Geotechnical Testing Methods I
Ajanta Sachan
Assistant Professor
Civil Engineering
IIT Gandhinagar
Hiding World of Geotechnical Engg!!
Shoring
Foundations
Tunneling
Soil Exploration
Geotechnical Engg Structures
Buried right Under your Feet!!
You pay for soil
investigation whether you
carry out or not.
Infact you eventually pay
more without a soil
investigation.
Leaning Tower of Pisa
Our Blunders become
Monuments !
Terzaghi says:
(Father of Soil Mechanics)
Karl Terzaghi (1883-1963)
Unfortunately, soils are made by nature and not by
man, and the products of nature are always complex
As soon as we pass from steel and concrete to earth,
the omnipotence of theory ceases to exist.
Natural soil is never uniform
Soil Investigation is unique for each soil site!
Typical Geotechnical Project
Geo-Laboratory
~ for testing
soil properties
Design Office
~ for design & analysis
construction site
Purpose of Geotechnical Testing?
Can the soils Support the structure?
What is the impact of Excavation or
Filling?
Are the earth and rock Slopes stable?
What type of Foundation is best suited
for the structure?
How will the site respond to
an Earthquake?
ground
Is the site Contaminated?
Determine potential problems
and Avoid surprises!!
Three Phases in Soils
S : Solid
Soil particle
W: Liquid
Water (electrolytes)
A: Air
Air
Void ratio,e
Vv
Vs
Grain Size Distribution
In Coarse grained soils ... By Sieve analysis (Dry/Wet)
In Fine grained soils ... By Hydrometer analysis
hydrometer
stack of sieves
sieve shaker
soil/water suspension
Sieve Analysis
Hydrometer Analysis
Soil Groups
Cohesive
soils
Clay
Granular soils or
Cohesion less soils
Silt
0.002
Sand
0.075
Gravel
2.36
(4.75; IS code)
Cobble
63
(80)
Boulder
200
(300)
Grain size (mm)
Fine grain
soils
Coarse grain
soils
Soil particle shapes & sizes
Silt particle size = 75-2 mm
Sand and Gravel
particle size > 75 mm
Clay particle size < 2 mm
Rounded
Subangular
Subrounded
Angular
Typical Geotechnical Testing Plan
Borings: No. of bore holes, spacing
Ground Water Monitoring: measure the ground water level
Soil sampling: sampler (split spoon sampler, Shelby tube),
Specimen (undisturbed, disturbed)
Laboratory Test: Index properties, Consolidation, Shear strength
properties, Relative density, Permeability etc.
Field Test: In-situ dry density, Shear Strength, Plate Load Test
Borings: Number & Spacing
No hard and fast rule
Some guidelines IS:1892-1979
For small projects
On plane site 4 or 5 borings sufficient
On uneven site add 1 or 2 more borings
For large projects: 50-100 m spacing in grid pattern
It is important to conduct borings as close as possible to column
locations and strip footing locations.
Depth of
Exploration
Other Exploration Techniques
Test Pits: Unlike boring, soil can be visually observed from the sides of
the test pit. Pit is made by excavating ground (typical size =1.2mx1.2m)
considering sufficient working space.
Trenches: Trenches are long shallow pits. They are more suitable for
exploration on slopes than pits.
Suggestions:
Test pits suggested if required exploration depth = 2-4m
Trenches suggested for slopes (small)
Boring suggested for exploration depth > 4m
Indentifying the Weak Plane: Boring
Estimated Slip Surface
Boring Techniques
Auger Boring
Wash Boring
Rotary Boring
Percussion Boring
Use depends on
Nature of soil
Water table Depth
Sample Disturbance
Accuracy of soil exploration
Auger Boring for soils which can stay open without casing or drilling
mud. It is not possible for sands below water table.
Good for Highways, railways projects where small depth of soil
exploration is needed.
Procedure
Auger Boring
Push and rotate the auger until
annular space of auger fills up
Withdraw the auger and clean it
Repeat the process
1. Hand Auger
for shallow depth (3 - 5 m)
3. Sand Bailer
Heavy duty pipe with cutting
edge
Lifted and then left to fall freely
under self weight. Additional
weight (sinker) may be added for
ease of sinking
2. Power Driven Auger
for larger depth
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Auger Boring
4. Hollow Stem Auger
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Wash Boring
A casing pipe of 2-3 m
length is driven into the
soil by a heavy drop
hammer.
The soil inside the
casing is removed by
means of a chopping bit
attached to a drill rod
which forces water at
high pressure.
Soil mixed with water
moves up in annular
gap between drill rod
and casing.
Samples are obtained at
certain depth by
removing drill rod and
pushing a sampler
instead.
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Rotary Boring
Design similar to wash boring
Useful when soil is resistant to auguring or wash
boring
Boring is done by rapidly rotating
drilling bits attached to bottom of
drilling rod.
Soil/rock cuttings removed by
circulating drilling fluid
Samples are taken a certain depths by
removing drill rod and placing
sampler.
Mud Rotary Drilling: Hollow drilling
rods are used to flow mud slurry
(Bentonite) to check caving in of the
material (soil) at bottom.
Core Drilling: Core barrels with
diamond bit are used.
Percussion Boring
Dry boring or water circulated to remove
loose soil
Heavy drilling bit or chisel is dropped while
inside the casing to chop the hard soil.
Percussion drilling rods may be replaced by
cables.
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Bore Hole Stabilization
Drilling Mud
Use of Casing
Ground Water Observation
High Permeability Soils
Bore hole/Observation wells
(Observation time = 24 to 48 Hrs)
Low Permeability Soils
Casagrande Piezometer
(when water level in bore hole does not get stabilize in
Piezometer is recommended)
Piezometers may be installed in bore hole for seasonal
variations in High permeability soils. Chemical analysis of
ground water may be performed if its constituents can be
damaging to foundation.
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Soil Sampling
Disturbed Samples: Natural soil structure is modified or
destroyed during sampling
Representative Samples:
Non-representative Samples:
Natural water content and mineral constituents of particular soil
layer are preserved
Good for soil identification and water content
Water content altered and soil layers mixed up
Of no use.
Undisturbed Samples: Soil structure and the other
mineral properties are preserved to an extent.
Some disturbance is always there, e.g. due to stress release.
However it should be minimized in order to have suitable
sample for our analysis.
Standard Split Spoon Samplers
Thick wall (0.25in) cylinder
Sampling tube (dia 51 mm) is split along the length
Representative Disturbed soil samples
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Shelby Tube
(Thin-wall) Sampler
Thin wall (1/16in = 0.0625 in)
sampling tube
Sampler pushed into the ground
hydraulically
Sample extruded from tube and
Undisturbed soil sample is obtained
Sealing of
Sampling Tube
After removing the sampler
from ground, it is sealed on
both sides using melted wax
to preserve moisture
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Laboratory Test: Index Properties
Index Properties of soil:
Basic soil properties such as
(a) Specific gravity (Gs)
(b) Grain size distribution (dry/wet Sieve test, Hydrometer test),
(c) Liquid Limit (LL), Plastic limit (PL)
(d) OMC, Maximum Dry density(Compaction/Proctor test)
(e) Permeability (Constant head/Falling head)
(f) Relative Density (Minimum & Maximum density for cohesionless soils)
More tests for Problem soils:
(a) Shrinkage Limit, Free swell, Swell pressure for Expansive soils
(b) Pinhole test, Crumb test for Dispersive soils
(c) Chemical Test (PH, Sulphite, Chloride, Iron etc) for soils (may affected with
industrial waste or some other waste)
(d) Furnace test for Organic Soils (peats etc)
Representative Disturbed soil samples are used to perform these tests.
Laboratory Test: Engineering Properties
Engineering Properties of soil:
Consolidation Properties (Oedometer setup)
(i) Must to perform for Clayey soils;
(ii) Soil parameters obtained: Cc,Cv,Cr, OCR, k
Shear Strength Properties
(i) Direct Shear test (for cohesionless soil)
(ii) Unconfined Compression test (for cohesive soil)
(iii) Triaxial test (for all soil types; cohesive, cohesionless)
Dynamic Properties
(i) Cyclic Triaxial test
(ii) Cyclic Simple Shear test
(iii) Resonant Column test
(iv) Bender Element test
Undisturbed soil samples are used to perform these tests.
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Consolidation Test: Oedometer Test
Input: Vertical Load, Vertical
Displacement
Output: Consolidation parameters
(Cv, Cc & Cs); void ratio Vs
overburden pressure curve
Direct Shear Test
(Recommended for Cohesionless soils)
Input: Vertical Load, Vertical
Displacement, Lateral Load
Lateral Displacement
Output: shear strength, friction angle (f)
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Unconfined Compression Test (UC test)
(Recommended for Cohesive soils)
Input: Vertical Load, Vertical
Displacement
Output: Shear Strength under
Undrained Conditions (Su)
Triaxial Test:
Measures shear strength
parameters of soil
(shear strength properties:
cohesion, friction angle)
Loading conditions :
Static loading
(compression is common)
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Triaxial Testing Setup
Control
Panel
Input: Vertical Load, Vertical
Displacement, Pore
pressure, Cell pressure
Soil specimen
Triaxial setup
Output: Shear Strength properties of soil under
UU, CU, CD Conditions: friction angle (f), cohesion (c)
Triaxial & Cyclic Triaxial
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Soil Properties
Monotonic Loading (Shear strength properties of soil)
Angle of Internal Friction (f)
Cohesion (c)
Dynamic Loading (Dynamic properties of soil)
Shear Modulus (G)
Damping Ratio (D)
Dynamic properties of Soil
Shear Modulus, G = .VS2
Shear wave velocity = VS (m/sec)
Mass density = (g/g) (Kg/m3)
Unit weight of soil = g (KN/m3)
Acceleration of gravity = g (m/sec2)
Damping, D = decay in energy
Shear Modulus (G) is measured in KN/m2 & Damping (D) in %
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Dynamic properties of soil
Low Strain Amplitude test
For strains (10-6% to 10-4%)
Frequency range: 10 Hz to 200Hz
Vibratory loading (Rotating Machinery etc)
High Strain Amplitude test
For strains (10-4% to 10-2%)
Frequency range: 0.1 Hz to 2 Hz (in general)
Blast loading, Earthquake
Dynamic properties (Lab test)
High Strain Amplitude test
Cyclic Triaxial Test
Cyclic Direct Simple Shear Test
Low Strain Amplitude test
Resonant Column Test
Bender Element Test
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Cyclic Triaxial Test (High strain amplitude test)
Dynamic
properties of
soil using Cyclic
Triaxial system:
1. Shear
Modulus (G)
2. Damping
ratio (D)
Cyclic Triaxial Test
DynamicStress d
Axial Strain a
Dynamic Young Modulus E
Damping D
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Cyclic Simple Shear Test (High strain amplitude test)
Digitally controlled Electromechanical actuators are used
to apply the stress or strain
controlled loading
Output: Shear modulus (G),
Damping (D)
Cyclic Simple Shear Test
ShearStress
ShearStrain g
ShearModulus G
Damping D
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Resonant Column Test
(Low strain amplitude test)
The basic principle of the resonant column
device is to excite one end of a confined
cylindrical soil specimen in a fundamental
mode of vibration by means of torsional or
longitudinal excitation.
Once the fundamental mode of resonance
frequency is established, measurements
are made of the resonance frequency and
amplitude of vibration from which wave
propagation velocities and strain
amplitudes are calculated using the theory
of elasticity.
The Resonant Column Test provides
laboratory values of Shear modulus (G)
and Damping ratio (D).
Resonant Column Test
(Low strain amplitude test)
With known value of the
resonant frequency it is
possible to back-calculate
the velocity (vs or vl) of the
wave propagation and
thereby G or E
After measuring the
resonant condition, the drive
system is cut of and the
specimen is brought to a
state of free vibration.
Damping is determined by
observing the decay pattern
(a) Specimen is excited at the bottom and the response is
picked up at the top (velocity or acceleration)
(b) Driving force is applied on the top. The response
pickup is also placed on the top
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Resonant Column Test:
Determination of Shear Modulus of soil (G)
(t ) C eit
Acc.
Resonant freq. f1
+
Sample Geometry
+
End restraint
+
Wave equation (torsion)
2 f
G0 vs2 (2H 1
FT
Resonant Column Test:
Damping properties of soil (D
D = 1/2D1
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Bender Element Test (Low strain amplitude test)
Bender Elements
(made by Piezoelectric material)
Bender Element Test (Low strain amplitude test)
Piezo-ceramic elements distort or bend when subjected to a change in
voltage.
Two Piezoelectric bender elements are placed opposite one another and
inserted a small distance into a soil sample. One bender element work as
source and other as receiver.
The voltage in one element is varied creating shear waves through the
sample, which are received by the opposite element. The input voltage,
(created using a function generator) and the received signal are recorded
continuously using an oscilloscope, allowing the travel time of the shear
waves to be measured from which the dynamic elastic shear modulus (G)
can be determined.
Bender elements provide a reliable, cost effective alternative to undertaking
locally instrumented stress path triaxial tests and can be readily performed
on unconfined samples in the laboratory.
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Thank You
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