clockwise direction in the North rn H emisph reo Details on the g neral
circulation and on the structure of 'yclones an d an ticyclones can be
found in meteorological textbooks.
TF.MI'ERATU HE

2- 4. Measurement of temperature. In order to measme ail' temperature properly, the thermometers must be placed where air circulation
is relatively unobstructed and yet they must be proLected from the
direct rays of the sun and from precipitation. In the United tates
thermometers are placed in white, louvered, wooden boxes, called instru,ment shelters (Fig. 2-4), through which the air can move readily. The
shelter location must be typical of the area for which the measured
temperatures are to be representative. Because of marked vertical
temperature gradients ju t above the soil surfa 'e, the shelters should be
about the same height above the ground for the recorded temperatures
to be comparable. In the United States shelters are set about 4Yz ft
above the ground.
Th re are about 6000 stations in the United States for which th
Weather Bill'eau compiles temperature records. Except for a few hundred
stations equipped or staffed to obtain continuous or hourly temperatures,
most make a daily observation consisting of the current, maximum,
and minimum temperatures. The minimum thermometer, of the alcobolin-glass type, has an inde