Composite Materials

Content
1. Composites:
a) Definitions
b) Factors affecting properties
c) Classification
2. Mechanical properties (matrix, fibers, composites)
a) Polymer composites
b) Ceramic or metal matrix composites
3. Mechanics of long fiber composites
a) Properties (elastic and strength) in fiber direction
b) Properties (elastic and strength) in transverse direction
4. Mechanics of short fiber composites
a) Stress transfer
b) Elastic properties
c) Failure
5. Composite structures
a) Laminates
b) Sandwich structures
6. Thermal stresses
a) Micro scale
b) Laminate scale

1. Composites
During the past thirty years, composite materials have become one of the most important
classes of engineering materials. A composite material usually has a metallic, ceramic or
polymeric matrix material with a second, physically separable phase distributed in that
matrix. The second phase may consist of particles, platelets or fibers and it is added to
modify the properties of the matrix material. A common purpose is to improve strength,
stiffness and toughness so that structures of lighter weight may be fabricated.
In aerospace applications composite structures constitute aircraft wings and fuselages,
space antennas, rocket motor casings and also engine parts. In the automotive industry
composites are also used in engine parts but the major area of application is polymer
composites used in interior molded parts and body parts such as bumpers and fenders.
Recently there has also been an increased number of applications in leaf springs and in the
power train. Modern trains and boats use composites in many load-bearing structures to
save weight. Recently, brake discs from composite materials have been introduced in
many areas of transportation. Additional areas include electronic and biomedical
applications such as CD-players and hip joint replacements.
Despite the recent increase in the use of composite materials, the history of these materials
is long. Nature uses composite materials in practically all structures. Bone, reindeer antler,
cartilage, wood and other plant structures are all composite materials. Glass fiber
reinforced plastics were used in the 1950's but the development of carbon fiber in England
in the mid-60's really set off composites growth. The need for light-weight space
structures was the driving force. By the early 1970's, Saab Aircraft in Linkping was
working on determined efforts in the carbon fiber composites area.
a) Definition.
Despite that intuitively we understand what a composite material is, a good definition is
rather difficult to find in textbooks. The often used conventional definition is
A material consisting of two or more distinct constituents which are combined
mechanically (i.e. without forming new constituents by chemical reactions
The well known textbook by Agarwal and Broutman states chemically distinct
constituents having distinct interface separating them
In D. Hulls book consists of two or more physically distinct and mechanically
separable materials
In the above definitions the emphasis is that composites are compositions of several
constituents and that a very clear boundary (interface) between constituents exists. The
last requirement is rather questionable. Composite mechanical performance depends a lot
on the quality of the interface: mechanical load is transferred to the reinforcement through
the interface. Therefore in nowadays composites the constituents are connected by
chemical bonds. However, there is a problem because very often direct chemical
interaction between constituents is not possible. This problem is solved by introducing an
intermediate material between both constituents which reacts with both of them. In result
both constituents are not separated by a interface= surface in a mathematical sense but
rather by thin but still 3-dimensional region with rather uncertain mechanical properties
and often with a properties gradient changing in a certain way. For this reason we often
talk about interphase instead of interface . However, developing models for composite

behaviour the region between constituents for simplicity reasons is often considered as
surface with a properties deducted from the properties of the interphase layer.
Another approach in definition instead of attempt to describe all possible chemical and
physical limitations is focusing on the feature of these materials that they are designed for
a special purpose and functions. In this modern concept composites are :
Engineered Material Systems designed to generate unique desired properties.
This aspect has to bee kept in mind: working with composite materials we have a very
large flexibility in designed the macroscopic material with optimal properties for the
specific application.
b) Factors affecting composite properties.
Composites are often visualized as a composition in which one phase/constituent is
continuous medium called matrix and other phases are somehow embedded (dispersed)
in it. They are called reinforcement (even if sometimes their role is not to improve the
mechanical properties, for example fillers added mainly for cost and weight reasons).
Very often reinforcement is discontinuous but may be also continues (example is very
long fibers).
Physical properties of constituents and the quality of the interface between them are
certainly very important for the effective macroscopic properties of the composite.
However, even if the constituents are given, the macroscopic properties may depend very
much on the micro-architecture of the composite. Since the matrix is an infinite domain
the micro architecture can be described in terms of the reinforcement as shown in Fig.1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Micro-architecture of the reinforcement

The main parameter is the amount of the reinforcement which may characterized by it volume
fraction in the composite (the volume of the reinforcement versus the volume of the whole
composite). The volume fraction is the most robust characteristics. If required, more detailed
information regarding the statistical uniformity of the reinforcement special distribution may

be presented. The best for mechanical properties (especially for mechanical strength, see Fig.
1.2) is uniform distribution.

Figure 1.2 Result of non-uniform fiber distribution

Geometrical parameters of the reinforcement phase are also important (size, shape and size
distribution). This is related to the feature that the interaction with the matrix is through the
interface (outer boundary of the reinforcement). Larger surface area increases the load
transferred to the reinforcement and, thus, increases its efficiency. For particles the surface
area is proportional to r 2 whereas the volume is r 3 , which means that decreasing the
dimensions of the reinforcement the volume is decreasing faster than the surface area. In
result, for the same volume fraction of the reinforcement, the total surface area is larger if
each reinforcement entity is smaller. The smallest surface area has spherical particle, which
means that they are less efficient as reinforcing material than any other geometrical shapes.
The shape has also effect on stress concentrations (especially in presence of corners and
edges).
On macro-scale the composite may be isotropic (the same properties in all directions) or
anisotropic. It has to be noted that todays industry prefers design using isotropic materials,
whereas the greatest potential of composites in sense of tailoring properties is in their
anisotropy. The result depends mostly on the used reinforcement and it orientation
distribution. Particulate composites are isotropic, composites with random fiber orientation
are isotropic in the plane of this distribution (transverse isotropic materials), short fiber
composites are often 3-D randomly distributed and the behaviour is isotropic. It has to be
emphasized that the anisotropy may be result of the used manufacturing method and than it is
extremely undesirable (short fiber orientation in the mould during the injection). In other
cases the orientation distribution is controlled and is a part of the design to create anisotropic
material.
Fig.1.3 illustrates the above discussion.

Figure 1.3. Illustration of different geometrical parameters for case of fiber reinforcement.

c) Composites classification
Composites may be classified in a very different ways. For example, as polymeric matric
composites, metal matrix composites et. or as glass fiber composites, carbon fiber composites
etc. These classifications are based on used materials but not on the interaction mechanisms
governing the composites behaviour in loading. The discussion in the previous section
showed that classification based on the architecture of the reinforcement may the most
relevant.
Some typical composite systems are shown in Fig. 1.4

Figure 1.4 Fiber microstructure in composites

The classification is given in Fig 1.5

Composites
Fiber reinforced composites
Particle
reinforced
Long fiber composites

Aligned fibers

Short fiber
a) bundles
b) dispersed
c) oriented
Randomly oriented

Unidirectional

Woven
LAMINATES

NCF
Sandwich

Figure 1.5 Composites classification based on reinforcement micro-architecture.

Examples of composites categorized in Fig.1.5 are shown below.

An example of SMC composite containing fiber bundles and spherical particles (filler) is
shown in Fig. 1.6

Transverse oriented
bundle
Hollow glass
sphere

Loading direction

Location of
cracks

50 m

Figure 1.6 SMC composite

Figure 1.7 Composite with fiber bundle structure

Longitudinal oriented
bundles

Unidirectional (UD) composite with all fibers aligned in the same direction is shown in
Fig.1.8

T
2

Figure 1.8 Unidirectional composite

Figure 1.9 Cross-section of unidirectional composite

Plane weave woven composite is shown in Fig. 1.10

Figure 1.10 Plane weave woven composite

Figure 1.11 Non-Crimp fabric composite

Unidirectional layers, woven fabrics and non-crimp fabrics are used to produce laminates:
plates containing layers of different orientations, shown in Fig. 1.12.

Figure 1.12 Laminate made of layers with 0- and 90-orientation.

Laminates are often used as skins in sandwich structures.

Figure 1.13 Sandwich structure with laminate skins and honeycomb core

Wood as a multi scale natural composite

However, we have to recognize that advantages of using composites- heterogeneous materials
on multiple length scales is not a humans idea. It has been discovered by nature that the
most efficient way is to tailor material properties by changing the microstructure, see the
wood structure on several length scale shown in Fig. 1.13.

Softwood fiber

(L/d 100)

Figure 1.14 The microstructure and ultra-structure of wood

2. Mechanical properties of constituents and composites

Definitions of mechanical characteristics
Stress is defined as a force per unit area transverse to the direction the force is acting

(2.1)

Figure 2.1 Unidirectional composite in mechanical loading

In Fig 2.1 W is force, A is area of the cross section where the force is applied. Stress is
measured in MPa or GPa (1MPa=1N/mm2). The value of stress at which the specimen fails is
called strength.
Strain is defined as relative elongation in certain direction

l
l

(2.2)

Strain is usually measured in %. The value at failure is called failure strain.

Hookes law (one-dimensional case) can be used to define the elastic modulus

=E

(2.3)
When temperature T is changing dimensions of material change, see Fig. 2.2.
T
T

t
L

Figure 2.2

Geometry of the problem of free thermal expansion of a

unidirectional composite ply.

Thus the temperature change T results in normal displacements in which for

anisotropic materials are different in different directions. The free thermal expansion
strains in the composite become

 th =

(2.4)

In linear thermo-elasticity, these strains are directly proportional to the temperature

change

th = T

(2.5)

Equations 2.4 and 2.5 may be used to determine thermal expansion coefficients
experimentally. For a controlled change in temperature, we measure the corresponding free
expansion strains.
a) Polymer composites

From the above Table we conclude that all 3 polymers have rather similar properties: very
low moduls (compare with fiber data on next page), low density (only slightly higher than
water), large thermal expansion coefficient. The strength depends very much on curing
conditions and is low.

Fiber properties
Property ESCF-High
glass glass strength
Density
(g/cm3)
Modulus
GPa
Tensile
Strength
Mpa
Failure
strain %
Therm
exp coeff
(1/C)

2.6

2.5

1.8

CFHigh
mod.
1.9

CF-Ultra
high
modulus
2.0-2.1

Kevlar
29

Kevlar
49

1.44

1.44

72

87

230

370

520-620

83

124

1720 2530 2480

1790

10001310

2270

2270

2.4

2.9

1.2

0.5

0.2

2.8

1.8

5.6

-0.4

-0.5

-1.1

-2

Obviously glass fibers have rather high density, the lowest modulus, but the failure strain is
the highest and strength is good. Carbon fibers have been designed for specific needs: high
modulus, high strength.
Specific properties of fibers (see below) are better than for usual materials. These fibers are
good for aerospace applications.

Figure 2.3 Loading curves for fibers

Figure 2.4 Loading curves for UD composites and aluminum

b)

c)

Homework 1

Task: Compare the presented loading curves with known matrix

and fiber behaviour. Decide what type of composite is presented
in each picture