Project finance is the long-term financing of infrastructure and industrial projects based upon the

projected cash flows of the project rather than the balance sheets of its sponsors. Usually, a project
financing structure involves a number of equity investors, known as 'sponsors', as well as a
'syndicate' of banks or other lending institutions that provide loans to the operation. They are most
commonly non-recourse loans, which are secured by the project assets and paid entirely from
project cash flow, rather than from the general assets or creditworthiness of the project sponsors, a
decision in part supported by financial modeling.
[1]
The financing is typically secured by all of the
project assets, including the revenue-producing contracts. Project lenders are given a lien on all of
these assets and are able to assume control of a project if the project company has difficulties
complying with the loan terms.
Generally, a special purpose entity is created for each project, thereby shielding other assets owned
by a project sponsor from the detrimental effects of a project failure. As a special purpose entity, the
project company has no assets other than the project. Capital contribution commitments by the
owners of the project company are sometimes necessary to ensure that the project is financially
sound or to assure the lenders of the sponsors' commitment. Project finance is often more
complicated than alternative financing methods. Traditionally, project financing has been most
commonly used in the extractive (mining), transportation, telecommunications industries as well as
sports and entertainment venues.
Risk identification and allocation is a key component of project finance. A project may be subject to a
number of technical, environmental, economic and political risks, particularly in developing
countries and emerging markets. Financial institutions and project sponsors may conclude that the
risks inherent in project development and operation are unacceptable (unfinanceable). "Several
long-term contracts such as construction, supply, off-take and concession agreements, along with a
variety of joint-ownership structures are used to align incentives and deter opportunistic behaviour
by any party involved in the project."
[2]
The patterns of implementation are sometimes referred to as
"project delivery methods." The financing of these projects must be distributed among multiple
parties, so as to distribute the risk associated with the project while simultaneously
ensuringprofits for each party involved.
A riskier or more expensive project may require limited recourse financing secured by
a surety from sponsors. A complex project finance structure may incorporate corporate
finance, securitization, options (derivatives), insurance provisions or other types of collateral
enhancement to mitigate unallocated risk.
[2]

Project finance shares many characteristics with maritime finance and aircraft finance; however, the
latter two are more specialized fields within the area of asset finance.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Parties to a project financing
3 Project development
4 Financial model
5 Contractual framework
o 5.1 Engineering, procurement and construction contract
o 5.2 Operation and maintenance agreement
o 5.3 Concession deed
o 5.4 Shareholders Agreement
o 5.5 Off-take agreement
o 5.6 Supply agreement
o 5.7 Loan agreement
o 5.8 Intercreditor agreement
o 5.9 Tripartite deed
o 5.10 Common Terms Agreement
o 5.11 Terms Sheet
6 Basic scheme
7 Complicating factors
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
Limited recourse lending was used to finance maritime voyages in ancient Greece and Rome. Its
use in infrastructure projects dates to the development of the Panama Canal, and was widespread in
the US oil and gas industry during the early 20th century. However, project finance for high-risk
infrastructure schemes originated with the development of the North Sea oil fields in the 1970s and
1980s. Such projects were previously accomplished through utility or government bond issuances,
or other traditional corporate finance structures.
Project financing in the developing world peaked around the time of the Asian financial crisis, but the
subsequent downturn in industrializing countries was offset by growth in theOECD countries,
causing worldwide project financing to peak around 2000. The need for project financing remains
high throughout the world as more countries require increasing supplies of public utilities and
infrastructure. In recent years, project finance schemes have become increasingly common in
the Middle East, some incorporatingIslamic finance.
The new project finance structures emerged primarily in response to the opportunity presented by
long term power purchase contracts available from utilities and government entities. These long term
revenue streams were required by rules implementing PURPA, the Policy resulted in further
deregulation of electric generation and, significantly, international privatization following
amendments to the Public Utilities Holding Company Act in 1994. The structure has evolved and
forms the basis for energy and other projects throughout the world.
Parties to a project financing[edit]
There are several parties in a project financing depending on the type and the scale of a project. The
most usual parties to a project financing are;
1. Project
2. Sponsor
3. Lenders
4. Financial Advisors
5. Technical Advisors
6. Legal Advisors
7. Debt Financiers
8. Equity Investors
9. Regulatory Agencies
10. Multilateral Agencies
Project development[edit]
Main article: Stages of project finance
Project development is the process of preparing a new project for commercial operations. The
process can be divided into three distinct phases:
Pre-bid stage
Contract negotiation stage
Money-raising stage
Financial model[edit]
Main article: Project finance model
A financial model is constructed by the sponsor as a tool to conduct negotiations with the sponsor
and prepare a project appraisal report. It is usually a computer spreadsheetthat processes a
comprehensive list of input assumptions and provides outputs that reflect the anticipated real life
interaction between data and calculated values for a particular project.
Properly designed, the financial model is capable of sensitivity analysis, i.e. calculating new outputs
based on a range of data variations.
Contractual framework[edit]
The typical project finance documentation can be reconducted to four main types:
Shareholder/sponsor documents
Project documents
Finance documents
Other project documents
Engineering, procurement and construction contract[edit]
The most common project finance construction contract is the engineering, procurement and
construction (EPC) contract. An EPC contract generally provides for the obligation of the contractor
to build and deliver the project facilities on a turnkey basis, i.e., at a certain pre-determined fixed
price, by a certain date, in accordance with certain specifications, and with certain performance
warranties. The EPC contract is quite complicated in terms of legal issue, therefore the project
company and the EPC contractor need sufficient experience and knowledge of the nature of project
to avoid their faults and minimize the risks during contract execution.
An EPC contract differs from a turnkey contract in that, under a turnkey contract, all aspects of
construction are included from design to engineering, procurement and construction whereas in the
EPC contract the design aspect is not included. Other alternative forms of construction contract are
project management approach and alliance contracting. Basic contents of an EPC contract are:
Description of the project
Price
Payment
Completion date
Completion guarantee and Liquidated Damages (LDs):
Performance guarantee and LDs
Cap under LDs
Operation and maintenance agreement[edit]
An operation and maintenance (O&M) agreement is an agreement between the project company
and the operator. The project company delegates the operation, maintenance and often
performance management of the project to a reputable operator with expertise in the industry under
the terms of the O&M agreement. The operator could be one of the sponsors of the project company
or third-party operator. In other cases the project company may carry out by itself the operation and
maintenance of the project and may eventually arrange for the technical assistance of an
experienced company under a technical assistance agreement. Basic contents of an O&M contract
are:
Definition of the service
Operator responsibility
Provision regarding the services rendered
Liquidated damages
Fee provisions
Concession deed[edit]
An agreement between the project company and a public-sector entity (the contracting authority) is
called a concession deed. The concession agreement concedes the use of a government asset
(such as a plot of land or river crossing) to the project company for a specified period. A concession
deed would be found in most projects which involve government such as in infrastructure projects.
The concession agreement may be signed by a national/regional government, a municipality, or a
special purpose entity set up by the state to grant the concession. Examples of concession
agreements include contracts for the following:
A toll-road or tunnel for which the concession agreement giving a right to collect tolls/fares from
public or where payments are made by the contracting authority based on usage by the public.
A transportation system (e.g., a railway / metro) for which the public pays fares to a private
company)
Utility projects where payments are made by a municipality or by end-users.
Ports and airports where payments are usually made by airlines or shipping companies.
Other public sector projects such as schools, hospitals, government buildings, where payments
are made by the contracting authority.
Shareholders Agreement[edit]
The shareholders agreement (SHA) is an agreement between the project sponsors to form a special
purpose company (SPC) in relation to the project development. This is the most basic of structures
held by the sponsors in a project finance transaction. This is an agreement between the sponsors
and deals with:
Injection of share capital
Voting requirements
Resolution of force one
Dividend policy
Management of the SPV
Disposal and pre-emption rights
Off-take agreement[edit]
An off-take agreement is an agreement between the project company and the offtaker (the party who
is buying the product / service the project produces / delivers). In a project financing the revenue is
often contracted (rather to the sold on a merchant basis). The off-take agreement governs
mechanism of price and volume which make up revenue. The intention of this agreement is to
provide the project company with stable and sufficient revenue to pay its project debt obligation,
cover the operating costs and provide certain required return to the sponsors.
The main off-take agreements are:
Take-or-pay contract: under this contract the off-taker on an agreed price basis is obligated
to pay for product on a regular basis whether or not the off-taker actually takes the product.
Power purchase agreement: commonly used in power projects in emerging markets. The
purchasing entity is usually a government entity.
Take-and-pay contract: the off-taker only pays for the product taken on an agreed price basis.
Long-term sales contract: the off-taker agrees to take agreed-upon quantities of the product from
the project. The price is however paid based on market prices at the time of purchase or an
agreed market index, subject to certain floor (minimum) price. Commonly used in mining, oil and
gas, and petrochemical projects where the project company wants to ensure that its product can
easily be sold in international markets, but off-takers not willing to take the price risk
Hedging contract: found in the commodity markets such as in an oilfield project.
Contract for Differences: the project company sells its product into the market and not to the off-
taker or hedging counterpart. If however the market price is below an agreed level, the offtaker
pays the difference to the project company, and vice versa if it is above an agreed level.
Throughput contract: a user of the pipeline agrees to use it to carry not less than a certain
volume of product and to pay a minimum price for this.
Supply agreement[edit]
A supply agreement is between the project company and the supplier of the required feedstock /
fuel.
If a project company has an off-take contract, the supply contract is usually structured to match the
general terms of the off-take contract such as the length of the contract, force majeure provisions,
etc. The volume of input supplies required by the project company is usually linked to the projects
output. Example under a PPA the power purchaser who does not require power can ask the project
to shut down the power plant and continue to pay the capacity payment in such case the project
company needs to ensure its obligations to buy fuel can be reduced in parallel. The degree of
commitment by the supplier can vary.
The main supply agreements are:
Fixed or variable supply: the supplier agrees to provide a fixed quantity of supplies to the project
company on an agreed schedule, or a variable supply between an agreed maximum and
minimum. The supply may be under a take-or-pay or take-and-pay.
Output / reserve dedication: the supplier dedicates the entire output from a specific source, e.g.,
a coal mine, its own plant. However the supplier may have no obligation to produce any output
unless agreed otherwise. The supply can also be under a take-or-pay or take-and-pay
Interruptible supply: some supplies such as gas are offered on a lower-cost interruptible basis
often via a pipeline also supplying other users.
Tolling contract: the supplier has no commitment to supply at all, and may choose not to do so if
the supplies can be used more profitably elsewhere. However the availability charge must be
paid to the project company.
Loan agreement[edit]
A loan agreement is made between the project company (borrower) and the lenders. Loan
agreement governs relationship between the lenders and the borrowers. It determines the basis on
which the loan can be drawn and repaid, and contains the usual provisions found in a corporate loan
agreement. It also contains the additional clauses to cover specific requirements of the project and
project documents.
Basic terms of a loan agreement include the following provisions.
General conditions precedent
Conditions precedent to each drawdown
Availability period, during which the borrower is obliged to pay a commitment fee
Drawdown mechanics
An interest clause, charged at a margin over base rate
A repayment clause
Financial covenants - calculation of key project metrics / ratios and covenants
Dividend restrictions
Representations and warranties
The illegality clause
Intercreditor agreement[edit]
Intercreditor agreement is agreed between the main creditors of the project company. This is the
agreement between the main creditors in connection with the project financing. The main creditors
often enter into the Intercreditor Agreement to govern the common terms and relationships among
the lenders in respect of the borrowers obligations.
Intercreditor agreement will specify provisions including the following.
Common terms
Order of drawdown
Cashflow waterfall
Limitation on ability of creditors to vary their rights
Voting rights
Notification of defaults
Order of applying the proceeds of debt recovery
If there is a mezzanine funding component, the terms of subordination and other principles to
apply as between the senior debt providers and the mezzanine debt providers.
Tripartite deed[edit]
The financiers will usually require that a direct relationship between itself and the counterparty to that
contract be established which is achieved through the use of a tripartite deed (sometimes called a
consent deed, direct agreement or side agreement). The tripartite deed sets out the circumstances
in which the financiers may step in under the project contracts in order to remedy any default.
A tripartite deed would normally contain the following provision.
Acknowledgement of security: confirmation by the contractor or relevant party that it consents to
the financier taking security over the relevant project contracts.
Notice of default: obligation on the relevant project counterparty to notify the lenders directly of
defaults by the project company under the relevant contract.
Step-in rights and extended periods: to ensure that the lenders will have sufficient notice /period
to enable it to remedy any breach by the borrower.
Receivership: acknowledgement by the relevant party regarding the appointment of a receiver
by the lenders under the relevant contract and that the receiver may continue the borrowers
performance under the contract
Sale of asset: terms and conditions upon which the lenders may transfer the borrowers
entitlements under the relevant contract.
Tripartite deed can give rise to difficult issues for negotiation but is a critical document in project
financing.
Common Terms Agreement[edit]
An agreement between the financing parties and the project company which sets out the terms that
are common to all the financing instruments and the relationship between them (including definitions,
conditions, order of drawdowns, project accounts, voting powers for waivers and amendments). A
common terms agreement greatly clarifies and simplifies the multi-sourcing of finance for a project
and ensures that the parties have a common understanding of key definitions and critical events.
Terms Sheet[edit]
Agreement between the borrower and the lender for the cost, provision and repayment of debt. The
term sheet outlines the key terms and conditions of the financing. The term sheet provides the basis
for the lead arrangers to complete the credit approval to underwrite the debt, usually by signing the
agreed term sheet. Generally the final term sheet is attached to the mandate letter and is used by
the lead arrangers to syndicate the debt. The commitment by the lenders is usually subject to further
detailed due diligence and negotiation of project agreements and finance documents including the
security documents. The next phase in the financing is the negotiation of finance documents and the
term sheet will eventually be replaced by the definitive finance documents when the project reaches
financial close.
Basic scheme[edit]

Hypothetical project finance scheme
Acme Coal Co. imports coal. Energen Inc. supplies energy to consumers. The two companies agree
to build a power plant to accomplish their respective goals. Typically, the first step would be to sign
a memorandum of understandingto set out the intentions of the two parties. This would be followed
by an agreement to form a joint venture.
Acme Coal and Energen form an SPC (Special Purpose Corporation) called Power Holdings Inc.
and divide the shares between them according to their contributions. Acme Coal, being more
established, contributes more capitaland takes 70% of the shares. Energen is a smaller company
and takes the remaining 30%. The new company has no assets.
Power Holdings then signs a construction contract with Acme Construction to build a power plant.
Acme Construction is an affiliate of Acme Coal and the only company with the know-how to
construct a power plant in accordance with Acme's delivery specification.
A power plant can cost hundreds of millions of dollars. To pay Acme Construction, Power Holdings
receives financing from a development bank and a commercial bank. These banks provide a
guarantee to Acme Construction's financier that the company can pay for the completion of
construction. Payment for construction is generally paid as such: 10% up front, 10% midway through
construction, 10% shortly before completion, and 70% upon transfer of title to Power Holdings, which
becomes the owner of the power plant.
Acme Coal and Energen form Power Manage Inc., another SPC, to manage the facility. The ultimate
purpose of the two SPCs (Power Holding and Power Manage) is primarily to protect Acme Coal and
Energen. If a disaster happens at the plant, prospective plaintiffs cannot sue Acme Coal or Energen
and target their assets because neither company owns or operates the plant.
A Sale and Purchase Agreement (SPA) between Power Manage and Acme Coal supplies raw
materials to the power plant. Electricity is then delivered to Energen using a wholesale delivery
contract. The cash flow of both Acme Coal and Energen from this transaction will be used to repay
the financiers.
Complicating factors[edit]
The above is a simple explanation which does not cover the mining, shipping, and delivery contracts
involved in importing the coal (which in itself could be more complex than the financing scheme), nor
the contracts for delivering the power to consumers. In developing countries, it is not unusual for one
or more government entities to be the primary consumers of the project, undertaking the "last mile
distribution" to the consuming population. The relevant purchase agreements between the
government agencies and the project may contain clauses guaranteeing a minimum offtake and
thereby guarantee a certain level of revenues. In other sectors including road transportation, the
government may toll the roads and collect the revenues, while providing a guaranteed annual
sum (along with clearly specified upside and downside conditions) to the project. This serves to
minimise or eliminate the risks associated with traffic demand for the project investors and the
lenders.
Minority owners of a project may wish to use "off-balance-sheet" financing, in which they disclose
their participation in the project as an investment, and excludes the debt from financial statements by
disclosing it as a footnote related to the investment. In the United States, this eligibility is determined
by the Financial Accounting Standards Board. Many projects in developing countries must also be
covered with war risk insurance, which covers acts of hostile attack, derelict mines and torpedoes,
and civil unrest which are not generally included in "standard" insurance policies. Today, some
altered policies that include terrorism are called Terrorism Insurance or Political Risk Insurance. In
many cases, an outside insurer will issue a performance bond to guarantee timely completion of the
project by the contractor.
Publicly funded projects may also use additional financing methods such as tax increment
financing or Private Finance Initiative (PFI). Such projects are often governed by aCapital
Improvement Plan which adds certain auditing capabilities and restrictions to the process.
Project financing in transitional and emerging market countries are particularly risky because of
cross-border issues such as political, currency and legal system risks.
[3]
Therefore, mostly requires
active facilitation by the government.
See also[edit]
Escrow Account
Mandate Letter
Mandated Lead Arranger
European PPP Expertise Centre (EPEC)
power purchase agreement
Project finance model
References[edit]
1. Jump up^ See generally, Scott Hoffman, The Law & Business of International Project
Finance (3rd ed. 2007, Cambridge Univ. Press).
2. ^ Jump up to:
a

b
Marco Sorge, The nature of credit risk in project finance, BIS Quarterly Review,
December 2004, p. 91.
3. Jump up^ Neupane, Law. "Project Finance Cross-Border Risks in Nepal". Neupane Law
Associates. Retrieved 9 October 2012.


















Ns