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Introduction to Environmental
Science
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Akre Brainard Goosse Rogers-Estable Stewart UCCP AP
Environmental Science Course

Contents
1 Introduction to Environmental
Science
1
1.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
1
1.2
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
2
1.3
Environmental Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
7
1.4
Using the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
8
1.5
End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .

10
2 Scientific Method & Modeling
12
2.1
The Nature of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
12
2.2
Goals of Science
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
13
2.3
The Scientific Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
16
2.4
Scientific Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
19
2.5
Experimental Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
21
2.6
Scientific Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.7
Communicating Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
29
2.8
Scientist to Public Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .
35
2.9
Environmental Science and You . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
38
2.10 Biotechnology: Science Applied to Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
42
2.11 Use of Computers in Science and Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
44
2.12 End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
47
3 Energy and Chemistry of Life
50
3.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
50
3.2
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
52
3.3
Laws of Thermodynamics : Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
56
3.4
Energy Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
57
3.5

Matter and Organic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . .
58
3.6
Biochemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
63
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3.7
Water, Acids, and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
68
3.8
End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
73
4 Biogeochemical Cycles and
Recycling Matter
76
4.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
76
4.2
Recycling Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
78
4.3
End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
87
5 Evolution of Species and
Ecosystems

89
5.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
89
5.2
Darwin and the Theory of Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
91
5.3
Evidence for Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
98
5.4
Case Study: Eyewitness to Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 104
5.5
Microevolution and the Genetics of Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 105
5.6
Macroevolution and the Origin of Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 107
5.7
End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 110
6 The Principles of Ecology
113
6.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.2
The Science of Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 115
6.3

Five Laws of Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . 115
6.4
Flow of Energy: Producers and Consumers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 121
6.5
Making and Using Food: Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.6
Food Chains and Food Webs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 130
6.7
Community Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 134
6.8
End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 142
7 World Biomes
145
7.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.2
Biomes and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 146
7.3
Terrestrial Biomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 152
7.4
Aquatic Biomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 158
7.5
End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 169
8 Anthropocene

173
8.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.2
What is the Anthropocene? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 174
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8.3
Shifting Baselines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.4
End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 188
9 Populations & Urban Sprawl
190
9.1
Characteristics of Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 192
9.2
Population Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 199
9.3
Human Population Growth: Doomsday, Cornucopia, or Somewhere in Between? . . . .
. . . 217
9.4
End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 231
10 The Biodiversity Crisis
236
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
10.2 What is Biodiversity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 238

10.3 Why is Biodiversity Important? What are We Losing? . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . 245
10.4 Causes of the Sixth Extinction: Human Actions and the Environment . . . . .
. . . . . . . 251
10.5 Protecting Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
10.6 End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 265
11 Environmental Hazards &
Toxicology
269
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
11.2 Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
11.3 Environmental Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 272
11.4 Biomagnification of Toxins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
11.5 End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 275
12 Land Use & Degradation
276
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
12.2 Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
12.3 Land Degradation in Arid Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 283
12.4 Aeolian Transport of Sand and Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 291
12.5 Case Study: Desertification in The Sahel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 298
12.6 End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 309
13 Energy Use & Natural
Resources
311

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
13.2 Our Natural Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 312
13.3 Renewable vs. Non-renewable Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 313
13.4 Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 316
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13.5 Non-Renewable Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 324
13.6 Energy Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
13.7 Future Energy Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 336
13.8 Highlight: Tragedy of the Commons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 337
13.9 End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 343
14 Air Pollution
345
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
14.2 The Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 346
14.3 Upsetting the Equilibrium of the Atmosphere: Air Pollution . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 348
14.4 Acid Rain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
14.5 Ozone Depletion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 373
14.6 Preventing Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
14.7 End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 379
15 Climate Change
383

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
15.2 The Ocean and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 384
15.3 The Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 397
15.4 Earths Radiant Energy Balance and Oceanic Heat Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 399
15.5 What is the Evidence for Climate Change? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 407
15.6 Modeling the Climate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 414
15.7 Climate Change Outcomes and Policy Issues
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
15.8 End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 429
16 Water: Use, Pollution &
Remediation
433
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
16.2 Water for Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 435
16.3 World Water Supply and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 437
16.4 Water Use in Different Sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 438
16.5 Water Quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
16.6 Water Quality Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 455
16.7 Water Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
16.8 Groundwater Remediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 474
16.9 Reducing Water Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 486
16.10Controlling Ocean Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . 486
16.11Conserving Water
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 487
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16.12End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 489
17 Coastal Degradation & Issues
492
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
17.2 Coast Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
17.3 What Can I Do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 504
17.4 Fisheries Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
17.5 Coastal Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
17.6 Policy Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
17.7 End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 537
18 Environmental Economics & Law
539
18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
18.2 Economics & Prosperity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 540
18.3 Culture and Aesethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 544
18.4 Environmental Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 548
18.5 Environmental Laws and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 551
18.6 End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 555

19 Sustainable Development
556
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
19.2 Culture and Aesethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 557
19.3 Environmental Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 561
19.4 Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
19.5 End of Chapter Review & Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 565
20 Strategy to Review:
Conservation Management
566
20.1 Scale of action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
20.2 Systems thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
20.3 Strategies and operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 568
20.4 Conservation management systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 569
20.5 Scope of conservation management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 572
20.6 Fundamental scientific questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 573
20.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
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vi

Chapter 1
Introduction to Environmental
Science
1.1 Introduction

The environmental conditions of earth, including the climate, are determined by

physical, chemical, biological, and human interactions that transform and transport materials and ener
gy. This is the earth
system that humans rely upon for survival and life. Understanding current environ
mental issues requires
having a critical eye to all information read and found online. Remember: Junk I
n = Junk Out. If
you start with false and incorrect information, you will end with false conclusi
ons. Obtaining reliable and
credible information is one of the most important steps in evaluating current en
vironmental issues.
Chapter Objectives
Describe what is Earth System Science.
Explain recent developments that have changed our view of Earth.
List the critical thinking methods used to evaluate online sources for credibili
ty.
1
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1.2 Definitions
Environmental Science is the study of ...
The Earth behaves as a system in which oceans, atmosphere and land, and the livi
ng and non-living
parts therein, are all connected. ( Steffen et al, 2004). This earth system is a
highly complex entity
characterized by multiple nonlinear responses and thresholds, with linkages betw
een disparate components.
(Jickells, et al, 2005).The Oxford English Dictionary defines a system as:
A set or assemblage of things connected, associated, or interdependent, so as to
form a complex
unity; a whole composed of parts in orderly arrangement according to some scheme
or plan.
The earth system is composed of interacting physical, chemical, and biological p
rocesses that move and
change materials and energy on earth. The system provides the conditions necessa
ry for life on the planet.
For example, plants, which are part of the living system, use solar energy to ch

ange carbon dioxide into

organic carbon. Less carbon dioxide in the atmosphere helps cool the planet. Win
ds and ocean currents
move heat from the tropics to higher latitudes, helping to warm the higher latit
udes.
Earth systems interact through feedbacks. Positive feedbacks lead to instability
. They speed up change in
the system. Negative feedbacks lead to stability. They reduce change in the syst
em. Until the beginning
of the Anthropocene, or the human era on Earth, the systems were all natural. No
w humans have begun
to influence the planet, changing the operation of many systems. Because all sys
tems are interconnected,
a change in one system influences all other systems.
The goal of earth system science is to obtain a scientific understanding of the e
ntire earth system on a global scale by describing how its component parts and their interactio
ns have evolved,
how they function, and how they may be expected to continue to evolve on all tim
escales (Earth
System Science Committee, 1986, p. 26).
History of Earth System Science
Earth system science began in 1983 when the NASA Advisory Council established th
e Earth System
Sciences Committee, which published their revolutionary report Earth System Scie
nce: A Program For
Global Change in 1988. The committee, chaired by Francis Bretherton, showed for
the first time how the
many systems interact. The term earth system science was first used by Moustafa Ch
ahine of the NASA
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, during a meeting with Bretherton. Chahine noted scien
tists had studied the
solar system for many years, now it was time to study the earth system.
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2

A schematic diagram of the earth system proposed by the Bretherton committee, 19

88.

Organizations Studying Earth Systems

The NASA report complements work by many groups that have organized programs to
study earth. The
primary international groups are:
1. The World Climate Program, established in 1980 under the World Meteorological
Organization,
theInternational Council for Science, and, since 1993, the Intergovernmental Oce
anographic Commission, seeks to develop the fundamental scientific understanding of the physic
al climate system
and climate processes needed to determine to what extent climate can be predicte
d and the extent
of human influence on climate.
2. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, established in 1988 under the
World Meteorological Organization and UNEP, seeks to assess scientific, technical and socio- eco
nomic information relevant for the understanding of climate change, its potentia
l impacts and options for adaptation
and mitigation.
3. The International Geosphere Biosphere Program, established in 1987 under the
International Council
for Science, studies the interactions between biological, chemical and physical
processes and human
systems. IGBP collaborates with other programs to develop and impart the underst
anding necessary
to respond to global change.
Each of these large organizations has many sub-panels working on various aspects
of each program. Overall,
tens of thousands of scientists contribute to earth-system studies.
3
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Earth Science
The remainder of this page is taken almost entirely from the executive summaries
of their reports, especially
the report: Global Change and the Earth System: A Planet Under Pressure, IGBP Sc
ience 4 Report.
1. The earth is a system that life itself helps to control. Biological processes

interact strongly with

physical and chemical processes to create the planetary environment, but biology
plays a much
stronger role than previously thought in keeping earths environment within habita
ble limits. Life, the
carbon cycle, greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and earths surface temperature
are all interrelated.
2. Global change is much more than climate change. It is real, it is happening n
ow and it is accelerating.
Human activities are significantly influencing the functioning of the earth syst
em in many ways;
anthropogenic changes are clearly identifiable beyond natural variability and ar
e equal to some of
the great forces of nature in their extent and impact. The changes are so large
that we are entering
a new geological age, the anthropocene.
3. The human enterprise drives multiple, interacting effects that cascade throug
h the earth system in
complex ways. Global change cannot be understood in terms of a simple cause-effe
ct paradigm.
Cascading effects of human activities interact with each other and with local- a
nd regional-scale
changes in multidimensional ways.
4. The earths dynamics are characterized by critical thresholds and abrupt change
s. Human activities
could inadvertently trigger changes with catastrophic consequences for the earth
system. Indeed, it
appears that such a change was narrowly avoided in the case of depletion of the
stratospheric ozone
layer. The earth system has operated in different quasi-stable states, with abru
pt changes occurring
between them over the last half million years. Human activities clearly have the
potential to switch
the earth system to alternative modes of operation that may prove irreversible.
Changes in the earth
system can lead to abrupt climate change.
5. The earth is currently operating in a no-analogue state. In terms of key envi
ronmental parameters,
the earth system has recently moved well outside the range of the natural variab

ility exhibited over

at least the last half million years. The nature of changes now occurring simult
aneously in the earth
system, their magnitudes and rates of change are unprecedented.
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4

Table 1.1:
Left: Photograph of earth taken on December 7, 1972 by the crew of Apollo 17 fro
m a distance of about
45,000 km, while traveling to the moon. This image revolutionized our concept of
earth, and it is one
of the most famous photographs ever taken. Image from NASA Earth Observatory.
Right: The Blue Marble floating in the void. earth as seen from space based on a
montage of data
from three satellites. Clouds were observed on September 9, 1997 by the Geostati
onary Operational
Environmental Satellite (GOES) operated by NOAA. Land color is portrayed by a ve
getation index
calculated using data collected from September 9-19, 1997, by the Advanced Very
High Resolution
Radiometer (AVHRR) instruments carried aboard NOAAs Polar Orbiting Environmental
Satellites.
Ocean color data were collected in late September and early October 1997 by NASAs
Sea-viewing Wide
Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) satellite. Image from NASA Visualization Analysis
Lab, Goddard Space Flight Center.
Global observation systems and fleets of satellites allow us to study the earth
as a whole in ways that
we could do before only on regional or local scales. We can now study earth as a
system.
Recent Developments
Several developments have led to this dramatic change in our perception of earth
:
1. Earth seen from space: The view of earth from space, a blue-green sphere floa
ting in blackness,

triggers emotional feelings of a home teeming with life set in a lifeless void.
It also leads us to ponder
that we are alone on a spaceship with limited resources. http://oceanworld.tamu.
edu/resources/environmentbook/Images/firstbluemarble.jpg
2. Global databases are now being collected and processed in a consistent way th
at allows us to
compare and analyze processes on a global scale over many years.
3. Research Advances: Dramatic advances in our ability to collect data about env
ironmental conditions hundreds to millions of years ago allow contemporary processes to be viewe
d as continuations
5
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of past processes.
4. Enhanced computing power allows us to use theory and data together to study e
arth and the
interactions among many different parts of the earth system.
Science has crossed the threshold of a profound shift in the perception of the h
uman-environment relationship, operating across humanity as a whole and at the scale of the earth as a si
ngle system.
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6
1.3 Environmental Issues
As earths population increases, changes in the environment accelerate, leading ul
timately to disasters.
Wherever humans live at high population densities, making unsustainable demands
on natural
systems, ... you eventually see ecological breakdowns, unmet needs, and tensions
that lead
toward conflict. Look at Darfur. Look at Rwanda. Look at Zimbabwe (Quammen, 2005
).
7
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1.4 Using the Web

Making good environmental science choices starts with having a good critical eye
about environmental
science information. Beware what you read on the Internet: Anyone can post to th
e web. It does not mean
they know anything about the topic. Remember: Junk In = Junk Out. If you start w
ith false and
incorrect information, you will end with false conclusions. Obtaining reliable a
nd credible information,
or information that is accurate, reviewed by experts, and as unbiased as possibl
e, is one of the most
important steps in evaluating current environmental issues.
How do we know which pages on the web can be trusted?
1. Use Scirus to help find scientific articles published in journals and elsewhe
re: http://www.scirus.com/
2. Use Google Scholar, which only looks up peer-reviewed academic research: http
://scholar.google.com/
3. Pay attention to the URL in Internet searches, do NOT just use the first item
that comes up on
the first page of Google. Just because it is the first item does not mean it is
a reliable or credible
source.
4. Use links that end in .edu (accredited educational institution) or .gov (such
as Nasa.gov ), etc., as
opposed .com or .org, which would be a company or organization that may be a rel
iable source of
information, but may not be as well. Just think of how the Tobacco companies hir
ed their own
researchers who falsified and hid data for the company so that they could claim
that cigarettes were
not harmful to ones health.
How do we know what material to trust? Ask these questions:
1. Who produced the material?
Material produced by an expert tends to be more trustworthy than material produc
ed by others,
but one should always review all material with a critical eye.
Is there material at the site describing the authors credentials or experience?
Is the writer anonymous? This is a bad sign when there is no author listed!

2. Who uses the material?

Is it cited by others?
Is it linked from trustworthy sites?
Has the site won awards? Beware of fake awards that some websites give themselve
s!
3. Has the material been reviewed by peers?
Journal articles on the web from respected journals are peer reviewed. Peer revi
ew is when
an article or research is first reviewed by several other experts in the field t
o determine accuracy
prior to publishing it. This helps alleviate errors and false data.
Some journals are better than others. The best are Science and Nature.
Some web pages are reviewed by portals such as the Digital Library for Earth Sys
tem Education:
www.dlese.org
Some data sets and information may have been described in published articles cit
ed by the site.
4. Who hosts the page?
College, university, government, grammar school, commercial, or personal web sit
e? Some
domains such as .edu, .org, and .gov are good sources of scientific information.
Does the hosting organization have strong opinions? Most organizations are biase
d. This is
neither good nor bad. We just need to be aware of biases. Greenpeace and the US
National
Marine Fisheries Service may have differing, but valid viewpoints.
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8
5. When was the web page last updated?
Some sites are many years old.
Oceanography is changing rapidly, and often more recent sites have the best info
rmation.
6. False Friends, web pages that mimic scientific sites.
They may be hosted by a non-profit organization.
They appear to be written by an expert.

 They have many references at the end of the article.

Yet the information is misleading or incorrect.
Sites offering medical advice, advice on diets or nutrition, or cures for common
diseases sometimes fall into this category. They are written by medical doctors, they referen
ce obscure journal
articles, and they are hosted by the doctors organization.
Consider the controversial topic of chelation therapy to cure clogged arteries.
Compare the
information on chelation therapy reviewed in an article in the American Heart Jo
urnal and a similar article by the American Heart Association with a bibliograph
y of papers supporting
chelation therapy by Dr. Elmer Cranton, Medical Director of Mount Ranier Clinic
and his article on the Theoretical Mechanism... Who would you believe?
7. Beware the Widely Quoted Statistic !!
Some statistics are widely quoted by many different authors, yet they may be inc
orrect or
misleading.
What is the original source of the statistic?
Was the original source reliable.
Consider this statistic: Children from low-income households average just 25 hou
rs of shared
reading time with their parents before starting school, compared with 1,000 to 1
,700 hours
for their counterparts from middle-income homes. These oft-repeated numbers orig
inate in a
1990 book by Marilyn Jager Adams titled, Beginning to Read: Thinking And Learning
About
Print. Ms. Adams got the 25-hours estimate from a study of 24 children in 22 lowincome
families. For the middle-income figures, she extrapolated from the experience of
a single child:
her then-4-year-old son, John. She laid out her calculations and sources careful
ly over five pages,
trying to make clear that she was demonstrating anecdotally the dramatic differe
nce between
the two groups. In the 17 years since then, at least a half-dozen child-advocacy
groups, including

United Way, Kids in Common and Everybody Wins, have boiled down those five pages
into a
single sentence, repeated in various forms, often without attribution to the ori
ginal source. As
is typical for such numbers, the child-reading stats have taken on a life of the
ir own through
a game of media telephone, with news articles usually attributing the numbers to
one of these
advocacy groups or to various researchers or foundations that themselves got the
numbers from
the Adams book. For her book, Ms. Adams drew on a 1986 study by William Teale an
d
colleagues of low-income families in Southern California. Using his findings abo
ut reading time
per child, she extrapolated to their time before entering school and averaged th
e total. Prof.
Teale, who now teaches education at the University of Illinois, Chicago, says hi
s findings couldnt
be generalized to the overall population, nor did he ever make that claim: We had
way too
small a sample. From Bialik (2007).
9
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1.5 End of Chapter Review & Resources
Lesson Summary
The natural ecosystem processes and environmental resources of Earth are essenti
al for human life. We use
them for medicines, food, housing, and well being. After viewing Earth from spac
e we finally recognized
that our biosphere and living systems are closed systems that are interconnected
. Actions in one system
affect all the others. The key to making good decisions about environmental issu
es is to start with good
information. Remember: Junk In = Junk Out. If you start with false information t
hen you will end with
false conclusions. Learning how to critically assess and examine all resources u
sed is fundamental to the
study of science.

Review Questions
1. In your own words define what an Earth System is.
2. Why is learning about environmental science important?
3. What are some of the most important environmental issues of today?
4. What is a reliable or credible source of information?
5. Why is examining the credibility of information important?
6. What are some of the main items to look for when determining if a source of i
nformation is credible?
7. What does Junk In = Junk Out mean? Why is it important to studying science?
Further Reading / Supplemental Links
World Meteorological Association: www.wmo.int
International Council for Science: http://www.icsu.org/
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission: http://ioc-unesco.org/
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: http://www.ipcc.ch/
International Geospere Biosphere Program: http://www.igbp.kva.se/
Vocabulary to Know
Environmental Science
Earth System Science
Peer review
credible information
References
Bialik, C. (2007). It seems to exist, but how to measure class gap in reading? W
all Street Journal: B1
Earth System Science Committee (1986). Earth System Science: A Program For Globa
l Change. Washington DC, NASA. Jickells, T. D., Z. S. An, et al. (2005). Global Iron Connectio
ns Between Desert
Dust, Ocean Biogeochemistry, and Climate. Science 308(5718): 67-71. Quammen, D.
(2005). Tracing the
Human Footprint. National Geographic. September 2005, 208: 235.
Steffen, W., A. Anderson, et al. (2004). Global Change and the Earth System: A P
lanet Under Pressure,
Springer.

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10
Credits
Opening image used from the UCCP AP Environmental Science course under the Creat
ive Commons
license CC-BY-SA 3.0.
11
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Chapter 2
Scientific Method & Modeling
2.1 The Nature of Science
The goal of science is to learn how nature works by observing the physical world
, and to understand it
through research and experimentation. Science is a distinctive way of learning a
bout the natural world
through observation, inquiry, formulating and testing hypotheses, gathering and
analyzing data, and reporting and evaluating findings. We are all part of an amazing and mysterious ph
enomenon called Life
that thousands of scientists everyday are trying to better explain. And its surpr
isingly easy to become
part of this great discovery! All you need is your natural curiosity and an unde
rstanding of how people use
the process of science to learn about the world. The reliability of scientific k
nowledge comes partly from
the objectivity of scientific methods, and also from scientists discussing ideas
with each other. In talking
with each other, researchers must use more than just their scientific understand
ing of the world. They
must also be able to convince a community of their peers of the correctness of t
heir concepts and ideas.
Chapter Objectives
List the principles that should guide scientific research.
Examine a scientists view of the world.
Outline a set of steps that might be used in the scientific method of investigat
ing a problem.

 Explain why a control group is used in an experiment.

Outline the role that reasoning plays in examining hypotheses.
Examine the function of the independent variable in an experiment.
Define what is meant by a theory and compare this to the meaning of hypothesis.
Outline the need for scientists to be able to share their ideas and findings wit
h each other.
Identify the role of graphics in presenting results of an investigation.
Identify the role of peer review in the communication of ideas.
Examine how ethics are applied to communicating ideas and research.
Compare scientist to scientist communication to scientist to public communicatio
n.
Identify the benefits of studying science, even if you do not intend on becoming
a scientist.
List three things that can influence scientific research.
Identify two ways that biotechnology has affected our lives.
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12

2.2 Goals of Science

Science involves objective, logical, and repeatable attempts to understand the p
rinciples and forces working
in the natural universe. Science is from the Latin word, scientia, which means kno
wledge. Good science
is an ongoing process of testing and evaluation. One of the intended benefits fo
r students taking a biology
course is that they will become more familiar with the scientific process.
Humans are naturally interested in the world we live in. Young children constant
ly ask why questions.
Science is a way to get some of those whys answered. When we shop for groceries, we
are carrying out
a kind of scientific experiment (Figure 2.1). If you like Brand X of salad dress
ing, and Brand Y is on
sale, perhaps you try Brand Y. If you like Y you may buy it again even when it i
s not on sale. If you did
not like Brand Y, then no sale will get you to try it again. To find out why a p

erson makes a particular

purchasing choice, you might examine the cost, ingredient list, or packaging of
the two salad dressings.
Figure 2.1: Shopping sometimes involves a little scientific experimentation. You
are interested in inventing
a new type of salad that you can pack for lunch. You might buy a vegetable or sa
lad dressing that you
have not eaten before, to discover if you like it. If you like it, you will prob
ably buy it again. That is a
type of experiment.
There are many different areas of science, or scientific disciplines, but all sc
ientific study involves:
asking questions
making observations
relying on evidence to form conclusions
being skeptical about ideas or results
Skepticism is an attitude of doubt about the truthfulness of claims that lack em
pirical evidence. Scientific
skepticism, also referred to as skeptical inquiry, questions claims based on the
ir scientific verifiability
rather than accepting claims based on faith or anecdotes. Scientific skepticism
uses critical thinking to
analyze such claims and opposes claims which lack scientific evidence.
13
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A Scientific View of the World

Science is based on the analysis of things that humans can observe either by the
mselves through their
senses, or by using special equipment. Science therefore cannot explain anything
about the natural world
that is beyond what is observable by current means. The term supernatural refers
to entities, events, or
powers regarded as being beyond nature, in that such things cannot be explained
by scientific means. They
are not measurable or observable in the same way the natural world is, and so co
nsidered to be outside

the realm of scientific examination.

When a natural occurrence which was once considered supernatural is understood i
n the terms of natural
causes and consequences, it has a scientific explanation. For example, the flick
ering lights sometimes
seen hovering over damp ground on still evenings or nights are commonly called W
ill-o-the-wisp. This
phenomena looks like a lamp or flame, and is sometimes said to move away if appr
oached. A great deal
of folklore surrounds the legend, such as the belief that the lights are lost so
uls or fairies attempting to
lead travelers astray. However, science has offered several potential explanatio
ns for Will-o-the-wisp from
burning marsh gases to glowing fungi or animals that glow in a similar way to li
ghtning bugs.
There is no fixed set of steps that scientists always follow and there is no sin
gle path that leads to scientific
knowledge. There are, however, certain features of science that give it a very s
pecific way of investigating
something. You do not have to be a professional scientist to think like a scient
ist. Everyone, including you,
can use certain features of scientific thinking to think critically about issues
and situations in everyday life.
Science assumes that the universe is a vast single system in which the basic rul
es are the same, and thus
nature, and what happens in nature, can be understood. Things that are learned f
rom studying one part
of the universe can be applied to other parts of the universe. For example, the
same principles of motion
and gravitation that explain the motion of falling objects on Earth also explain
the orbit of the planets
around the sun, and galaxies, as shown in Figure 2.2. As discussed below, as mor
e and more information
and knowledge is collected and understood, scientific ideas can change, still sc
ientific knowledge usually
stands the test of time. Science, however, cannot answer all questions.
Figure 2.2: With some changes over the years, similar principles of motion have
applied to different
situations. The same scientific principles that help explain planetary orbits ca

n be applied to the movement

of a Ferris wheel.
Nature Can Be Understood
Science presumes that events in the universe happen in patterns that can be unde
rstood by careful study.
Scientists believe that through the use of the mind, and with the help of instru
ments that extend the
human senses, people can discover patterns in all of nature that can help us und
erstand the world and the
universe.
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14
Scientific Ideas Can Change
Science is a process for developing knowledge. Change in knowledge about the nat
ural world is expected
because new observations may challenge the existing understanding of nature. No
matter how well one
theory explains a set of observations, it is possible that another theory may fi
t just as well or better, or
may fit a still wider range of observations. In science, the testing and improvi
ng of theories goes on all
the time. Scientists know that even if there is no way to gain complete knowledg
e about something, an
increasingly accurate understanding of nature will develop over time.
The ability of scientists to make more accurate predictions about the natural wo
rld, from determining how
a cancerous tumor develops a blood supply, to calculating the orbit of an astero
id, provides evidence that
scientists are gaining an understanding of how the world works.
Scientific Knowledge Can Stand the Test of Time
Continuity and stability are as much characteristics of science as change is. Al
though scientists accept
some uncertainty as part of nature, most scientific knowledge stands the test of
time. A changing of ideas,
rather than a complete rejection of the ideas, is the usual practice in science.
Powerful ideas about nature
tend to survive, grow more accurate and become more widely accepted.

For example, in developing the theory of relativity, Albert Einstein did not thr
ow out Issac Newtons
laws of motion but rather, he showed them to be only a small part of the bigger,
cosmic picture. That
is, the Newtonian laws of motion have limited use within our more general concep
t of the universe. For
example, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) uses the Newto
nian laws of motion
to calculate the flight paths of satellites and space vehicles.
Science Cannot Offer Answers to All Questions
There are many things that cannot be examined in a scientific way. There are, fo
r instance, beliefs that
cannot be proved or disproved, such as the existence of supernatural powers, sup
ernatural beings, or the
meaning of life. In other cases, a scientific approach to a question and a scien
tific answer may be rejected
by people who hold to certain beliefs.
Scientists do not have the means to settle moral questions surrounding good and
evil, or love and hate,
although they can sometimes contribute to the discussion of such issues by ident
ifying the likely reasons
for certain actions by humans and the possible consequences of these actions.
15
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2.3 The Scientific Method
It can be difficult sometimes to define research methods in a way that will clea
rly distinguish science from
non-science. However, there is a set of core principles that make up the bones of s
cientific research.
These principles are widely accepted within the scientific community and in acad
emia.
We learned earlier in this lesson that there is no fixed set of steps that scien
tists always follow during an
investigation. Similarly, there is no single path that leads scientists to knowl
edge. There are, however,
certain features of science that give it a very specific way of investigating th
ings.

Scientific investigations examine, gain new knowledge, or build on previous know

ledge about phenomena.
A phenomenon, is any occurrence that is observable, such as the burning match sh
own in Figure ?? . A
phenomenon may be a feature of matter, energy, or time. For example, Isaac Newto
n made observations of
the phenomenon of the moons orbit. Galileo Galilei made observations of phenomena
related to swinging
pendulums. Although procedures vary from one field of scientific inquiry to anot
her, certain features
distinguish scientific inquiry from other types of knowledge. Scientific methods
are based on gathering
observable, empirical (produced by experiment or observation), and measurable ev
idence that is critically
evaluated. hypothesis is a suggested explanation based on evidence that can be t
ested by observation
or experimentation. Experimenters may test and reject several hypotheses before
solving a problem. A
hypothesis must be testable; it gains credibility by being tested over and over
again, and by surviving
several attempts to prove it wrong.
The Scientific Method
The scientific method is not a step by step, linear process. It is a way of lear
ning about the world through
the application of knowledge. Scientists must be able to have an idea of what th
e answer to an investigation
is. Scientists will often make an observation and then form a hypothesis to expl
ain why a phenomenon
occurred. They use all of their knowledge and a bit of imagination in their jour
ney of discovery.
Scientific investigations involve the collection of data through observation, th
e formation and testing of
hypotheses by experimentation, and analysis of the results that involves reasoni
ng.
Scientific investigations begin with observations that lead to questions. We wil
l use an everyday example
to show what makes up a scientific investigation. Imagine that you walk into a r
oom, and the room is
dark.

 You observe that the room appears dark, and you question why the room is dark.
In an attempt to find explanations to this phenomenon, you develop several diffe
rent hypotheses. One
hypothesis might state that the room does not have a light source at all. Anothe
r hypothesis might
be that the lights are turned off. Still, another might be that the light bulb h
as burnt out. Worse
yet, you could be going blind.
To discover the answer, you experiment. You feel your way around the room and fi
nd a light switch
and turn it on. No light. You repeat the experiment, flicking the switch back an
d forth; still nothing.
This means your first two hypotheses, that the room is dark because (1) it does
not have a light
source; and (2) the lights are off, have been rejected.
You think of more experiments to test your hypotheses, such as switching on a fl
ashlight to prove
that you are not blind.
In order to accept your last remaining hypothesis as the answer, you could predi
ct that changing the
light bulb will fix the problem. If your predictions about this hypothesis succe
ed (changing the light
bulb fixes the problem), the original hypothesis is valid and is accepted.
However, in some cases, your predictions will not succeed (changing the light bu
lb does not fix the
problem), and you will have to start over again with a new hypothesis. Perhaps t
here is a short
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16

circuit somewhere in the house, or the power might be out.

The general process of a scientific method is summed up in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: The general process of scientific investigations. A diagram that ill
ustrates how scientific
investigation moves from observation of phenomenon to a theory. The progress is
not as straightforward as
it looks in this diagram. Many times, every hypothesis is falsified which means

the investigator will have

to start over again.
Table 2.1: Common Terms Used in Scientific Investigations
Term
Definition
Scientific Method
The process of scientific investigation.
Observation
The act of noting or detecting phenomenon by the
senses.
For example, taking measurements is a
form of observation.
Hypotheses
A suggested explanation based on evidence that
can be tested by observation or experimentation.
Scientific Reasoning
The process of looking for scientific reasons for observations.
Experiment
A test that is used to rule out a hypothesis or validate something already known.
Rejected Hypothesis
An explanation that is ruled out by experimentation.
Confirmed Hypothesis
An explanation that is not ruled out by repeated
experimentation, and makes predictions that are
shown to be true.
17
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Table 2.1: (continued)

Term
Definition
Inference
Developing new knowledge based upon old knowledge.
Theory
A widely accepted hypothesis that stands the test
of time. Theories are often tested, and usually not
rejected.
The Scientific Method Made Easy : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zcavPAFiG14&#38
;feature=related
(9:55).
Making Observations
Scientists first make observations that raise questions. An observation is the a
ct of noting or detecting
phenomenon through the senses. For example, noting that a room is dark is an obs
ervation made through
sight.
Developing Hypotheses
In order to explain the observed phenomenon, scientists develop a number of poss
ible explanations, or
hypotheses. A hypothesis is a suggested explanation for a phenomenon or a sugges
ted explanation for a
relationship between many phenomena. Hypotheses are always based on evidence tha
t can be tested by
observation or experimentation. Scientific investigations are required to test h
ypotheses. Scientists mostly
base hypotheses on prior observations or on extensions of existing scientific ex
planations.
A hypothesis is not really an educated guess. To define a hypothesis as an educat
ed guess is like calling
a tricycle a vehicle with three. The definition leaves out the concepts most import
ant and characteristic

feature: the purpose of hypotheses. People generate hypotheses as early attempts

to explain patterns
observed in nature or to predict the outcomes of experiments. For example, in sc
ience, one could correctly
call the following statement a hypothesis: identical twins can have different pe
rsonalities because the
environment influences personality.
Evaluating Hypotheses
Scientific methods require hypotheses that are falsifiable, that is, they must b
e framed in a way that
allows other scientists to prove them false. Proving a hypothesis to be false is
usually done by observation.
However, confirming or failing to falsify a hypothesis does not necessarily mean
the hypothesis is true.
For example, a person comes to a new country and observes only white sheep. This
person might form
the hypothesis: All sheep in this country are white. This statement can be called a
hypothesis, because
it is falsifiable - it can be tested and proved wrong; anyone could falsify the
hypothesis by observing a
single black sheep, shown in Figure below. If the experimental uncertainties rem
ain small (could the
person reliably distinguish the observed black sheep from a goat or a small hors
e), and if the experimenter
has correctly interpreted the hypothesis, finding a black sheep falsifies the onl
y white sheep hypothesis.
However, you cannot call a failure to find non-white sheep as proof that no nonwhite sheep exist.
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Figure 2.4: The statement

2.4 Scientific Reasoning
Any useful hypothesis will allow predictions based on reasoning. Reasoning can b
e broken down into two
categories: deduction and induction. Most reasoning in science is done through i
nduction.
Deductive Reasoning (Deduction)

Deduction involves determining a single fact from a general statement; it is onl

y as accurate as the
statement.
For example, if the teacher said she checks homework every Monday, she will chec
k homework next Monday.
Deductions are intended to have reasoning that is valid. The reasoning in this a
rgument is valid, because
there is no way in which the reasons 1 and 2, could be true and the conclusion,
3, be false:
Reason 1: All humans are mortal.
Reason 2: Albert Einstein is a human.
Conclusion: Albert Einstein is mortal (Figure below).
Inductive Reasoning (Induction)
Induction involves determining a general statement that is very likely to be tru
e, from several facts.
For example, if we have had a test every Tuesday for the past three months, we w
ill have a test next
Tuesday (and every Tuesday after that).
Induction contrasts strongly with deduction. Even in the best, or strongest, cas
es of induction, the truth of
the reason does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion. Instead, the conclusi
on of an inductive argument
is very likely to be true; you cannot be fully sure it is true because you are m
aking a prediction that has
yet to happen.
A classic example of inductive reasoning comes from the philosopher David Hume:
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Figure 2.5: Albert Einstein (1879

Reason: The sun has risen in the east every morning up until now.
Conclusion: The sun will also rise in the east tomorrow.
Inductive reasoning involves reaching conclusions about unobserved things on the
basis of what has been
observed already. Inferences about the past from present evidence, such as in ar

chaeology, are induction.

Induction could also be across outer space, as in astronomy, where conclusions a
bout the whole universe
are drawn from the limited number of things we are able to observe.
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2.5 Experimental Design
Experiments
A scientific experiment must have the following features:
a control, so variables that could affect the outcome are reduced
the variable being tested reflects the phenomenon being studied
the variable can be measured accurately, to avoid experimental error
the experiment must be reproducible.
An experiment is a test that is used to eliminate one or more of the possible hy
potheses until one
hypothesis remains. The experiment is a cornerstone in the scientific approach t
o gaining deeper knowledge
about the physical world. Scientists use the principles of their hypothesis to m
ake predictions, and then
test them to see if their predictions are confirmed or rejected.
Scientific experiments involve controls, or subjects that are not tested during
the investigation. In this way,
a scientist limits the factors, or variables that can cause the results of an in
vestigation to differ. A variable
is a factor that can change over the course of an experiment. Independent variab
les are factors whose
values are controlled by the experimenter to determine its relationship to an ob
served phenomenon (the
dependent variable). Dependent variables change in response to the independent v
ariable. Controlled
variables are also important to identify in experiments. They are the variables
that are kept constant to
prevent them from influencing the effect of the independent variable on the depe
ndent variable.
For example, if you were to measure the effect that different amounts of fertili
zer have on plant growth,

the independent variable would be the amount of fertilizer used (the changing fa
ctor of the experiment).
The dependent variables would be the growth in height and/or mass of the plant (
the factors that are
influenced in the experiment). The controlled variables include the type of plan
t, the type of fertilizer, the
amount of sunlight the plant gets, the size of the pots you use. The controlled
variables are controlled by
you, otherwise they would influence the dependent variable.
In summary:
The independent variable answers the question What do I change?
The dependent variables answer the question What do I observe?
The controlled variables answer the question What do I keep the same?
Controlled Experiments
In an old joke, a person claims that they are snapping their fingers to keep tige
rs away, and justifies their
behavior by saying, See, it works! While this experiment does not falsify the hypo
thesis snapping your
fingers keeps tigers away, it does not support the hypothesis either, because not
snapping your fingers
will also keep tigers away. It also follows that not snapping your fingers will
not cause tigers to suddenly
appear (Figure 2.6).
To demonstrate a cause and effect hypothesis, an experiment must often show that
, for example, a phenomenon occurs after a certain treatment is given to a subject, and that the phe
nomenon does not occur
in the absence of the treatment.
One way of finding this out is to perform a controlled experiment. In a controll
ed experiment, two
identical experiments are carried out side-by-side. In one of the experiments th
e independent variable
being tested is used, in the other experiment, the control, or the independent v
ariable is not used.
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Figure 2.6: Are tigers really scared of snapping fingers, or is it more likely t
hey are just not found in your
neighborhood? Considering which of the hypotheses is more likely to be true can
help you arrive at a valid
answer. This principle, called
A controlled experiment generally compares the results obtained from an experime
ntal sample against
a control sample. The control sample is almost identical to the experimental sam
ple except for the one
variable whose effect is being tested. A good example would be a drug trial. The
sample or group receiving
the drug would be the experimental group, and the group receiving the placebo wo
uld be the control. A
placebo is a form of medicine that does not contain the drug that is being teste
d.
Controlled experiments can be conducted when it is difficult to exactly control
all the conditions in an
experiment. In this case, the experiment begins by creating two or more sample g
roups that are similar
in as many ways as possible, which means that both groups should respond in the
same way if given the
same treatment.
Once the groups have been formed, the experimenter tries to treat them identical
ly except for the one
variable that he or she wants to study (the independent variable). Usually neith
er the patients nor the
doctor know which group receives the real drug, which serves to isolate the effe
cts of the drug and allow
the researchers to be sure the drug does work, and that the effects seen in the
patients are not due to the
patients believing they are getting better. This type of experiment is called a
double blind experiment.
Controlled experiments can be carried out on many things other than people; some
are even carried out
in space! The wheat plants in Figure 2.7 are being grown in the International Sp
ace Station to study
the effects of microgravity on plant growth. Researchers hope that one day enoug
h plants could be grown
during spaceflight to feed hungry astronauts and cosmonauts. The investigation a

lso measured the amount

of oxygen the plants can produce in the hope that plants could become a cheap an
d effective way to provide
oxygen during space travel.
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Figure 2.7: Spaceflight participant Anousheh Ansari holds a miniature wheat plan
t grown in the Zvezda
Service Module of the International Space Station.
Experiments Without Controls
The term experiment usually means a controlled experiment, but sometimes control
led experiments are
difficult or impossible to do. In this case researchers carry out natural experi
ments. When scientists
conduct a study in nature instead of the more controlled environment of a lab se
tting, they cannot control variables such as sunlight, temperature, or moisture. Natural experiments t
herefore depend on the
scientists observations of the system under study rather than controlling just on
e or a few variables as
happens in controlled experiments.
For a natural experiment, researchers attempt to collect data in such a way that
the effects of all the
variables can be determined, and where the effects of the variation remains fair
ly constant so that the
effects of other factors can be determined. Natural experiments are a common res
earch tool in areas of
study where controlled experiments are difficult to carry out. Examples include:
astronomy -the study of
stars, planets, comets, galaxies and phenomena that originate outside Earths atmo
sphere, paleontology
- the study of prehistoric life forms through the examination of fossils, and me
teorology - the study of
Earths atmosphere.
In astronomy it is impossible, when testing the hypothesis suns are collapsed clo
uds of hydrogen, to start

out with a giant cloud of hydrogen, and then carry out the experiment of waiting
a few billion years for it
to form a sun. However, by observing various clouds of hydrogen in various state
s of collapse, and other
phenomena related to the hypothesis, such as the nebula shown in Figure 2.8, res
earchers can collect data
they need to support (or maybe falsify) the hypothesis.
An early example of this type of experiment was the first verification in the 16
00s that light does not travel
from place to place instantaneously, but instead has a speed that can be measure
d. Observation of the
appearance of the moons of Jupiter were slightly delayed when Jupiter was farthe
r from Earth, as opposed
to when Jupiter was closer to Earth. This phenomenon was used to demonstrate tha
t the difference in the
time of appearance of the moons was consistent with a measurable speed of light.
Natural Experiments
There are situations where it would be wrong or harmful to carry out an experime
nt. In these cases,
scientists carry out a natural experiment, or an investigation without an experi
ment. For example, alcohol
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Figure 2.8: The Helix nebula, located about 700 light-years away in the constell
ation Aquarius, belongs to
a class of objects called
can cause developmental defects in fetuses, leading to mental and physical probl
ems, through a condition
called fetal alcohol syndrome.
Certain researchers want to study the effects of alcohol on fetal development, b
ut it would be considered
wrong or unethical to ask a group of pregnant women to drink alcohol to study it
s effects on their children.
Instead, researchers carry out a natural experiment in which they study data tha
t is gathered from mothers
of children with fetal alcohol syndrome, or pregnant women who continue to drink
alcohol during pregnancy.

The researchers will try to reduce the number of variables in the study (such as
the amount or type of
alcohol consumed), which might affect their data. It is important to note that t
he researchers do not
influence or encourage the consumption of alcohol; they collect this information
from volunteers.
Field Experiments
Field experiments are so named to distinguish them from lab experiments. Field e
xperiments have
the advantage that observations are made in a natural setting rather than in a h
uman-made laboratory
environment. However, like natural experiments, field experiments can get contam
inated, and conditions
like the weather are not easy to control. Experimental conditions can be control
led with more precision
and certainty in the lab.
Predictions
A prediction is a statement that tells what will happen under specific condition
s. It can be expressed in
the form: If A is true, then B will also be true. Predictions are based on confi
rmed hypotheses shown to
be true or not proved to be false.
For researchers to be confident that their predictions will be useful and descri
ptive, their data must have
as few errors as possible. Accuracy is the measure of how close a calculated or
measured quantity is to its
actual value. Accuracy is closely related to precision, also called reproducibil
ity or repeatability. Reprowww.ck12.org
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ducibility and repeatability of experiments are cornerstones of scientific metho

ds. If no other researcher
can reproduce or repeat the results of a certain study, then the results of the
study will not be accepted
as valid. Results are called valid only if they are both accurate and precise.
A useful tool to help explain the difference between accuracy and precision is a

target, shown in Figure

2.9. In this analogy, repeated measurements are the arrows that are fired at a t
arget. Accuracy describes
the closeness of arrows to the bulls eye at the center. Arrows that hit closer t
o the bulls eye are more
accurate. Arrows that are grouped together more tightly are more precise.
Figure 2.9: A visual analogy of accuracy and precision. Left target: High accura
cy but low precision; Right
target: low accuracy but high precision. The results of calculations or a measur
ement can be accurate but
not precise; precise but not accurate; neither accurate nor precise; or accurate
and precise. A collection of
bulls eyes right around the center of the target would be both accurate and prec
ise.
Experimental Error
An error is a boundary on the precision and accuracy of the result of a measurem
ent. Some errors are
caused by unpredictable changes in the measuring devices (such as balances, rule
rs, or calipers), but other
errors can be caused by reading a measuring device incorrectly or by using broke
n or malfunctioning
equipment. Such errors can have an impact on the reliability of the experiments r
esults; they affect the
accuracy of measurements. For example, you use a balance to obtain the mass of a
100 gram block. Three
measurements that you get are: 93.1 g, 92.0 g, and 91.8 g. The measurements are
precise, as they are close
together, but they are not accurate.
If the cause of the error can be identified, then it can usually be eliminated o
r minimized. Reducing the
number of possible errors by careful measurement and using a large enough sample
size to reduce the effect
of errors will improve the reliability of your results.
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2.6 Scientific Theories
Scientific theories are hypotheses which have stood up to repeated attempts at f
alsification and are thus

supported by a great deal of data and evidence. Some well known biological theor
ies include the theory of
evolution by natural selection, the cell theory (the idea that all organisms are
made of cells), and the germ
theory of disease (the idea that certain microbes cause certain diseases). The s
cientific community holds
that a greater amount of evidence supports these ideas than contradicts them, an
d so they are referred to
as theories.
In every day use, people often use the word theory to describe a guess or an opi
nion. For example, I
have a theory as to why the light bulb is not working. When used in this common w
ay, theory does not
have to be based on facts, it does not have to be based on a true description of
reality. This usage of the
word theory often leads to a misconception that can be best summed up by the phr
ase Its not a fact, its
only a theory. In such everyday usage, the word is most similar to the term hypot
hesis.
Scientific theories are the equivalent of what in everyday speech we would refer
to as facts. In principle,
scientific theories are always subject to corrections or inclusion in another, w
ider theory. As a general
rule for use of the term, theories tend to deal with broader sets of phenomena t
han do hypotheses, which
usually deal with much more specific sets of phenomena or specific applications
of a theory.
Constructing Theories
In time, a confirmed hypothesis may become part of a theory or may grow to becom
e a theory itself.
Scientific hypotheses may be mathematical models. Sometimes they can be statemen
ts, stating that some
particular instance of the phenomenon under examination has some characteristic
and causal explanations.
These theories have the general form of universal statements, stating that every
instance of the phenomenon
has a particular characteristic.
A hypothesis may predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory or the obs
ervation of a natural

phenomenon. A hypothesis should also be falsifiable, and one cannot regard a hyp
othesis or a theory as
scientific if it does not lend itself to being falsified, even in the future. To
meet the falsifiable requirement,
it must at least in principle be possible to make an observation that would disp
rove the hypothesis. A
falsifiable hypothesis can greatly simplify the process of testing to determine
whether the hypothesis can
be proven to be false. Scientific methods rely heavily on the falsifiability of
hypotheses by experimentation
and observation in order to answer questions. Philosopher Karl Popper suggested
that all scientific theories
should be falsifiable; otherwise they could not be tested by experiment.
A scientific theory must meet the following requirements:
it must be consistent with pre-existing theory in that the pre-existing theory h
as been experimentally
verified, though it may often show a pre-existing theory to be wrong in an exact
sense
it must be supported by many strands of evidence rather than a single foundation
, ensuring that it
is probably a good approximation, if not totally correct.
Also, a theory is generally only taken seriously if it:
allows for changes to be made as new data are discovered, rather than claiming a
bsolute certainty.
is the most straight forward explanation, and makes the fewest assumptions about
a phenomenon
(commonly called passing the Occams razor test).
This is true of such established theories as special relativity, general relativ
ity, quantum mechanics, plate
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26
tectonics, and evolution. Theories considered scientific meet at least most, but
ideally all, of these extra
criteria.
In summary, to meet the status of a scientific theory, the theory must be falsif
iable or testable. Examples
of scientific theories in different areas of science include:

 Astronomy: Big Bang Theory

Biology: Cell Theory; Theory of Evolution; Germ Theory of Disease
Chemistry: Atomic Theory; Kinetic Theory of Gases
Physics: General Relativity; Special Relativity; Theory of Relativity; Quantum F
ield Theory
Earth Science: Giant Impact Theory; Plate Tectonics
Currently Unverifiable Theories
The term theory is sometimes stretched to refer to theoretical speculation which
is currently unverifiable.
One example is String theory, which is a model of physics, which predicts the ex
istence of many more
dimensions in the universe than the four dimensions that current science underst
ands (length, width,
height, and space-time). A second example is A theory of Everything, which is a
hypothetical theory
in physics that fully explains and links together all known physical phenomena.
For a scientific theory to be valid it must be verified experimentally. Many par
ts of the string theory are
currently untestable due to the large amount of energy that would be needed to c
arry out the necessary
experiments as well as the high cost of conducting them. Therefore string theory
may not be tested in the
foreseeable future. Some scientists have asked if it even deserves to be called
a scientific theory because it
is not yet falsifiable (testable).
Superseded Theories
A superseded, or obsolete, scientific theory is a theory that was once commonly
accepted, but for whatever
reason is no longer considered the most complete description of reality by mains
tream science. It can also
mean a falsifiable theory which has been shown to be false. Giraffes, shown in F
igure 2.10, are often
used in the explanation of Lamarcks superseded theory of evolution. In Lamarckism
, a giraffe is able to
lengthen its neck over its life time, for example by stretching to reach higher
leaves. That giraffe will then
have offspring with longer necks. The theory has been superseded by the understa

nding of natural selection

on populations of organisms as the main means of evolution, not physical changes
to a single organism
over its lifetime.
Scientific Laws
Scientific laws are similar to scientific theories in that they are principles w
hich can be used to predict
the behavior of the natural world. Both scientific laws and scientific theories
are typically well-supported
by observations and/or experimental evidence. Usually scientific laws refer to r
ules for how nature will
behave under certain conditions. Scientific theories are more overarching explan
ations of how nature works
and why it exhibits certain characteristics.
A physical law or law of nature is a scientific generalization based on a suffic
iently large number of
empirical observations that it is taken as fully verified.
Isaac Newtons law of gravitation is a famous example of an established law that w
as later found not to
be universalit does not hold in experiments involving motion at speeds close to t
he speed of light or in
27
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Figure 2.10: Superseded theories like Lamarck

close proximity of strong gravitational fields. Outside these conditions, Newtons
laws remain an excellent
model of motion and gravity.
Scientists never claim absolute knowledge of nature or the behavior of the subje
ct of the field of study.
A scientific theory is always open to falsification, if new evidence is presente
d. Even the most basic
and fundamental theories may turn out to be imperfect if new observations are in
consistent with them.
Critical to this process is making every relevant part of research publicly avai
lable. This allows peer review
of published results, and it also allows ongoing reviews, repetition of experime

nts and observations by

many different researchers. Only by meeting these expectations can it be determi
ned how reliable the
experimental results are for possible use by others.
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2.7 Communicating Ideas

Scientist to Scientist Communication
A wide range of scientific literature is published and it is a format where scie
ntific debates are properly carried out and reviewed. This includes scientific publications that report origina
l research within a scientific
field and can comprise of the following:
scientific articles published in scientific journals
books written by one or a small number of co-authors who are researchers
presentations at academic conferences, especially those organized by societies (
for example, the American Association for the Advancement of Science)
government reports
scientific publications on the internet
books, technical reports, pamphlets, and working papers issued by individual res
earchers or research
organizations
Scientific journals communicate and document the results of research carried out
in universities and
various other research institutions. They are like a type of magazine that conta
ins many articles which are
written by different researchers about their ideas and discoveries. Most scienti
fic journals cover a single
scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is nor
mally expressed in the form of
a scientific paper.
An academic conference is a conference for researchers (not always academics) to
present and discuss

their work. Together with scientific journals, conferences are an important chan
nel for exchange of ideas
between researchers. Generally, work is shared in the form of visual posters or
short presentations lasting
about 10 to 30 minutes. These are usually followed by discussion. A researcher i
s presenting his work to
his peers in Figure 2.11.
Figure 2.11: A presentation at an academic conference. At conferences, scientist
s are able to share ideas
and their research results with many people at one time, and can talk directly t
o other researchers and
answer their questions.
29
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Types of Scientific Publications: Scientific Journals
A scientific journal is a publication that reports new research, and sometimes c
ontains general science
news articles. Most journals are highly specialized for a particular field of re
search such as biochemistry,
microbiology, or botany. However, some of the oldest journals such as Nature pub
lish articles and scientific
papers across a wide range of scientific fields. The journals shown in Figure 2.
12 have a similar look and
layout to science journals.
Scientific journals contain articles that have been peer reviewed in an attempt
to ensure that articles meet
the journals standards of quality, and scientific validity. A scientific journal
is not usually read casually
as you would read a magazine. Some of the content can be very dense and detailed
.
The publication of the results of research is an essential part of the scientifi
c process. The researcher who
has written the paper must give enough details about their experiments so that a
n independent researcher
could repeat the experiment to verify the results.
The significance of these different parts of scientific literature differs betwe
en science disciplines and has
changed over time. Peer-reviewed journal articles remain the most common publica

tion type and have the

highest level of trust. However, journals vary enormously in their prestige and
importance, and the value
of a published article depends on the journal, review process and the degree tha
t it is referenced by other
scientists.
Some well known and well respected science and medical journals include:
Science
Nature
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
(PNAS)
Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Cell
Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA)
The Lancet
Journal of Theoretical Biology
Science Articles
New research is usually written up in the form of a scientific article, which of
ten appear in journals.
A scientific article has a standardized structure, which varies only slightly be
tween the different sciences.
This format can also be used for your lab reports as part of this class.
It is not really the format of the article that is important, but what lies behi
nd it or the content. However,
several key format requirements need to be met by every science article:
1. The title should be short and indicate the contents of the article.
2. The names of all authors that were involved in the research should be given.
Where the authors work
or study should also be listed.
3. The first section is normally an abstract: a one-paragraph summary of the wor
k. The abstract is
intended to serve as a quick guide for the reader as to the content of the artic
le.
4. The format should be able to be stored in a library so that scientists years
later will be able to recover

any document in order to study and assess it

5. The content of the study should be presented in the context of previous scien
tific investigations, by
citing related documents in the existing literature. This is usually in a sectio
n called an introduction.
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Figure 2.12: These research journals publish research papers written by economis
ts, people who study the
economy, and related issues. However, the layout of research journals is very si
milar.
6. Observations that were made, and measurements that were taken are described i
n a section usually
called Materials and Methods. The experiments should be described in such a way
that other scientists
in the same or related fields can repeat the experiments and observations and kn
ow whether he or she gets
the same results. This is called reproducibility.
7. Similarly, the results of the investigation are given in a section called, re
sults. Data should be presented
in tabular or graphic form (images, charts, graphs, photos, or diagrams, shown i
n Figure 2.13. Graphics
should have a caption to explain what they are showing.
8. Interpretation of the meaning of the results is usually addressed in a discus
sion and/or conclusion
section. The conclusions drawn should be based on previous studies and/or new sc
ientific results. They
should also be written in a way such that any reader with knowledge of the field
can follow the argument
and confirm that the conclusions are sound.
9. Finally, a references or literature cited section lists the sources cited by
the authors in the format
required by the journal.
Sources of Information
The reliability of information is dependent on whether the information appears i
n a primary source, sec-

ondary source, or a tertiary source.

Most research studies are first published in a scientific journal, which are ref
erred to as primary sources.
Technical reports, for minor research results are also primary sources.
Secondary sources include articles in review journals (collections of recent res
earch articles on a topic).
Review journals are usually published to highlight advances and new lines of res
earch in specific areas,
such as human genetics, specific medical disorders (such as heart disease), neur
ology (the study of the
nervous system) or malacology, (the study of snails and other mollusks). Large p
rojects, broad arguments,
or a mix of different types of articles may appear in a book. Review journals an
d books are referred to
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Figure 2.13: Examples of a graph and a chart that can be used to communicate dat
a in scientific papers.
(l-r) Graph showing how speed increases over time, Histogram which illustrates t
he frequency a particular
trait appears in a population. Graphics help to illustrate ideas that would othe
rwise be too confusing to
describe in words only.
as secondary sources. Tertiary sources might include encyclopedias and news arti
cles which are generally
written for the public to read.
Peer Review
Scientists are expected to report their work truthfully and honestly. They are a
lso expected to have their
work reviewed by fellow scientists. This process is called peer review.
Peer review is a process of opening a scientists research or ideas (in the form o
f a scientific paper) to
examination by other scientists who are experts in the same field. The peer revi
ew process aims to make
authors meet the standards of their area of study, and to meet the expected stan
dards of science in general.

Publications that have not undergone peer review are likely to be regarded with
suspicion by scholars and
professionals in many fields. However, even peer reviewed journals can contain e
rrors.
A reason for the need for peer review is that it is rare for an individual autho
r or research team to spot
every mistake or flaw in a complicated piece of work. The review process provide
s an opportunity for
improvement because a person with special expertise or experience reads the rese
arch paper before it is
published. Typically, for publication in a science journal, it is also a require
ment that the research is new
and useful. Since reviewers are normally selected from experts in the areas of s
cience covered by the article,
the process of peer review is considered vital to establishing a reliable body o
f research and knowledge.
Therefore, showing work to other scientists increases the likelihood that weakne
sses will be found and
corrected.
The process of peer review is not designed to detect fraud. As a result, there i
s usually a large scandal
when a researcher and author of a science paper is found to have falsified the r
esearch in an article, as
many other researchers may have relied upon their original research for their ow
n work or the researcher
could have received grant money based on falsified research. Peer review of scie
ntific work assumes that
the article reviewed has been honestly written. Usually reviewers do not have fu
ll access to the data from
which the paper has been written, so they trust that the author is being truthfu
l and honest.
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Research Bias
It is important for the researcher to remain neutral or objective when conductin
g scientific research. A bias
is a position for favoring one particular point of view over another, and it is
usually based on preconceived
ideas about a situation. The inability of a human being to remain completely obj

ective is the source of

such bias in research. Nevertheless, a researcher or their study is generally sa
id to be biased only if the
researchers judgment is influenced by the biases they hold, which could influence
their research results.
For example, you want to test whether your dog, Frankie, prefers his regular foo
d or the super expensive
brand dog food that you have just bought on sale. You would put each food in a b
owl and offer both foods
to Frankie at his meal time. However, you secretly hope he prefers his regular f
ood because it is half the
price of the more expensive food and you can buy it in the store down the road.
Frankie takes a couple of
mouthfuls of his regular food, but gobbles up all of the expensive food. You may
think, Well, he did eat
some of regular food, so he still likes it, when in fact Frankie clearly preferre
d the expensive brand. You
buy the regular food anyhow. Whether you like it or not, you are biased toward t
he regular dog food.
This example above is greatly simplified, but, illustrates how personal opinions
may influence an investigation.
Another type of bias, called a systematic bias is introduced from a flaw in meas
urements. For example,
an incorrectly calibrated thermostat may consistently read several degrees hotte
r or colder than actual
temperature. As a consequence, systematic bias commonly leads to systematic erro
rs in the results of an
investigation. Peer review can usually detect systematic biases in a research st
udy.
Conflict of Interest
A conflict of interest is a situation in which a researcher has professional or
personal interests that are
at odds with each other. For example, a researcher is about to investigate a new
headache medicine from
a drug company called Tinneas. The researcher carries out experiments and finds
that the medicine works
very well. End of story, right? Not exactly.
Later it is discovered that the researcher owns Tinneas stock. This means he own

s part of the company.

Even if everything was done correctly during the experiment, and the drug really
does work, this researcher
has a conflict of interest. As an owner of the company, he will earn money if th
e drug works, but will lose
money if the drug does not work. Therefore, any scientist that may have a reason
to favor one particular
result from an investigation should not be involved in that investigation.
Competing interests can make it difficult for a person to carry out his or her d
uties without bias. A conflict
of interest exists even if no wrong has been done, or nothing results from it. A
conflict of interest can
affect the public confidence in the person, a profession, or company.
Scientific Misconduct
When presenting their research to others, an ethical scientist would not falsify
results, lie about their
results, or plagiarize (steal other peoples ideas or work).
Scientific misconduct is the violation of these standard codes of scholarly cond
uct and ethical behavior in
professional scientific research. Scientific misconduct may take place simply ou
t of reputation. For example,
academic scientists are often under enormous pressure to produce publications in
peer reviewed journals.
Alternatively, there may be commercial or political motivations where the financ
ial or political success of
a project depends on publishing evidence of a procedure working or not working.
The consequences of
scientific misconduct can be severe at a personal and professional level for the
people involved. In addition,
there are public health concerns attached to the promotion of medical or other p
rocedures that are founded
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on doubtful research results.
Truth and Honesty in Research and Communication
Some instances of scientific fraud and scientific misconduct have gone through r
eview and were detected

only after other groups tried and failed to replicate the published results. An
example is the case of
physicist Jan Hendrik Schn, in which a total of fifteen papers on microelectronic
s and nanotechnology
were accepted for publication in the top ranked journals, Nature and Science, fo
llowing the usual peer
review process. All fifteen were found to be fraudulent and were then withdrawn.
The fraud was found,
not by the peer review process, but by other research groups who tried and faile
d to reproduce the results
of the paper.
Likewise, biomedical scientist Hwang Woo-Suk, rose to fame after claiming a seri
es of breakthroughs in
the field of stem cell research. He was once considered one of the pioneering ex
perts in the field of stem
cell research, because of his success in creating cloned human embryonic stem ce
lls. However, his two most
famous research articles on the cloning experiments were found to contain large
amounts of fabricated
data. Hwangs papers were retracted (withdrawn from publication), he lost his job
at the university where
he worked, and also lost his research funding.
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2.8 Scientist to Public Communication
Science has become such a part of modern life that it is necessary to communicat
e the achievements, news,
and ambitions of scientists to a wider audience. Scientists need to be able to t
ell each other and the
public about their research and the results of their research. These two groups
make up two very different
audiences for scientists, however. The first audience is made up of their peersfellow scientists who have an
advanced understand of the technical language and procedures that are involved i
n scientific investigations.
The second audience is made up of members of the public who may or may not under
stand or know about
their research. For example, the following passage is a summary of a paper that
appears in the Public

Library of Science (PLoS), an online science journal:

A systematic analysis of Alzheimer disease amyloid peptide variants in Drosophil
a rain demonstrates
that their predicted propensity to form protofi rillar aggregates correlates es
t with toxicity.
Biologists would have no pro lem understanding the language in this paragraph. H
owever, to a person
who is not familiar with this type of science, it may
h. In this, lies the challenge

e interpreted as gi eris

for scientists to communicate their research in a way that the general pu lic ca
n understand.
The results of the study could e written in the following way so that a general
reader could follow what
the researchers meant:
Studies of a particular type of rain protein, called amyloid peptides, have sho
wn that they can sometimes
change into a defective form that resem les sticky clumps. These clumps may eco
me toxic and contri ute
to Alzheimers disease, a wasting disease of the
these proteins to find

rain. Researchers are examining

out what exactly causes them to form such clumps. The studies were carried out o
n fruit flies, which are
commonly used as animal models for genetic and iochemical studies of humans.
Communicating to the Pu lic Through the Internet
Many scientists do a good jo of presenting their work in an accessi le way on t
he Internet. Scientists and
science journalists write news articles that explain the research in everyday la
nguage, and can show how
the research relates to the reader and to their environment. For example, who wo
uld want to read an article
that only talked a out research that is taking place at the South Pole? An artic
le packed with num ers,
units, and percentage rates would
d to other areas such the

e pretty

oring to read if it were not relate

environment, people, animals, or the climate. Also, presenting such academic su

jects in a reada le and
engaging way, allows people to understand what research is
uch general presentation

eing done and why. S

of science appeals to people ecause it allows the reader to relate the su ject
to their life and experiences.
For example, oth the National Science Foundation (NSF) U.S Antarctic Program an
d the International
Polar Year (IPY) 2007-2008 have we sites that explain the types of research that
is going on in Antarctica
and the Arctic. An NSF research vessel that is taking part in the IPY 2007-2008
is shown in Figure 2.14.
A science magazine is a pu lication with news, opinions and reports a out scienc
e and is written for a
non-expert audience. Compare this to a scientific journal, which is written y a
nd for scientific researchers.
Science magazines are read y non-scientists and scientists who want accessi le
information on fields outside
their specialization. Articles in science magazines are sometimes repu lished or
summarized y the general
press, in newspapers, online news sites, and

logs among other media forms.

Science magazines such as New Scientist, shown in Figure 2.15, and Scientific Am
erican, have nontechnical summaries of popular areas of research, nota le discoveries, and scien
tific advancements in different fields of research. Science ooks engage the interest of many more people. S
o, too, do science we sites
and science television programming add more images and illustrations that help t
ell a story. In this way,
more people can ecome more aware of how science effects their lives and ecome
etter informed a out
science su jects.
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Figure 2.14: Gentoo penguins watch the Research Vessel Laurence M. Gould in Anta
rctica. The Gould
is one of two research vessels operated y the National Science Foundation and i
s taking part in the
International Polar Year 2007-2008.
Figure 2.15: Cover of

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36
Scientific Consensus
You may have already heard the term scientific consensus
ject of glo al warming

eing used when the su

is talked a out in the news. Scientific consensus is the collective judgment, po

sition, and opinion of a
community of scientists in a particular field of science, at a particular time.
Scientific consensus is not, y
itself, a scientific argument, and is not part of the scientific method. But the to
pic for which a consensus
exists may itself e ased on oth scientific arguments and scientific methods.
Consensus is normally carried out
g their ideas and findings.
Scientists can accomplish consensus
ces, or y pu lishing their

y scientists talking to each other and sharin

y giving talks or presentations at conferen

ideas and findings for other scientists to read. This can lead to a situation wh
ere those within the field of
science can recognize a consensus when it exists, ut communicating that to othe
rs, such as non-scientists
or the pu lic, can e difficult. Sometimes, scientific institutes release statem
ents that are meant to communicate a summary of the science from the inside to the outside. In cases where
there is little controversy
regarding the su ject under study, laying out what the consensus is a out can e
straightforward.
Nevertheless, scientific consensus may
su jects such as evolution

e used in popular or political de ate on

or climate change that are controversial within the pu lic sphere, ut are not c
ontroversial within the
scientific community.
Science and Society
Environmental Science is a science that is very close to our everyday lives. It
is a very road field, covering
the intricate workings of chemical processes, to the more road concepts of ecos
ystems and glo al climate
change. We are litzed with headlines a out possi le health risks from certain t
oxins and pollutants, the

pro lems of deforestation, and climate change implications. Can an environmental

science ook give you
the answers to these everyday questions? No, ut it will ena le you learn how to
sift through the iases of
investigators, the press, and others in a quest to critically evaluate the quest
ion. To e honest, five years
after you are finished with this
details within. However,

ook, it is dou tful you would remem er all the

you will have a etter idea a out where to look for the answer. Knowing a out th
e process of science will
also allow you to make a more informed decision. Will you e a scientist? Yes, i
n a way. You may not
e formally trained as a scientist, ut you will e a le to think critically, so
lve pro lems, have some idea
a out what science can and cannot do, as well as an understanding of the role of
iology in your everyday
life.
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2.9 Environmental Science and You
So why should you study environmental science? Because you are surrounded y it
every day! It is a out
what happens in the world around you. Each human relyies on natural resources an
d ecosystem processes
to produce our food and sustain our communities. Understanding those processes
etter is a fundamental
knowledge ase. You may also ecome a stronger advocate for your community. For
example, if a tree
planting initiative has egun in your neigh orhood, you can investigate the plan
for your area and find
out what you can do. You could then explain what the program is a out to your fr
iends and family. Or,
perhaps a city park has fallen into disrepair, and city officials are looking fo
r feed ack from the pu lic
a out what to do with it. You could use scientific thinking to analyze the issue
and options, and develop
some solutions.
Influences on Scientific Research

To nonscientists, the competition, frustration, cooperation, and disagreement e

tween research scientists
can seem disorganized. Scientific knowledge develops from humans trying to figur
e things out. Scientific
research and discoveries are carried out
, shortcomings, and

y peoplepeople who have virtues, values

limitationsjust like everyone else. As a result, science and research can

uenced y the values of

e infl

the society in which the research is carried out. How do such values influence r
esearch?
This question is of interest to more than just the scientific community. Science
is ecoming a larger
part of everyones life, from developing more effective medicines to designing inn
ovative sustaina le air
conditioning systems that are modeled after the self-cooling nests of termites.
The pu lic has ecome
more interested in learning more a out the areas of science that affect everyday
life. As a result, scientists
have
k.

ecome more accounta le to a society that expects to enefit from their wor

It costs money to carry out scientific studies. Things such as the cost of equip
ment, transportation, rent,
and salaries for the people carrying out the research all need to
efore a study can start.

e considered

The systems of financial support for scientists and their work have een importa
nt influences of the type
of research and the pace of how that research is conducted. Today, funding for r
esearch comes from many
different sources, some of which include:
Government, for example, through the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Center
for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC), and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
Military funding (such as through the Department of Defense)
Corporate sponsorship
Non-profit organizations, such as the American Cancer Society, Stroke Awareness
For Everyone, Inc.
(SAFE)
Private donors

When the economy of a country slows down, the amount of money availa le for fund
ing research is usually
reduced, ecause oth governments and usinesses try to save money y cutting ou
t on non-essential
expenses.
Science and Ethics
Ethics, also called moral philosophy, is the discipline concerned with what is m
orally good and ad, right
and wrong. The term is also applied to any system or theory of moral values or p
rinciples. Personal
ethics is the moral code that a person adheres to, while social ethics includes
the moral theory that
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38

is applied to groups. Bioethics is the social ethics of

deals with the ethical

iology and medicine; it

implications of iological research and applications, especially in medicine. Bi

oethicists are concerned with
the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among
gy, medicine, politics, law,

iology, iotechnolo

and philosophy.
While scientific research has produced social enefits, it has also posed some t
rou ling ethical questions.
For example, when is it okay to test an experimental cancer drug on people? Deve
loping a new drug
takes a long time, may e as much as 10 years, or more. There are many rules and
regulations that drug
researchers need to stick to while developing drugs to treat specific illnesses.
Generally, drugs cannot e tested on people until researchers have evidence that
the drug does the jo that
they claim it does (in this case kills cancer cells), ut also that the drug wil
l not make patients more ill or
cause death. However, if the drug has tested successfully in earlier experiments
, and scientists are quite
confident that the drug does help kill off cancer cells, is it ethical to allow
patients with terminal cancer,

who have no other treatment options, to try the experimental drug?

With new challenges in pu lic health and health policy, and with advances in io
technology, ioethics is a
fast-growing academic and professional area of inquiry. Some recent ioethical d
e ates also include:
Refusal of medical treatment The choice of a patient to refuse certain life-savi
ng medical procedures
such as a lood transfusion, or refusal
tment for the patient.

y a parent or guardian for medical trea

Euthanasia The choice y a terminally ill person to have medical assistance in d

ying.
Stem cell research Research involving stem cells, which can
man em ryos.

e harvested from hu

Animal cloning The a ility and usefulness of scientists cloning animals for vari
ous needs, such as vaccine
development, tissues for transplant into humans such as heart valve, and increas
ed food production. Dolly
the sheep, pro a ly the most famous animal clone to date, is shown in Figure 2.1
6.
Figure 2.16: Dolly the sheep is seen here with one of her lam s. In 1997, Dolly
was the first mammal to
e cloned, and quickly ecame world-famous. She was euthanized in 2003 after she
developed a common,
ut serious lung disease. To
Because research may have a great effect on the well eing of individual people a
nd society in general,
scientists are required to ehave ethically. Scientists who conduct themselves e
thically treat people (called
su jects) who are involved in their research respectfully. Su jects are not allo
wed to e exploited deli erately, exposed to harm, or forced to do something they do not agree to.
39
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Science in the Media
A lot of popular science articles come from sources whose aim is to provide a ce
rtain amount of entertainment to the reader or viewer. Many popular science articles will examine how a p
henomenon relates to

people and to their environment. Nevertheless, there is a tendency in the popula

r media to dilute scientific
de ates into two sides, rather than cover the complexities and nuances of an iss
ue.
Even well-intentioned scientists can sometimes unintentionally create truth-dist
orting media firestorms
ecause of journalists difficulty in remaining critical and alanced, the medias i
nterest in controversy,
and the general tendency of science reporting to focus on apparent ground reaking
findings rather than
on the larger context of a research field. Sometimes scientists will seek to exp
loit the power of the media.
When scientific results are released with great fanfare and limited peer review,
the media often requires
skepticism and further investigation
ic.

y skilled journalists and the general pu l

The dichloroacetic acid (DCA) story, discussed earlier in this lesson, is an exa
mple of what can go wrong
when a scientific discovery grasps the pu lics attention.
An intense amount of pu lic interest was raised y the study and the story recei
ved much media attention.
As a result, the American Cancer Society and other medical organizations receive
d a large volume of pu lic
interest and questions a out the miracle cure, DCA.
One of the first stories a out the findings contained the headline:
Cheap, safe drug kills most cancers.
The article did explain that the studies were only carried out on cancer cells g
rown in the la and in
rats. However, the headline may have given some readers the impression that huma
n testing of DCA was
complete. People were wildly interested in this new cure to cancer. This prompted t
he American Cancer
Society and other organizations to issue reports that reminded people that altho
ugh the study results were
promising, no formal clinical trials in humans with cancer had yet
out. They stressed the

een carried

need for caution in interpreting the early results. Doctors warned of possi le p
ro lems if people attempted
to try DCA outside a controlled clinical trial. The media received some criticis

m for the sensation that

arose due to their coverage of the discovery.
Therefore, it is important to remem er as a mem er of the pu lic that some popul
ar science news articles
can e misleading. A reader can misinterpret the information, especially if the
information has a emotional
affect on the reader. Also, some articles are written y people who have limited
understanding of the
su ject they are interpreting and can e produced y people who want to promote
a particular point
of view. Unfortunately, it can
ading popular science.

e difficult for the non-expert to identify misle

Sometimes, results are presented in the media without a context, or are exaggera
ted. Popular science may
lur the oundaries etween formal science and sensationalism. It is est to ana
lyze such information with
skepticism as you would if you were to make an o servation in an investigation,
and look at the whole
context of an issue, rather than just the focus of a particular news item.
For example, in early 1999 West Nile virus, a virus most commonly found in Egypt
, was accidentally
introduced to New York. Although infection
symptoms in people,

y the virus causes mostly mild or no

in rare instances, West Nile virus can cause inflammation of the

ess, called West Nile Fever,

rain. The illn

spread across the continent from east to west, carried y infected irds. Mosqui
toes spread the disease to
mammals. Mosquito larvae (young) are shown in Figure 2.17.
There was intense media coverage a out the spread of this disease across the Uni
ted States, and much talk
a out what this meant for everyone. News coverage of West Nile Fever tended to f
ocus on the serious form
of the disease, West Nile Encephalitis, which can cause harmful illness and deat
h. The fact that there is
no vaccine for the disease was also emphasized.
However, it is worthwhile considering that until Octo er 2007 there had een a t
otal of 26, 997 confirmed
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40

Figure 2.17: Mosquito larvae. As seen on the picture, larvae group together in s
tanding water. The darker
structure at the top center of the image is one pupa, another stage of the mosqu
ito lifecycle. Mosquitoes
can transfer diseases etween animals, including West Nile Fever and malaria. Yo
u can avoid mosquito
ites y covering your arms and legs while outside during the early morning and
late evening, and y
applying an insect repellant.
cases of West Nile virus infection, and 1,038 confirmed deaths from the disease.
Compare this to the
estimated 15 to 60 million people in the United States who are infected with the
flu virus every year, and
the estimated 36,000 people who die every year from flu complications.
So the next time you are shocked or horrified
the media, consider how

y a seemingly gloomy forecast in

the issue fits into the igger story.

41
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2.10 Biotechnology: Science Applied to Life

Biotechnology is technology
r iological processes

ased on iology; it involves the use of organisms o

and can e especially used in agriculture, food science, and medicine. It is the
application of iological
knowledge to develop tools and products that allow us to control and adapt to ou
r environment.
Biotechnology has effected society and in a num er of ways. Although it has een
used for centuries in
traditional production processes, such as animal reeding shown in Figure 2.18,
crop growing, and wine
making, modern iotechnology is a recent field of science. Bioengineering is the
science upon which all
iotechnological applications are ased. New developments and new approaches are
developing at a very

fast pace. Biotechnology com ines scientific fields such as genetics, molecular
iology, iochemistry, and
cell iology.
Figure 2.18: Chicks standing on a picture of a genetic map of a chicken. Mapping
the genome of organisms
is a major part of

iotechnology.

The field of modern iotechnology is thought to have largely egun in 1980, when
the United States Supreme
Court ruled that a genetically-modified microorganism could e patented. Indianorn researcher, Ananda
Chakra arty, had developed a acterium that was a le to reak down crude oil, wh
ich he proposed to use
in treating oil spills.
Applications of Biotechnology
Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health
care, crop production and
agriculture, non-food uses of crops such as iofuels, and environmental uses. On
e application of iotechnology uses organisms to produce things such as nutritional supplements like vit
amins or amino acids, and
milk products like cheese, kefir, and yogurt. Biotechnology is also used to recy
cle, treat waste, and clean
up sites contaminated y industrial waste. The use of microorganisms to clean up
contaminated sites such
as an oil spill is called

ioremediation.

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42

Medical applications of iotechnology include designing organisms to produce med

icines such as anti iotics,
or other chemicals. Medical applications for people also include gene therapy wh
ich could e used to treat
a person who has a genetic disorder such as cystic fi rosis.
An example of an agricultural application is designing plants to grow under spec
ific environmental conditions or in the presence (or a sence) of certain chemicals, such as the cress sh

own in Figure 2.19. The cress

plant has een genetically modified to turn red only in the presence of nitrogen
dioxide, a chemical that
is released y landmines and other unexploded
iotechnology company

om s. Researchers at the Danish

that developed the plant hope that the seeds can

und areas where they will

e spread over former attlegro

grow and mark the sites of the explosives, thus speeding up the land mine remova
l process.
Figure 2.19: This thale cress
Another hope is that iotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly s
olutions than traditional
industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to expr
ess a pesticide, which cuts
out the need to apply pesticides to the plants. The corn plants in Figure 2.20 h
ave een genetically
modified (changed) to produce a toxin that comes from a naturally occurring soil
acterium called Bacillus
thuringiensis. The Bt toxin kills the pests that eat and destroy corn crops. Whe
ther or not iotechnology
products such as this are more environmentally friendly in the long run is a hot
topic of de ate.
Figure 2.20: People looking at a sign that explains what the genetically modifie
d corn does. In an effort to
reduce corn stem- orer infestations, corporate and pu lic researchers came toget
her to develop genetically
modified corn varieties suita le for Kenya. The corn plants contain a gene (
43
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2.11 Use of Computers in Science and Medicine

Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which helps solve
ms using computers. Lots of

iological pro le

information is gathered from the mapping of DNA sequences and other related type
s of research. Bioinformatics allows scientists to gather this information, share it and to use it. It
also speeds up the process of
analyzing data the scientists have collected. The field may also

e called compu

tational

iology. Bioinfor-

matics plays a key role in various areas, and it is a key part of the iotechnol
ogy and the pharmaceutical
industries.
Psychologists David Patterson and Hunter Hoffman of the University of Washington
in Seattle developed
a virtual world computer game they called Snow World shown in Figure 2.21, in an ef
fort to reduce
the pain experienced
cedures. They found

y patients undergoing urn treatment and other medical pro

that people who ecame fully engaged in the virtual reality snow world reported
60 percent less pain. This
technology offers a promising new way to manage pain. The researchers say that a
n interactive digital
world may distract us from reality
at once.

ecause our minds focus on just a few things

Figure 2.21: A scene from the interactive

Scientific Models
Scientific models are representations of reality. To descri e particular parts o
f a phenomenon, or the
interactions among a set of phenomena, it is sometimes helpful to develop a mode
l of the phenomenon.
For instance, a scale model of a house or of a solar system is clearly not an ac
tual house or an actual solar
system; the parts of an actual house or an actual solar system represented
scale model are, only in

y a

limited ways, representative of the actual o jects.

Scientific modeling is the process of making a stract models of natural phenomen
a. An a stract
model is a theoretical construct that represents something. Models are developed
to allow reasoning
within a simplified framework that is similar to the phenomena
d. The simplified model

eing investigate

may assume certain things that are known to e incomplete in some details. Such
assumptions can e
useful in that they simplify the model, while at the same time, allowing the dev
elopment of accepta ly
accurate solutions. These models play an important role in developing scientific
theories.

A simulation is a model that runs over time. A simulation rings a model to life
and shows how a
particular o ject or phenomenon will ehave. It is useful for testing, analysis
or training where real-world
systems or concepts can e represented y a model. For the scientist, a model al
so provides a way for
calculations to e expanded to explore what might happen in different situations
. This method often takes
the form of models that can
the asic assumptions

e programmed into computers. The scientist controls

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44

Figure 2.22: A model of planets of the solar system. This model is clearly not a
real solar system; it is
a representation of the planets Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, and Uranus. Scientists
use representations of
natural things to learn more a out them. Also, the visitors to the Griffith O se
rvatory in Los Angeles can
get a etter idea of the relative sizes of the planets (and Pluto!)
this model.

y o serving

a out the varia les in the model, and the computer runs the simulation, eventual
ly coming to a complicated
answer.
Examples of models include:
Computer models
Weather forecast models
Molecular models
Climate models
Ecosystem models
Geologic models
One of the main aims of scientific modeling is to allow researchers to quantify
their o servations a out
the world. In this way, researchers hope to see new things that may have escaped
the notice of other
researchers. There are many techniques that model uilders use which allow us to

discover things a out a

phenomenon that may not

e o vious to everyone.

The National Weather Service Enhanced Radar Images we site (http://radar.weathe

r.gov/) is an
excellent example of a simulation. The site exhi its current weather forecasts a
cross the United
States.
Evaluating Models
A person who uilds a model must e a le to recognize whether a model reflects r
eality. They must also
e a le to identify and work with differences etween actual data and theory.
A model is evaluated mostly
on. Any model that is

y how it reflects past o servations of the phenomen

not consistent with reproduci le o servations must e modified or rejected. Howe

ver, a fit to o served
45
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data alone is not enough for a model to e accepted as valid. Other factors impo
rtant in evaluating a
model include:
Its a ility to explain past o servations
Its a ility to predict future o servations
Its a ility to control events
The cost of its use, especially when used with other models
Ease of use and how it looks
Some examples of the different types of models that are used
n in Figures 2.23 and

y science are show

2.24.
Figure 2.23: A computer model of wind patterns across the continental United Sta
tes for 19 Novem er,
2007. This model is used to forecast wind speeds and directions. Data on wind sp
eed, direction, and
related data are entered into a computer which then produces this simulation. Th
is visual model is much

easier for a person to understand than a large ta le of num ers.

Theories as Models
Theories are constructed in order to explain, predict and understand phenomena.
This could include the
movement of planets, weather patterns, or the ehavior of animals, for example.
In many instances we
are constructing models of reality. A theory makes generalizations a out o serva
tions and is made up of
a related set of ideas and models. The important difference etween theories and
models is that the first
is explanatory as well as descriptive, while the second is only descriptive and
predictive in a much more
limited sense.
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46

Figure 2.24: Biosphere 2 is an example of a very large three-dimensional model w

hich iologists uilt to
attempt to recreate a self-sustaining iome. To learn more a out iomes and ecos
ystems, go to the
2.12 End of Chapter Review & Resources
Chapter Summary
The relia ility of scientific knowledge comes partly from the o jectivity of sci
entific methods, and also from
scientists discussing ideas with each other. In talking with each other, researc
hers must use more than
just their scientific understanding of the world. They must also
ince other scientists of the

e a le to conv

accuracy of their ideas. Graphics help to illustrate ideas that would otherwise
e too confusing to descri e
in words only. The peer review process aims to make authors meet the standards o
f their area of study,
and to meet the expected standards of science in general. Ethics is the discipli
ne concerned with what is
morally good and ad, right and wrong. Bioethics is the social ethics of iology
and medicine; it deals
with the ethical implications of
y in medicine. Bioethicists

iological research and applications, especiall

are concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among
iology, iotechnology,
medicine, politics, law, and philosophy. Scientists need to e a le to tell each
other and the pu lic a out
their research and the results of their research. These two groups make up two v
ery different audiences
for scientists. Presenting academic su jects in a reada le and engaging way, all
ows the general pu ic to
understand what research is
n science appeals to

eing done and why. Presentation of generally writte

people ecause it allows the reader to relate the su ject to their life and expe
riences. You cannot e fully
informed a out the scientific issues you read a out unless you understand the sc
ience ehind the issues,
or have the a ility to think like a scientist to analyze them. The cost of equip
ment, transportation, rent,
and salaries for the people carrying out the research all need to e considered
efore a scientific study can
start. The systems of financial support for scientists and their work have
important influences of the

een

type of research and the pace of research. Today, funding for research comes fro
m many different sources.
Biotechnology is the application of iological knowledge to develop tools and pr
oducts that allow us to
control and adapt to our environment.
47
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Review Questions
1. What is

ias in scientific terms and how is it relevant to science?

2. Who do you think the ethical rules a out scientific research are aimed toward
? Who do they protect?
3. Investigate a science- ased societal issue that affects your town, city, or s
tate. Research literature
and news reports a out the issue, analyzing the data, and examine what an indivi
dual person, the
community, the local government, or federal government could do a out this issue
. Present your
finding in the form of a poster or computer slide presentation to your class.

4. Find a science article that you

aph, a picture, or a

elieve could e improved upon y adding a gr

drawing. Rewrite the article in your own words, and present it to your class, al
ong with your added
graphics.
5. How has

iotechnology affected modern life?

6. Science and iotechnology are pursued for different purposes. Do you agree wi
th this statement?
Explain your answer.
7. Identify an ethical issue that is raised y iotechnology.
8. Identify an ethical issue that is raised y media coverage of science.
9. Why is it a good idea to study science even if you do not want to
reer scientist?

ecome a ca

10. What are three sources of funding for scientific research?

11. How might ethics affect funding for scientific research?
12. Consider the importance of replication in an experiment and how replication
of an experiment can
affect results.
Further Reading / Supplemental Links
The National Academies Press - One Being a Scientist: http://www.nap.edu/reading
room/ ooks/o as/
The University of Washington - The Scientific Method: http://depts.washington.ed
u/rural/RURAL/design/scimethod.html
The United Nations on Science Ethics: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-hu
man-sciences/themes/scienceand-technology/science-ethics/
The National Institute of Environmental Health: Ethics in Research - http://www.
niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/ ioethics/whatis.cfm
Voca ulary to Know
a stract - A rief, usually one-paragraph, summary of the work.
academic conference - A conference for researchers (not always academics) to pre
sent and discuss
their work.
animal cloning - The a ility and usefulness of scientists cloning animals for va
rious needs, such

as vaccine development, tissues for transplant into humans such as heart valve,
and increased food
production.
ioethicists - People concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the rel
ationships among
iology, iotechnology, medicine, politics, law, and philosophy.
ioinformatics - An interdisciplinary field which helps solve
s using computers;
may also

iological pro lem

e called computational iology.

ioremediation - The use of microorganisms to clean up contaminated sites, such

as an oil spill.
iotechnology - Technology ased on iology; it involves the use of organisms or
iological processes
and can e especially used in agriculture, food science, and medicine.
conflict of interest - A situation in which a researcher has professional or per
sonal interests that
are at odds with each other.
deduction - Involves determining a single fact from a general statement.
dependent varia le - Changes in response to the independent varia le.
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48
control - Something that is not tested during the investigation.
controlled experiment - Two identical experiments are carried out side- y-side;
in one of the
experiments the independent varia le eing tested is used, in the other experime
nt, the control, or
the independent varia le is not used.
controlled varia les - Varia les that are kept constant to prevent influencing t
he effect of the
independent varia le on the dependent varia le
ethics - The discipline concerned with what is morally good and ad, right and w
rong.
euthanasia - The choice y a terminally ill person to have medical assistance in
dying - Involves
determining a single fact from a general statement.
dependent varia le - Changes in response to the independent varia le.

 hypothesis - A suggested explanation

ervation or

ased on evidence that can e tested y o s

experimentation.
independent varia le - Factor(s) whose values are controlled y the experimenter
to determine its
relationship to an o served phenomenon (the dependent varia le).
induction - Involves determining a general statement that is very likely to e t
rue, from several
facts.
model - A physical, mathematical, or logical representation of a system, phenome
non, or process;
allows scientists to investigate a phenomenon in a controlled way.
o servation - The act of noting or detecting phenomenon through the senses. For
example, noting
that a room is dark is an o servation made through sight.
Occams razor - States that the explanation for a phenomenon should make as few as
sumptions as
possi le.
peer review - The process of opening a scientists research or ideas (in the form
of a scientific paper)
to examination

y others scientist who are experts in the same field.

phenomenon - Is any occurrence that is o serva le.

reproduci ility - The a ility to repeat experiments and get the same results.
research scientist - A person that does scientific investigations and makes disc
overies.
science magazine - A pu lication with news, opinions and reports a out science;
written for a
non-expert audience.
scientific article - A scientific article discussing new research and findings;
usually pu lished in a
scientific journal.
scientific consensus - The collective judgment, position, and opinion of a commu
nity of scientists
in a particular field of science, at a particular time.
scientific journal - A pu lication that communicate and document the results of
research carried

out in universities and various other research institutions.

scientific methods - Based on gathering o serva le, empirical (produced y exper
iment or o servation) and measura le evidence that is critically evaluated.
scientific misconduct - The violation of standard codes of scholarly conduct and
ethical ehavior
in professional scientific research.
scientific modeling - The process of making a stract models of natural phenomena
.
scientific skepticism - Questions claims ased on their scientific verifia ility
rather than accepting
claims ased on faith or anecdotes.
simulation - A model that runs over time; rings a model to life and shows how a
particular o ject
or phenomenon will ehave.
stem cell research - Research involving stem cells, usually harvested from human
em ryos.
systematic

ias - A ias that is introduced from a flaw in measurements.

varia le - A factor that can change over the course of an experiment.

49
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Chapter 3
Energy and Chemistry of Life
3.1 Introduction
What do you see when you look at this picture? Is it just a mass of tangled ri
ons? Look closely. Its
actually a complex pattern of three-dimensional shapes. It represents the struct
ure of a common chemical
found inside living cells. The chemical is a protein called kinase. It is involv
ed in many cellular processes.
What are proteins? What other chemicals are found in living things? Why does wat
er matter for life?
How is energy important? You will learn the answers to these questions as you re
ad this chapter.

Chapter O jectives
Descri e the six different forms of energy and the type of work done y each for
m.
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50
Discuss the roles of sources and sinks in an energy udget.
Define the Law of Conservation of Energy, and explain how the operation of fuel
cell vehicles illustrates
this principal.
Name the units with which energy, power, and force are measured and descri ed.
Use energy flow within a house to explain oth theoretical and practical aspects
of energy use and
conservation.Define elements and compounds.
Explain why car on is essential to life on Earth.
Descri e the structure and function of the four major types of organic compounds
Descri e what happens in chemical reactions.
State the role of energy in chemical reactions.
Explain the importance of enzymes to living organisms.
Descri e the distri ution of Earths water.
Identify waters structure and properties.
Define acids, ases, and pH.
Explain why water is essential for life.
51
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3.2 Energy
Energy is the a ility to do work. Work is done when a force is applied to an o j
ect over a distance. Any
moving o ject has kinetic energy or energy of motion, and it thus can do work. S
imilarly, work has to e
done on an o ject to change its kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of an o ject
of mass m and speed v is

given y the relation E = 1/2 mv2. Sometimes energy can

later time. For example,

e stored and used at a

a compressed spring and water held ack y a dam oth have the potential to do w
ork. They are said to
possess potential energy. When the spring or water is released its potential ene
rgy is transformed into
kinetic energy and other forms of energy such as heat. The energy associated to
the gravitational force
near the surface of the earth is potential energy. Other forms of energy are rea
lly com inations of kinetic
and potential energy. Chemical energy, for example, is the electrical potential
energy stored in atoms.
Heat energy is a com ination of the potential and kinetic energy of the particle
s in a su stance.
Forms of Energy
Ta le 3.1:
Mechanical energy puts something in motion. It
moves cars and lifts elevators. A machine uses mechanical energy to do work. The mechanical energy
of a system is the sum of its kinetic and potential
energy. Levers, which need a fulcrum to operate,
are the simplest type of machine. Wheels, pulleys
and inclined planes are the asic elements of most
machines.
Ta le 3.2:
Ta le 3.3:
Chemical
energy is the energy stored in
molecules and chemical compounds, and is found in
food, wood, coal, petroleum and other fuels. When
the chemical

onds are roken, either y com us-

tion or other chemical reactions, the stored chemical energy is released in the form of heat or light.
For example, muscle cells contain glycogen. When

the muscle does work the glycogen is

roken down

into glucose. When the chemical energy in the glucose is transferred to the muscle fi ers some of the
energy goes into the surroundings as heat.
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52

Ta le 3.4:
Electrical energy is produced when un alanced
forces etween electrons and protons in atoms create moving electrons called electric currents. For
example, when we spin a copper wire through the
poles of a magnet we induce the motion of electrons
in the wire and produce electricity. Electricity can
e used to perform work such as lighting a ul ,
heating a cooking element on a stove or powering a
motor. Note that electricity is a secondary source
of energy. That means other sources of energy are
needed to produce electricity.
Ta le 3.5:
Ta le 3.6:
Radiant energy is carried y waves. Changes in
the internal energy of particles cause the atoms to
emit energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation which includes visi le light, ultraviolet (UV)
radiation, infrared (IR) radiation, microwaves, radio waves, gamma rays, and X-rays.
Electromagnetic radiation from the sun, particularly light, is of utmost importance in environmen-

tal systems ecause

iogeochemical cycles and vir-

tually all other processes on earth are driven y

them.
Ta le 3.7:
53
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Ta le 3.8:
Thermal energy or Heat energy is related to
the motion or vi ration of molecules in a su stance.
When a thermal system changes, heat flows in or
out of the system. Heat energy flows from hot odies to cold ones. Heat flow, like work, is an energy
transfer. When heat flows into a su stance it may
increase the kinetic energy of the particles and thus
elevate its temperature. Heat flow may also change
the arrangement of the particles making up a su stance y increasing their potential energy. This is
what happens to water when it reaches a temperature of 100
C.
The molecules of water move further away from
each other, there y changing the state of the water
from a liquid to a gas. During the phase transition
the temperature of the water does not change.
Nuclear Energy is energy that comes from the
inding of the protons and neutrons that make up
the nucleus of the atoms. It can

e released from

atoms in two different ways: nuclear fusion or nuclear fission. In nuclear fusion, energy is released

when atoms are com ined or fused together. This

is how the sun produces energy. In nuclear fission, energy is released when atoms are split apart.
Nuclear fission is used in nuclear power plants to
produce electricity. Uranium 235 is the fuel used
in most nuclear power plants

ecause it undergoes

a chain reaction extremely rapidly, resulting in the

fission of trillions of atoms within a fraction of a
second.
See this link to view a video a out nuclear fission:
http://www.ucopenaccess.org/mod/resource/view.php?id=22085
Ta le 3.9:
See this video a out energy: http://www.ucopenaccess.org/mod/resource/view.php?i
d=22080
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54
Energy Sources and Sinks
The source of energy for many processes occurring on the earths surface comes fro
m the sun. Radiating
solar energy heats the earth unevenly, creating air movements in the atmosphere.
Therefore, the sun drives
the winds, ocean currents and the water cycle. Sunlight energy is used
to create chemical energy

y plants

through a process called photosynthesis, and this supports the life and growth o
f plants. In addition, dead
plant material decays, and over millions of years is converted into fossil fuels
(oil, coal, etc.).
Today, we make use of various sources of energy found on earth to produce electr
icity. Using machines, we
convert the energies of wind, iomass, fossil fuels, water, heat trapped in the
earth (geothermal), nuclear
and solar energy into usa le electricity. The a ove sources of energy differ in
amount, availa ility, time
required for their formation and usefulness. For example, the energy released
one gram of uranium

during nuclear fission is much larger than that produced during the com ustion o
f an equal mass of coal.
An energy sink is anything that collects a significant quantity of energy that i
s either lost or not considered
transfera le in the system under study. Sources and sinks have to e included in
an energy udget when
accounting for the energy flowing into and out of a system.
(Source: US Department of Energy)
55
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3.3 Laws of Thermodynamics : Conservation of

Energy
Thermodynamics is the study of energy. Though energy can e converted from one f
orm to another, energy
cannot e created or destroyed. The first law of thermodynamics, or, the conserv
ation of energy
principle, states that energy may change from one form to another,
amount of energy will

ut the total

remain constant. For example, in a motorcycle, the chemical potential energy of

the fuel changes to kinetic
energy. In a radio, electricity is converted into kinetic energy and wave energy
(sound). Machines can e
used to convert energy from one form to another. Though ideal machines conserve
the mechanical energy
of a system, some of the energy always turns into heat when using a machine. For
example, heat generated
y friction is hard to collect and transform into another form of energy. In thi
s situation, heat energy is
usually considered unusa le or lost.
The second law of thermodynamics is also important to environmental science and
states that disorganization, or entropy, increases in natural systems through any spontaneous pro
cess. This means that
as energy is used it is degraded to lower forms of energy. As you just learned,
energy can e condensed

(high quality) or dispersed (low quality). Let us look at the example of wood. M
any years of growing has
fixed/stored energy into the wood of the tree. When it is urned then the energy
changes into new forms
(such as heat, smoke, and ashes) and is dissipated and lost into the surrounding
environment. These new
forms of energy are less condensed, and lower-quality energy forms than the wood
originally held.
http://www.ucopenaccess.org/mod/resource/view.php?id=22093
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56

3.4 Energy Units

In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of work or energy is the Jou
le (J). For very small
amounts of energy, the erg (erg) is sometimes used. An erg is one ten millionth
of a Joule:
1 Joule = 10,000,000 ergs
Power is the rate at which energy is used. The unit of power is the Watt (W), na
med after James Watt,
who perfected the steam engine:
1 Watt = 1 Joule/second
Power is sometimes measured in horsepower (hp):
1 horsepower = 746 Watts
Electrical energy is generally expressed in kilowatt-hours (kWh):
1 kilowatt-hour = 3,600,000 Joules
It is important to realize that a kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy not power. F
or example, an iron rated at
2000 Watts would consume 2 x 3.6 106 J of energy in 1 hour.
Heat energy is often measured in calories. One calorie (cal) is defined as the h
eat required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water from 14.5 to 15.5
C:
1 calorie = 4.189 Joules
An old, ut still used unit of heat is the British Thermal Unit (BTU). It is def
ined as the heat energy

required to raise the energy temperature of 1 pound of water from 63 to 64
F.

Ta le 3.10:
1 BRITISH THERMAL UNIT = 1055 JOULES
57
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3.5 Matter and Organic Compounds

If you look at your hand, what do you see? Of course, you see skin, which consis
ts of cells. But what are
skin cells made of? Like all living cells, they are made of matter. In fact, all
things are made of matter.
Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass. Matter, in turn, is made up
of chemical su stances.
In this lesson you will learn a out the chemical su stances that make up living
things.
A chemical su stance is matter that has a definite composition. It also has the
same composition throughout. A chemical su stance may

e either an element or a compound.

An element is a pure su stance. It cannot e roken down into other types of su

stances. Each element
is made up of just one type of atom. An atom is the smallest particle of an elem
ent that still has the
properties of that element.
There are almost 120 known elements. As you can see from Figure 3.1, the majorit
y of elements are
metals. Examples of metals are iron (Fe) and copper (Cu). Metals are shiny and g
ood conductors of
electricity and heat. Nonmetal elements are far fewer in num er. They include hy
drogen (H) and oxygen
(O). They lack the properties of metals.
Figure 3.1: Periodic Ta le of the Elements. The Periodic Ta le of the Elements a
rranges elements in
groups ased on their properties. The element most important to life is car on (
C). Find car on in the
ta le. What type of element is it, metal or nonmetal?
A compound is a su stance that consists of two or more elements. A compound has

a unique composition
that is always the same. The smallest particle of a compound is called a molecul
e. Consider water as an
example. A molecule of water always contains one atom of oxygen and two atoms of
hydrogen. The
composition of water is expressed y the chemical formula H2O. A model of a wate
r molecule is shown in
Figure 3.2.
What causes the atoms of a water molecule to stick together? The answer is chemical
onds. A
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58

Figure 3.2: Water Molecule. A water molecule always has this composition, one at
om of oxygen and two
atoms of hydrogen.
chemical ond is a force that holds molecules together. Chemical onds form when
su stances react
with one another. A chemical reaction is a process that changes some chemical su
stances into others.
A chemical reaction is needed to form a compound. Another chemical reaction is n
eeded to separate the
su stances in a compound.
The Significance of Car on
A compound found mainly in living things is known as an organic compound. Organi
c compounds make
up the cells and other structures of organisms and carry out life processes. Car
on is the main element
in organic compounds, so car on is essential to life on Earth. Without car on, l
ife as we know it could
not exist. Why is car on so asic to life? The reason is car ons a ility to form
sta le onds with many
elements, including itself. This property allows car on to form a huge variety o
f very large and complex
molecules. In fact, there are nearly 10 million car on- ased compounds in living
things! However, the
millions of organic compounds can e grouped into just four major types: car ohy
drates, lipids, proteins,

and nucleic acids. You can compare the four types in Ta le 3.11. Each type is al
so descri ed elow.
Ta le 3.11: Types of Organic Compounds
Type of Compound
Examples
Elements
Functions
Car ohydrates
sugars, starches
car on, hydrogen, oxyprovides energy to cells,
gen
stores
energy,
forms
ody structures
Lipids
fats, oils
car on, hydrogen, oxystores
energy,
forms
gen
cell mem ranes, carries
messages
Proteins
enzymes, anti odies
car on, hydrogen, oxyhelps cells keep their
gen, nitrogen, sulfur

shape, makes up muscles, speeds up chemical

reactions, carries messages and materials
59
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Ta le 3.11: (continued)
Type of Compound
Examples
Elements
Functions
Nucleic Acids
DNA, RNA
car on, hydrogen, oxycontains instructions for
gen, nitrogen, phosphoproteins, passes instrucrus
tions from parents to
offspring,
helps make
proteins
The Miracle of Life: Car ohydrates, Proteins, Lipids & Nucleic Acids video can
e viewed at
http://www.youtu e.com/watch?v=nMevuu0Hxuc (3:28).
1. Car ohydrates: Car ohydrates are the most common type of organic compound. A
car ohydrate
is an organic compound such as sugar or starch, and is used to store energy. Lik
e most organic
compounds, car ohydrates are uilt of small, repeating units that form

onds wit

h each other to make

a larger molecule. In the case of car ohydrates, the small repeating units are c
alled monosaccharides.
2. Lipids: A lipid is an organic compound such as fat or oil. Organisms use lipi
ds to store energy, ut
lipids have other important roles as well. Lipids consist of repeating units cal
led fatty acids. There
are two types of fatty acids: saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids.
3. Proteins: A protein is an organic compound made up of small molecules called
amino acids. There
are 20 different amino acids commonly found in the proteins of living things. Sm
all proteins may
contain just a few hundred amino acids, whereas large proteins may contain thous
ands of amino
acids.
4. Nucleic Acid: A nucleic acid is an organic compound, such as DNA or RNA, that
is uilt of small
units called nucleotides. Many nucleotides
a polynucleotide.

ind together to form a chain called

The nucleic acid DNA (deoxyri onucleic acid) consists of two polynucleotide chai
ns. The nucleic
acid RNA (ri onucleic acid) consists of just one polynucleotide chain.
Functions of Proteins
Proteins play many important roles in living things. Some proteins help cells ke
ep their shape, and some
make up muscle tissues. Many proteins speed up chemical reactions in cells. Othe
r proteins are anti odies,
which ind to foreign su stances such as acteria and target them for destructio
n. Still other proteins
carry messages or materials. For example, human red lood cells contain a protei
n called hemoglo in,
which inds with oxygen. Hemoglo in allows the lood to carry oxygen from the lu
ngs to cells throughout
the ody. A model of the hemoglo in molecule is shown in Figure 3.3.
A short video descri ing protein function can
m/watch?v=T500B5yTy58&feature=related

e viewed at http://www.youtu e.co

(4:02).
An overview of DNA can

e seen at http://www.youtu e.com/user/khanacademy#p/c/7A

9646BC5110CF64/4/_-vZ_g7K6P0 (28:05).
The inding of complementary ases allows DNA molecules to take their well-known
shape, called a dou le
helix, which is shown in Figure 3.5. A dou le helix is like a spiral staircase.
The dou le helix shape forms
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60

Figure 3.3: Hemoglo in Molecule. This model represents the protein hemoglo in. T
he red parts of the
molecule contain iron. The iron inds with oxygen molecules.
Figure 3.4: (Watch Youtu e Video)
http://www.ck12.org/flex ook/em ed/view/101
naturally and is very strong, making the two polynucleotide chains difficult to
reak apart. The structure
of DNA will e further discussed in the chapter Molecular Genetics: From DNA to
Proteins.
Figure 3.5: DNA Molecule. Bonds etween complementary
helix of a DNA
molecule. The letters A, T, G, and C stand for the
ne, and cytosine. The

ases help form the dou le

ases adenine, thymine, guani

sequence of these four ases in DNA is a code that carries instructions for maki
ng proteins. The start and
stop codons are shown; these will e discussed in the Molecular Genetics: From D
NA to Proteins chapter.
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An animation of DNA structure can e viewed at http://www.youtu e.com/watch?v=qy

8dk5iS1f0&feature=related.
Roles of Nucleic Acids
DNA is found in genes, and its sequence of
d stops, the

ases makes up a code. Between starts an

code carries instructions for the correct sequence of amino acids in a protein (

see Figure 3.5). RNA uses

the information in DNA to assem le the correct amino acids and help make the pro
tein. The information
in DNA is passed from parent cells to daughter cells whenever cells divide. The
information in DNA is
also passed from parents to offspring when organisms reproduce. This is how inhe
rited characteristics are
passed from one generation to the next.
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62

3.6 Biochemical Reactions

What Are Chemical Reactions?
A chemical reaction is a process that changes some chemical su stances into othe
rs. A su stance that starts
a chemical reaction is called a reactant, and a su stance that forms as a result
of a chemical reaction is
called a product. During a chemical reaction, the reactants are used up to creat
e the products.
An example of a chemical reaction is the
igure 3.6. In this

urning of methane, which is shown in F

chemical reaction, the reactants are methane (CH4) and oxygen (O2), and the prod
ucts are car on dioxide
(CO2) and water (H2O). A chemical reaction involves the reaking and forming of
chemical onds. When
methane urns, onds
rm in the molecules

reak in the methane and oxygen molecules, and new onds fo

of car on dioxide and water.

Figure 3.6: Methane Burning. When methane urns, it com ines with oxygen. What a
re the products of
this chemical reaction?
Chemical Equations
A chemical reaction can e represented y a chemical equation. For example, the
urning of methane can
e represented y the chemical equation
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

The arrow in a chemical equation separates the reactants from the products and s
hows the direction in
which the reaction proceeds. If the reaction could occur in the opposite directi
on as well, two arrows
pointing in opposite directions would e used. The num er 2 in front of O2 and H
2O shows that two
oxygen molecules and two water molecules are involved in the reaction. (With no
num er in front of a
chemical sym ol, just one molecule is involved.)
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Conservation of Matter & Chemical Reactions

In a chemical reaction, the quantity of each element does not change; there is t
he same amount of each
element in the products as there was in the reactants. This is
always conserved. The

ecause matter is

conservation of matter is reflected in a reactions chemical equation. The same nu

m er of atoms of each
element appears on each side of the arrow. For example, in the chemical equation
a ove, there are four
hydrogen atoms on each side of the arrow. Can you find all four of them on each
side of this equation?
Chemical reactions always involve energy. When methane
leases energy in the

urns, for example, it re

form of heat and light. Other chemical reactions a sor

se it.

energy rather than relea

Exothermic Reactions
A chemical reaction that releases energy (as heat) is called an exothermic react
ion. This type of reaction
can e represented y a general chemical equation:
Reactants Products + Heat
In addition to methane
orine com ining with

urning, another example of an exothermic reaction is chl

sodium to form ta le salt. This reaction also releases energy.

Endothermic Reactions
A chemical reaction that a sor s energy is called an endothermic reaction. This

type of reaction can

also e represented y a general chemical equation:
Reactants + Heat Products
Did you ever use a chemical cold pack like the one in Figure 3.7? The pack cools
down ecause of an
endothermic reaction. When a tu e inside the pack is roken, it releases a chemi
cal that reacts with water
inside the pack. This reaction a sor s heat energy and quickly cools down the pa
ck.
Figure 3.7: This pack gets cold due to an endothermic reaction.
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64

Activation Energy
All chemical reactions need energy to get started. Even reactions that release e
nergy need a oost of
energy in order to egin. The energy needed to start a chemical reaction is call
ed activation energy.
Activation energy is like the push a child needs to start going down a playgroun
d slide. The push gives the
child enough energy to start moving,
ut eing pushed again.

ut once she starts, she keeps moving witho

Activation energy is illustrated in Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8: Activation Energy. Activation energy provides the
Why do all chemical reactions need energy to get started? In order for reactions
to egin, reactant
molecules must ump into each other, so they must e moving, and movement requir
es energy. When
reactant molecules ump together, they may repel each other ecause of intermole
cular forces pushing
them apart. Overcoming these forces so the molecules can come together and react
also takes energy.
An overview of activation energy can e viewed at http://www.youtu e.com/watch?v
=V IaK6PLrRM&feature=related
(1:16).

Biochemical reactions are chemical reactions that take place inside the cells of
living things. The field
of iochemistry demonstrates that knowledge of chemistry as well as
eeded to understand fully

iology is n

the life processes of organisms at the level of the cell. The sum of all the io
chemical reactions in an
organism is called meta olism. It includes oth exothermic and endothermic react
ions.
Types of Biochemical Reactions
Exothermic reactions in organisms are called cata olic reactions. These reaction
s reak down molecules
into smaller units and release energy. An example of a cata olic reaction is the
reakdown of glucose,
65
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which releases energy that cells need to carry out life processes. Endothermic r
eactions in organisms are
called ana olic reactions. These reactions uild up igger molecules from smalle
r ones. An example of
an ana olic reaction is the joining of amino acids to form a protein. Which type
of reactionscata olic
or ana olicdo you think occur when your ody digests food?
Enzymes
Most iochemical reactions in organisms need help in order to take place. Why is
this the case? For
one thing, temperatures are usually too low inside living things for
reactions to occur quickly

iochemical

enough to maintain life. The concentrations of reactants may also e too low for
them to come together
and react. Where do the iochemical reactions get the help they need to proceed?
The help comes from
enzymes.
An enzyme is a protein that speeds up a
reducing the amount

iochemical reaction. An enzyme works

of activation energy needed to start the reaction. The graph in Figure 3.9 shows
the activation energy

needed for glucose to com ine with oxygen. Less activation energy is needed when
the correct enzyme
is present than when it is not present. You can watch an animation of a iochemi
cal reaction with and
without an enzyme at the link elow.
This animation shows how the enzyme rings reactant molecules together so they c
an react: http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/flashanimat/enzymes/proxorien.swf.
An overview of enzymes can
JM&feature=related

e viewed at http://www.youtu e.com/watch?v=E90D4BmaV

(9:43).
Figure 3.9: Enzyme Action. This graph shows what happens when glucose com ines w
ith oxygen. An
enzyme speeds up the reaction y lowering the activation energy. Compare the act
ivation energy needed
with and without the enzyme.
Enzymes are involved in most
ely well. A typical

iochemical reactions, and they do their jo extrem

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66

iochemical reaction could take several days to occur without an enzyme. With th
e proper enzyme, the
same reaction can occur in just a split second! Without enzymes to speed up ioc
hemical reactions, most
organisms could not survive. The activities of enzymes depend on the temperature
, ionic conditions, and
the pH of the surroundings. Some enzymes work est at acidic pHs, while others w
ork est in neutral
environments.
An animation of how enzymes work can
ZD5xsOKres&feature=related
(2:02).
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e seen at http://www.youtu e.com/watch?v=C

3.7 Water, Acids, and Bases

Water, Water Everywhere
Water, like car on, has a special role in living things. It is needed y all kno
wn forms of life. As you
have seen, water is a simple molecule, containing just three atoms. Nonetheless,
waters structure gives it
unique properties that help explain why it is vital to all living organisms.
Water is a common chemical su stance on planet Earth. In fact, Earth is sometime
s called the water
planet ecause almost 75% of its surface is covered with water. If you look at Fi
gure 3.10, you will see
where Earths water is found. The term water generally refers to its liquid state,
and water is a liquid over
a wide range of temperatures on Earth. However, water also occurs on Earth as a
solid (ice) and as a gas
(water vapor).
Figure 3.10: Most of the water on Earth consists of saltwater in the oceans. Wha
t percent of Earth
Structure and Properties of Water
No dou t, you are already aware of some of the properties of water. For example,
you pro a ly know that
water is tasteless and odorless. You also pro a ly know that water is transparen
t, which means that light
can pass through it. This is important for organisms that live in the water,
ause some of them need

ec

sunlight to make food.

Chemical Structure of Water
To understand some of waters properties, you need to know more a out its chemical
structure. As you
have seen, each molecule of water consists of one atom of oxygen and two atoms o
f hydrogen. The oxygen
atom in a water molecule attracts electrons more strongly than the hydrogen atom
s do. As a result, the
oxygen atom has a slightly negative charge, and the hydrogen atoms have a slight
ly positive charge. A
difference in electrical charge etween different parts of the same molecule is
called polarity. The diagram

in Figure 3.11 shows waters polarity.

Opposites attract when it comes to charged molecules. In the case of water, the
positive (hydrogen) end
of one water molecule is attracted to the negative (oxygen) end of a near y wate
r molecule. Because of
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68

Figure 3.11: Water Molecule. This diagram shows the positive and negative parts
of a water molecule.
this attraction, weak onds form etween adjacent water molecules, as shown in F
igure 3.12. The type
of ond that forms etween molecules is called a hydrogen ond. Bonds
lecules are not as
strong as onds within molecules,
gether near y molecules.

etween mo

ut in water they are strong enough to hold to

Figure 3.12: Hydrogen Bonding in Water Molecules.

Hydrogen onds form etween near y water
molecules. How do you think this might affect water
Properties of Water
Hydrogen onds etween water molecules explain some of waters properties. For exa
mple, hydrogen onds
explain why water molecules tend to stick together. Did you ever watch water dri
p from a leaky faucet or
from a melting icicle? If you did, then you know that water always falls in drop
s rather than as separate
molecules. The dew drops in Figure 3.13 are another example of water molecules s
ticking together.
Hydrogen onds cause water to have a relatively high oiling point of 100C (212F).
Because of its high
oiling point, most water on Earth is in a liquid state rather than in a gaseous
state. Water in its liquid
state is needed y all living things. Hydrogen onds also cause water to expand
when it freezes. This, in
turn, causes ice to have a lower density (mass/volume) than liquid water. The lo
wer density of ice means

that it floats on water. For example, in cold climates, ice floats on top of the
water in lakes. This allows
lake animals such as fish to survive the winter y staying in the water under th
e ice.
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Figure 3.13: Droplets of Dew. Drops of dew cling to a spider we

. Can you think of other

in this picture

examples of water forming drops? (Hint: What happens when rain falls on a newly
waxed car?)
Acids and Bases
Water is the main ingredient of many solutions. A solution is a mixture of two o
r more su stances that
has the same composition throughout. Some solutions are acids and some are ases
. To understand acids
and ases, you need to know more a out pure water. In pure water (such as distil
led water), a tiny fraction
of water molecules naturally reaks down to form ions. An ion is an electrically
charged atom or molecule.
The reakdown of water is represented y the chemical equation
2 H2O H3O+ + OHThe products of this reaction are a hydronium ion (H3O+) and a hydroxide ion (OH
-). The hydroxide
ion, which has a negative charge, forms when a water molecule gives up a positiv
ely charged hydrogen
ion (H+). The hydronium ion, which has positive charge, forms when another water
molecule accepts the
hydrogen ion.
Acidity and pH
The concentration of hydronium ions in a solution is known as acidity. In pure w
ater, the concentration
of hydronium ions is very low; only a out 1 in 10 million water molecules natura
lly reaks down to form
a hydronium ion. As a result, pure water is essentially neutral. Acidity is meas
ured on a scale called pH,
as shown in Figure 3.14. Pure water has a pH of 7, so the point of neutrality on
the pH scale is 7.

Acids
If a solution has a higher concentration of hydronium ions than pure water, it h
as a pH lower than 7.
A solution with a pH lower than 7 is called an acid. As the hydronium ion concen
tration increases, the
pH value decreases. Therefore, the more acidic a solution is, the lower its pH v
alue is. Did you ever
taste vinegar? Like other acids, it tastes sour. Stronger acids can e harmful t
o organisms. For example,
stomach acid would eat through the stomach if it were not lined with a layer of
mucus. Strong acids can
also damage materials, even hard materials such as glass.
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70

Figure 3.14: pH Scale. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 eing the point
of neutrality. What is
the pH of lemon juice? Of milk?
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Bases
If a solution has a lower concentration of hydronium ions than pure water, it ha
s a pH higher than 7. A
solution with a pH higher than 7 is called a
ave a itter taste. Like

ase. Bases, such as aking soda, h

strong acids, strong ases can harm organisms and damage materials. For example,
lye can urn the skin,
and leach can remove the color from clothing.
Acids and Bases in Organisms
Acids and ases are important in living things ecause most enzymes can do their
jo only at a certain
level of acidity. Cells secrete acids and ases to maintain the proper pH for en
zymes to work. For example,
every time you digest food, acids and ases are at work in your digestive system
. Consider the enzyme
pepsin, which helps reak down proteins in the stomach. Pepsin needs an acidic e

nvironment to do its jo ,
and the stomach secretes a strong acid that allows pepsin to work. However, when
stomach contents enter
the small intestine, the acid must
e small intestine need a

e neutralized. This is ecause enzymes in th

asic environment in order to work. An organ called the pancreas secretes a stro
ng ase into the small
intestine, and this ase neutralizes the acid.
Water and Life
The human ody is a out 70% water (not counting the water in
ies from person to

ody fat, which var

person). The ody needs all this water to function normally. Just why is so much
water required y human
eings and other organisms? Water can dissolve many su stances that organisms ne
ed, and it is necessary
for many iochemical reactions. The examples elow are among the most important
iochemical processes
that occur in living things,
volved in iochemical

ut they are just two of many ways that water is in

reactions.
PhotosynthesisIn this process, cells use the energy in sunlight to change car on
dioxide and water
to glucose and oxygen. The reactions of photosynthesis can
chemical equation

e represented y the

6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy C6H12O6 + 6O2

Cellular respirationIn this process, cells reak down glucose in the presence of
oxygen and release
car on dioxide, water, and energy. The reactions of cellular respiration can e
represented y the
chemical equation
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Water is involved in many other iochemical reactions. As a result, just a out a
ll life processes depend on
water. Clearly, life as we know it could not exist without water.
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72
3.8 End of Chapter Review & Resources

Chapter Summary
Living things consist of matter, which can
nd consists of two

e an element or a compound. A compou

or more elements and forms as a result of a chemical reaction.Car ons unique a il

ity to form chemical
onds allows it to form millions of different large, organic compounds. These co
mpounds make up living
things and carry out life processes. Car ohydrates are organic compounds such as
sugars and starches.
They provide energy and form structures such as cell walls. Lipids are organic c
ompounds such as fats and
oils. They store energy and help form cell mem ranes in addition to having other
functions in organisms.
Proteins are organic compounds made up of amino acids. They form muscles, speed
up chemical reactions,
and perform many other cellular functions. Nucleic acids are organic compounds t
hat include DNA and
RNA. DNA contains genetic instructions for proteins, and RNA helps assem le the
proteins. A chemical
reaction is a process that changes some chemical su stances into others. It invo
lves reaking and forming
chemical onds. Some chemical reactions release energy, whereas other chemical r
eactions a sor energy.
All chemical reactions require activation energy to get started. Enzymes are nee
ded to speed up iochemical
reactions in organisms. They work
ater is salt water in

y lowering activation energy. Most of Earths w

the oceans. Less than 3% is freshwater. Water molecules are polar, so they form
hydrogen onds. This
gives water unique properties, such as a relatively high oiling point. The extr
emely low hydronium ion
concentration of pure water gives pure water a neutral pH of 7. Acids have a pH
lower than 7, and ases
have a pH higher than 7. Water is involved in most
ore, water is essential to

iochemical reactions. Theref

life.
Review Questions
1. Usually, a course in environmental science egins with a discussion a out ene
rgy and not iology.

Why is energy so important?

2. Name the various types of energy and give examples of each.
3. Identify an energy source and sink.
4. What are elements and compounds? Give an example of each.
5. List the four major types of organic compounds.
6. State two functions of proteins.
7. Assume that you are trying to identify an unknown organic molecule. It contai
ns only car on,
hydrogen, and oxygen and is found in the cell walls of a newly discovered plant
species. What type
of organic compound is it?
8. Explain why car on is essential to all known life on Earth.
9. Identify the roles of reactants and products in chemical reactions.
10. What is the general chemical equation for an endothermic reaction?
11. What are

iochemical reactions? What is an example?

12. How do enzymes speed up iochemical reactions?

13. What is wrong with the chemical equation
remem er that all

elow? How could you fix it? (hint:

chemical equations should have the same num er of elements on either side). CH4
+ O2 CO2 +
2H2O
14. How does a chemical equation show that matter is always conserved in a chemi
cal reaction?
15. Why do all chemical reactions require activation energy?
16. What type of reaction (endothermic or exothermic) is represented
owing chemical equation?

y the foll

Explain your answer. 2Na + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2 + heat

17. Explain why organisms need enzymes to survive.
18. What are the special characteristics of water that make it so vital to life
on Earth?
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19. Where is most of Earths water found?

20. What is polarity? Descri e the polarity of water.

21. What is the pH of a neutral solution?
22. Descri e an example of an acid or a
.

ase that is involved in human digestion

23. Assume that you test an unknown solution and find that it has a pH of 7.2. W
hat type of solution
is it? How do you know?
24. How could you demonstrate to a child that solid water is less dense than liq
uid water?
25. Explain how waters polarity is related to its oiling point.
26. Explain why meta olism (cellular respiration) in organisms depends on water.
Further Reading / Supplemental Links
James D. Watson, The Dou le Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of DNA. T
ouchstone,
2001.
The Chemistry of Biology http://www.infoplease.com/cig/ iology/organic-chemistry
.html
Voca ulary to Know
activation energy
acid
amino acid
ana olic reaction
ase
iochemical reaction
car ohydrate
cata olic reaction
chemical

ond

chemical reaction
compound
dou le helix
element
endothermic reaction
enzyme

 exothermic reaction
hydrogen

ond

lipid
matter
meta olism
nucleic acid
nucleotide
organic compound
pH
polarity
polynucleotide
product
protein
reactant
RNA
solution
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74
Credits
Opening image courtesy of David I erri under the Creative Commons license CC-BYSA 3.0.
For Ta le ?? , from top to ottom:
United States Department of Agriculture. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Potatoes.jpg.
Pu lic Domain.
KGH. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hepatocellular_carcinoma_histopathol
ogy_%282%29_at_higher_magnification.jpg. CC-BY-SA 3.0.
Image copyright Ju al Harshaw, 2011. http://www.shutterstock.com. Used under lic
ense from Shutterstock.com.
Hafiz Issadeen. http://www.flickr.com/photos/yimhafiz/2547531809/. CC-BY 2.0.

75
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Chapter 4
Biogeochemical Cycles and
Recycling Matter
4.1 Introduction
Nutrient cycles are important ecosystem processes that release matter necessary
for life ack into the
environment, and that help sustain natural processes. Human actions are now nega
tively affecting many
of these cycles.
Chapter O jectives
Descri e the water cycle.
Descri e the car on cycle.
Understand how car on regulates climate.
Descri e the nitrogen cycle.
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76
Descri e the phosphorus cycle.
77
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4.2 Recycling Matter
Unlike energy, elements are not lost and replaced as they pass through ecosystem
s. Instead, they are
recycled repeatedly. All chemical elements that are needed
recycled in ecosystems,

y living things are

including car on, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur. Water is a
lso recycled.
Biogeochemical Cycles
A iogeochemical cycle is a closed loop through which a chemical element or wate
r moves through ecosystems. In the term iogeochemical,

io- refers to iotic components and geo- to g

eological and other a iotic

components. Chemicals cycle through oth iotic and a iotic components of ecosys
tems. For example, an
element might move from the atmosphere to ocean water, from ocean water to ocean
organisms, and then
ack to the atmosphere to repeat the cycle.
Elements or water may e held for various lengths of time
s of a iogeochemical

y different component

cycle. Components that hold elements or water for a relatively short period of t
ime are called exchange
pools. For example, the atmosphere is an exchange pool for water. It holds water
for several days at the
longest. This is a very short time compared with the thousands of years the deep
ocean can hold water.
The ocean is an example of a reservoir for water. Reservoirs are components of a
geochemical cycle that
hold elements or water for a relatively long period of time.
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78

Water Cycle
Earths water is constantly in motion. Although the water on Earth is illions of
years old, individual
water molecules are always moving through the water cycle. The water cycle descr
i es the continuous
movement of water molecules on, a ove, and elow Earths surface. It is shown in F
igure 4.1. Like other
iogeochemical cycles, there is no eginning or end to the water cycle. It just
keeps repeating. During the
cycle, water occurs in its three different states: gas (water vapor), liquid (wa
ter), and solid (ice). Processes
involved in changes of state in the water cycle include evaporation, su limation
, and transpiration.
Figure 4.1: This diagram of the water cycle shows where water is stored and the
processes y which water
moves through the cycle, including evaporation, condensation, and precipitation.

The water cycle is demonstrated at http://www.youtu e.com/watch?v=iohKd5FWZOE&#3

8;feature=related
(4:00).
Figure 4.2: (Watch Youtu e Video)
http://www.ck12.org/flex ook/em ed/view/167
Evaporation, Su limation, and Transpiration
The sun is the driving force
other odies of water,

ehind the water cycle. It heats oceans, lakes, and

causing water to evaporate from the surface and enter the atmosphere as water va
por. Water in soil also
evaporates easily. In addition, the sun heats ice and snow, causing it to turn d
irectly into water vapor in
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the process of su limation. Water also evaporates from the a ove-ground parts of
plants. Transpiration
is another process y which plants lose water. Transpiration occurs when stomata
in leaves open to take
in car on dioxide for photosynthesis and lose water to the atmosphere in the pro
cess.
The water cycle plays an important role in climate. For molecules of liquid wate
r to change to water
vapor, kinetic energy is required, or the energy of movement. As faster-moving m
olecules evaporate, the
remaining molecules have lower average kinetic energy, and the temperature of oc
ean water thus decreases.
The primary way that oceans slow glo al warming is y heat uptake which warms oc
ean water and removes
some energy from the atmosphere.
Condensation and Precipitation
Rising air currents carry water vapor from all these sources into the atmosphere
. As the water vapor rises
higher into the atmosphere or is carried toward the poles y winds, the air
mes cooler. Cooler air

eco

cannot hold as much water vapor, so the water vapor condenses into tiny water dr
oplets around particles
in the air. The tiny water droplets form clouds.

Air currents cause the tiny water droplets in clouds to collide and merge into l
arger droplets. When water
droplets in clouds ecome large enough to fall, they ecome precipitation. Most
precipitation falls ack
into the ocean. Precipitation that falls at high altitudes or near the poles can
accumulate as ice caps and
glaciers. These masses of ice can store frozen water for hundreds of years or lo
nger.
Infiltration and Runoff
Rain that falls on land may either soak into the ground, which is called infiltr
ation, or flow over the land
as runoff. Snow that falls on land eventually melts, with the exception of snow
that accumulates at high
altitudes or near the poles. Like rain water, snowmelt can either infiltrate the
ground or run off.
Water that infiltrates the ground is called groundwater. Groundwater close to th
e surface can e taken
up y plants. Alternatively, it may flow out of the ground as a spring or slowly
seep from the ground into
odies of water such as ponds, lakes, or the ocean. Groundwater can also flow de
eper underground. It
may eventually reach an aquifer. An aquifer is an underground layer of water- ea
ring, permea le rock.
Groundwater may e stored in an aquifer for thousands of years. Wells drilled in
to an aquifer can tap this
underground water and pump it to the surface for human use.
Runoff water from rain or snowmelt eventually flows into streams and rivers. The
water is then carried
to ponds, lakes, or the ocean. From these
vaporate to form water

odies of water, water molecules can e

vapor and continue the cycle.

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80

Car on Cycle
Runoff, streams, and rivers can gradually dissolve car on in rocks and carry it
to the ocean. The ocean
is a major reservoir for stored car on. It is just one of four major reservoirs.

The other three are the

atmosphere, the iosphere, and organic sediments such as fossil fuels. Fossil fu
els, including petroleum
and coal, form from the remains of dead organisms. All of these reservoirs of ca
r on are interconnected
y pathways of exchange in the car on cycle, which is shown in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: This drawing of the car on cycle shows the amounts of car on stored
in and exchanged etween
car on reservoirs on land and in water. Another 70 million GtC of car on may
stored in sedimentary

rock. If this is true, it would make sedimentary rock the greatest reservoir of
car on on Earth.
Car on occurs in a various forms in different parts of the car on cycle. Some of
the different forms in which
car on appears are descri ed in Ta le 4.1. Refer to the ta le as you read how ca
r on moves etween
reservoirs of the cycle.
81
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Ta le 4.1: Forms of Car on in the Car on Cycle: Car on Dioxide, Gas, Calcium Car
onate,
Solids
Form of Car on
Chemical Formula
State
Main Reservoir
Car on Dioxide
CO2
Gas
Atmosphere
Car onic Acid
H2CO3
Liquid

Ocean
Bicar onate Ion
HCO3
Liquid(dissolvedion)
Ocean
Organic Compounds
Examples:
Glucose,
Solid Gas
Biosphere Organic SediC6H12O6
Methane,
ments (Fossil Fuels)
CH4
Other
Car on
ComExamples:
Calcium
Solid Solid
Sedimentary
Rock,
pounds
Car onate, CaCO3 CalShells
Sedimentary
cium Magnesium CarRock
onate, CaMg(CO3)2
KEY: C = Car on, O = Oxygen, H = Hydrogen

Car on in the Atmosphere

In the atmosphere, car on exists primarily as car on dioxide (CO2). Car on dioxi
de enters the atmosphere
from several different sources, including those listed
s are also represented in

elow. Most of the source

Figure 2, and some are descri ed in detail later in the lesson.

Living organisms release car on dioxide as a yproduct of cellular respiration.
Car on dioxide is given off when dead organisms and other organic materials deco
mpose.
Burning organic material, such as fossil fuels, releases car on dioxide.
When volcanoes erupt, they give off car on dioxide that is stored in the mantle.
Car on dioxide is released when limestone is heated during the production of cem
ent.
Ocean water releases dissolved car on dioxide into the atmosphere when water tem
perature rises.
A much smaller amount of car on in the atmosphere is present as methane gas (CH4
). Methane is released
into the atmosphere when dead organisms and other organic matter decay in the a
sence of oxygen. It is
produced
.

y landfills, the mining of fossil fuels, and some types of agriculture

There are also several different ways that car on leaves the atmosphere. Car on
dioxide is removed from
the atmosphere when plants and other autotrophs take in car on dioxide to make o
rganic compounds
during photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. Car on dioxide is also removed when oce
an water cools and
dissolves more car on dioxide from the air. These processes are also represented
in Figure 4.3.
Because of human activities, there is more car on dioxide in the atmosphere toda
y than in the past hundreds
of thousands of years. Burning fossil fuels and producing concrete has released
great quantities of car on
dioxide into the atmosphere. Cutting forests and clearing land has also increase
d car on dioxide into
the atmosphere ecause these activities reduce the num er of autotrophic organis
ms that use up car on
dioxide in photosynthesis. In addition, clearing often involves
eleases car on dioxide that

urning, which r

was previously stored in autotrophs.

The car on cycle (6d) is discussed in the following video: http://www.youtu e.co
m/watch?v=0Vwa6qtEih8
(1:56).
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82

Figure 4.4: (Watch Youtu e Video)

http://www.ck12.org/flex ook/em ed/view/169
Car on in Ocean Water
Most car on enters the ocean when car on dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves in
ocean water. When
car on dioxide dissolves in water (H2O), it forms an acid called car onic acid (
H2CO3). The reaction is
given y the equation:
CO2 + H2O H2CO3.
The dou le-headed arrow indicates that the reaction can occur in either directio
n, depending on the
conditions and the amount of car on dioxide present. For example, the reaction o
ccurs more readily in the
left-to-right direction in cold water. As a result, near the poles, where ocean
water is cooler, more car on
dioxide is dissolved and there is more car onic acid in the water. Although car
onic acid is a weak acid,
it is an important regulator of the acid- ase (pH) alance of ocean water.
Car onic acid, in turn, readily separates into hydrogen ions (H+) and
e ions (HCO3). This

icar onat

occurs in the following reaction:

H2CO3 H+ + HCO3.
Due to these two reactions, most dissolved car on dioxide in the ocean is in the
form of icar onate ions.
Another source of icar onate ions in ocean water is runoff. Flowing water erode
s rocks containing car on
compounds such as calcium car onate. This forms icar onate ions, which the runo
ff carries to streams,

rivers, and eventually the ocean. Many of the icar onate ions in ocean water ar
e moved y ocean currents
into the deep ocean. Car on can
ate ions for thousands of

e held in this deep ocean reservoir as icar on

years or more.
Car on in the Biosphere
Bicar onate ions near the surface of the ocean may e taken up
algae and acteria

y photosynthetic

that live near the surface. These and other autotrophic organisms use icar onat
e ions or other forms of
car on to synthesize organic compounds. Car on is essential for life
is the main ingredient of

ecause it

every type of organic compound. Organic compounds make up the cells and tissues
of all organisms and
keep organisms alive and functioning. Car on enters all ecosystems, oth terrest
rial and aquatic, through
autotrophs such as plants or algae. Autotrophs use car on dioxide from the air,
or icar onate ions from
the water, to make organic compounds such as glucose. Heterotrophs consume the o
rganic molecules and
pass the car on through food chains and we s.
How does car on cycle
on dioxide as a

ack to the atmosphere or ocean? All organisms release car

yproduct of cellular respiration. Recall from the Cellular Respiration chapter

that cellular respiration
is the process y which cells oxidize glucose and produce car on dioxide, water,
and energy. Decomposers
also release car on dioxide when they
c waste.

reak down dead organisms and other organi

In a alanced ecosystem, the amount of car on used in photosynthesis and passed

through the ecosystem is
83
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a out the same as the amount given off in respiration and decomposition. This cy
cling of car on etween
the atmosphere and organisms forms an organic pathway in the car on cycle. Car o
n can cycle quickly
through this organic pathway, especially in aquatic ecosystems. In fact, during
a given period of time,

much more car on is recycled through the organic pathway than through the geolog
ical pathway you will
read a out next.
Car on in Rocks and Sediments
The geological pathway of the car on cycle takes much longer than the organic pa
thway descri ed a ove.
In fact, it usually takes millions of years for car on to cycle through the geol
ogical pathway. It involves
processes such as rock formation, su duction, and volcanism.
As stated previously, most car on in ocean water is in the form of icar onate i
ons. Bicar onate ions may
ind with other ions, such as calcium ions (Ca+) or magnesium ions (Mg+), and fo
rm insolu le compounds.
Because the compounds are insolu le, they precipitate out of water and gradually
form sedimentary rock,
such as limestone (calcium car onate, CaCO3) or dolomite [calcium magnesium car
onate CaMg(CO3)2.
Dead organisms also settle to the ottom of the ocean. Many of them have shells
containing calcium
car onate. Over millions of years, the pressure of additional layers of sediment
s gradually changes their
calcium car onate and other remaining organic compounds to car on-containing sed
imentary rock.
During some periods in Earths history, very rich organic sediments were deposited
. These deposits formed
pockets of hydrocar ons. Hydrocar ons are organic compounds that contain only ca
r on and hydrogen.
The hydrocar ons found in sediments are fossil fuels such as natural gas. The hy
drocar on methane is the
chief component of natural gas.
Car on-containing rocks and sediments on the ocean floor gradually move toward t
he edges of the ocean
due to a process called seafloor spreading. The rocks eventually reach cracks in
the crust, where they are
pulled down into the mantle. This process, called su duction, occurs at su ducti
on zones. In the mantle,
the rocks melt and their car on is stored. When volcanoes erupt, they return som
e of the stored car on in

the mantle to the atmosphere in the form of car on dioxide, a process known as v
olcanism. This rings
the geological pathway of the car on cycle full circle.
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84

Nitrogen Cycle
The atmosphere is the largest reservoir of nitrogen on Earth. It consists of 78
percent nitrogen gas (N2).
The nitrogen cycle moves nitrogen through a iotic and iotic components of ecosy
stems. Figure 4.5
shows how nitrogen cycles through a terrestrial ecosystem. Nitrogen passes from
the atmosphere into soil.
Then it moves through several different organisms efore returning to the atmosp
here to complete the
cycle. In aquatic ecosystems, nitrogen passes through a similar cycle.
Figure 4.5: In a terrestrial ecosystem, the nitrogen cycle may include plants an
d consumers as well as
several types of

acteria.

The nitrogen cycle (6d) is discussed at http://www.youtu e.com/watch?v=pdY4I-Eaq

JA&feature=fvw
(5:08).
Figure 4.6: (Watch Youtu e Video)
http://www.ck12.org/flex ook/em ed/view/170
A sorption of Nitrogen
Plants and other producers use nitrogen to synthesize nitrogen-containing organi
c compounds. These
include chlorophyll, proteins, and nucleic acids. Other organisms that consume p
roducers make use of the
nitrogen in these organic compounds. Plants a sor su stances such as nitrogen f
rom the soil through
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their root hairs. However, they cannot a sor
sor nitrogen only in the

nitrogen gas directly. They can a

form of nitrogen-containing ions, such as nitrate ions (NO3).

Nitrogen Fixation
The process of converting nitrogen gas to nitrate ions that plants can a sor
called nitrogen fixation.

is

It is carried out mainly y nitrogen-fixing acteria, which secrete enzymes need

ed for the process. Some
nitrogen-fixing acteria live in soil. Others live in the root nodules of legume
s such as peas and eans. In
aquatic ecosystems, some cyano acteria are nitrogen fixing. They convert nitroge
n gas to nitrate ions that
algae and other aquatic producers can use.
Nitrogen gas in the atmosphere can
ns. One way is y the

e converted to nitrates y several other mea

energy in lightning. Nitrogen is also converted to nitrates as a result of certa

in human activities. These
include the production of fertilizers and explosives and the
uels. These human activities

urning of fossil f

also create the gas nitrous oxide (N2O). The concentration of this gas in the at
mosphere has tripled over
the past hundred years as a result. Nitrous oxide is a greenhouse gas that contr
i utes to glo al warming
and other environmental pro lems.
Ammonification and Nitrification
After eing used y plants and animals, nitrogen is released
onment. When decomposers

ack into the envir

reak down organic remains and wastes, they release nitrogen in the form of ammo
nium ions (NH4). This
is called ammonification. It occurs in
In terrestrial ecosystems,

oth terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

some nitrogen-fixing acteria in soil and root nodules also convert nitrogen gas
directly into ammonium
ions.
Although some plants can a sor
nnot. In fact, ammo-

nitrogen in the form of ammonium ions, others ca

nium ions may e toxic to some plants and other organisms. Certain soil
, called nitrifying acteria,
convert ammonium ions to nitrites (NO2). Other nitrifying
itrites to nitrates, which

acteria

acteria convert the n

plants can a sor . The process of converting ammonium ions to nitrites or nitrat
es is called nitrification.
Denitrification and the Anammox Reaction
Still other acteria, called denitrifying
in soil ack into nitrogen

acteria, convert some of the nitrates

gas in a process called denitrification. The process is the opposite of nitrogen

fixation. Denitrification
returns nitrogen gas ack to the atmosphere, where it can continue the nitrogen
cycle.
In the ocean, another reaction occurs to cycle nitrogen ack to nitrogen gas in
the atmosphere. The
reaction, called the anammox reaction, is ena led y certain acteria in the wat
er. In the reaction,
ammonium and nitrite ions com ine to form water and nitrogen gas. This is shown
y the equation:
NH +
4
+ NO2 N2 + 2H2O.
The anammox reaction may contri ute up to half of the nitrogen gas released into
the atmosphere y the
ocean. The reaction may also significantly limit production in ocean ecosystems
y removing nitrogen
compounds that are needed y aquatic producers and other organisms.
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86
4.3 End of Chapter Review & Resources
Chapter Summary
Matter cycles are important means of putting nutrients
geochemical cycles are

ack into ecosystems. Bio

closed loops through which chemical elements or water move through ecosystems. E
xamples of iogeochemical cycles include the water cycle, car on cycle, and nitrogen cycle. The w
ater cycle recycles water
through ecosystems. Processes y which water changes state in the water cycle in
clude evaporation, su -

limation, transpiration, and condensation. The organic pathway of the car on cyc
le moves car on from
the atmosphere, through producers and other organisms in ecosystems, and
the atmosphere. The

ack to

geological pathway moves car on from the atmosphere, through the ocean to rocks
and the mantle, and
ack to the atmosphere. The nitrogen cycle moves nitrogen gas from the atmospher
e into soil or water,
where nitrogen-fixing acteria convert it to a form that producers can use. Nitr
ifying acteria help nitrogen cycle through ecosystems. Denitrifying acteria return nitrogen gas ack
to the atmosphere. The
anammox reaction returns nitrogen ack to the atmosphere from ocean water.
Review Questions
1. What a iotic factors might e involved in recycling matter? For example, what
a iotic factors might
e involved in recycling water?
2. What is a

iogeochemical cycle? Name one example.

3. Identify and define two processes y which water changes state in the water c
ycle.
4. State three ways that car on dioxide enters Earths atmosphere.
5. How do acteria convert nitrogen gas to a form that producers can use?
6. Descri e all the ways that a single tree might e involved in the car on cycl
e.
7. Explain why growing a crop of legumes can improve the a ility of the soil to
support the growth of
other plants.
8. Compare and contrast organic and geological pathways in the car on cycle.
9. Identify an exchange pool and a reservoir in the water cycle. Explain your ch
oices.
10. Matter is recycled through a iotic and iotic components of all ecosystems.
However, ecosystems
vary in the amount of matter they recycle. For example, forests recycle more mat
ter than deserts.
(a) What factors do you think might cause ecosystems to differ in this way?
( ) What a iotic components of the environment do you think might e important?
(c) What a out the amount of sunlight or precipitation that ecosystems receive?

(d) What roles do you think these a iotic components play in cycles of matter?
Further Reading / Supplemental Links
http://eartho servatory.nasa.gov/Li rary/Car onCycle/
http://estrellamountain.edu/faculty/fara ee/ io k/BioBookcycles.html
http://estrellamountain.edu/faculty/fara ee/ io k/BioBookcommecosys.html
http://estrellamountain.edu/faculty/fara ee/ io k/BioBookpopecol.html http://est
rellamountain.edu/faculty/fara ee/ io k/BioBookpopecol.html]
http://eartho servatory.nasa.gov/Li rary/Car onCycle/
http://ide.ucsd.edu/earthguide/diagrams/watercycle/
http://o serve.arc.nasa.gov/nasa/earth/hydrocycle/hydro1.html
87
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Voca ulary to Know
ammonification - The release of nitrogen in the form of ammonium ions (NH4) due
to the reak down
of organic remains and wastes y decomposers.
anammox reaction - Reaction in which ammonium and nitrite ions com ine to form w
ater and
nitrogen gas; ena led y certain acteria in the water.
aquifer - An underground layer of water- earing, permea le rock.
iogeochemical cycle - A closed loop through which a chemical element or water m
oves through
ecosystems.
car on cycle - Pathways of exchange that interconnect the four major reservoirs
of car on: the ocean,
the atmosphere, the iosphere and organic sediments, such as fossil fuels.
denitrification - The conversion of some of the nitrates in soil
gen gas; done y den-

ack into nitro

itrifying acteria; returns nitrogen gas ack to the atmosphere, where it can co
ntinue the nitrogen
cycle.
groundwater - Water that infiltrates the ground.
infiltration - Rain that falls on land and soaks into the ground.

 nitrification - The process of converting ammonium ions to nitrites or nitrates.

nitrogen cycle - The cycle that moves nitrogen through a iotic and iotic compon
ents of ecosystems.
nitrogen fixation - The process of converting nitrogen gas to nitrate ions that
plants can a sor ;
carried out mainly y nitrogen-fixing acteria.
precipitation - Forms when water droplets in clouds ecome large enough to fall.
runoff - Rain that falls on land and flows over the land.
su duction - A process where car on containing rocks and sediments on the ocean
floor are pulled
down into the mantle; due to seafloor spreading.
su limation - The transformation of snow and ice directly into water vapor; occu
rs as the snow and
ice are heated

y the sun.

transpiration - A process y which plants lose water; occurs when stomata in lea
ves open to take in
car on dioxide for photosynthesis and lose water to the atmosphere in the proces
s.
volcanism - The process of returning some of the stored car on in the mantle to
the atmosphere in
the form of car on dioxide; occurs when volcanoes erupt.
water cycle - Descri es the continuous movement of water molecules on, a ove, an
d elow Earths
surface.
Credits
Opening image copyright y Derek Ramsey and used under the GNU-FDL 1.2 license.
www.ck12.org
88

Chapter 5
Evolution of Species and
Ecosystems
5.1 Introduction
The Grand Canyon, shown here, is an American icon and one of the wonders of the
natural world. Its also

a record of the past. Look at the rock layers in the picture. If you were to wal
k down a trail to the ottom
of the canyon, with each step down you would
ecause lower layers

e taking a step ack in time. Thats

89
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of rock represent the more distant past. The rock layers and the fossils they co
ntain show the history of
Earth and its organisms over a 2- illion-year time span. Although Charles Darwin
never visited the Grand
Canyon, he saw rock layers and fossils in other parts of the world. They were on
e inspiration for his theory
of evolution. Darwins theory rocked the scientific world. In this chapter, you wi
ll read why.
Chapter O jectives
State Darwins theory of evolution y natural selection.
Descri e o servations Darwin made on the voyage of the Beagle.
Identify influences on Darwins development of evolutionary theory.
Explain how a species can evolve through natural selection.
Descri e how fossils help us understand the past.
Explain how evidence from living species gives clues a out evolution.
State how iogeography relates to evolutionary change.
Distinguish etween microevolution and macroevolution.
Define gene pool, and explain how to calculate allele frequencies.
State the Hardy-Wein erg theorem
Identify the four forces of evolution.
Descri e two ways that new species may originate.
Define coevolution, and give an example.
Distinguish etween gradualism and punctuated equili rium
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90

5.2 Darwin and the Theory of Evolution

The Englishman Charles Darwin is one of the most famous scientists who ever live
d. His place in the history
of science is well deserved. Darwins theory of evolution represents a giant leap
in human understanding.
It explains and unifies all of

iology.

Darwins Theory at a Glance

Darwins theory of evolution actually contains two major ideas:
1. Organisms change over time. Life on Earth has changed as descendants diverged
from common
ancestors in the past.
2. Evolution occurs y natural selection. Natural selection is the process in wh
ich living things with
eneficial traits produce more offspring than others do. This results in changes
in the traits of living
things over time.
In Darwins day, most people
me and remained un-

elieved that all species were created at the same ti

changed thereafter. They also elieved that Earth was only 6,000 years old. Ther
efore, Darwins ideas
revolutionized iology. How did Darwin come up with these important ideas? It al
l started when he went
on a voyage.
The Voyage of the Beagle
In 1831, when Darwin was just 22 years old, he set sail on a scientific expediti
on on a ship called the
HMS Beagle. He was the naturalist on the voyage. As a naturalist, it was his jo
to o serve and collect
specimens of plants, animals, rocks, and fossils wherever the expedition went as
hore. The route the ship
took and the stops they made are shown in Figure 5.1. You can learn more a out D
arwins voyage at this
link: http://www.a outdarwin.com/voyage/voyage03.html.
Figure 5.1: Voyage of the Beagle. This map shows the route of Darwin
Darwin was fascinated y nature, so he loved his jo on the Beagle. He spent mor
e than 3 years of the 5-year
trip exploring nature on distant continents and islands. While he was away, a fo
rmer teacher pu lished

Darwins accounts of his o servations. By the time Darwin finally returned to Engl
and, he had ecome
famous as a naturalist.
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Darwins O servations
During the long voyage, Darwin made many o servations that helped him form his t
heory of evolution.
For example:
He visited tropical rainforests and other new ha itats where he saw many plants
and animals he had
never seen
of life.

efore (see Figure 5.2). This impressed him with the great diversity

He experienced an earthquake that lifted the ocean floor 2.7 meters (9 feet) a o
ve sea level. He
also found rocks containing fossil sea shells in mountains high a ove sea level.
These o servations
suggested that continents and oceans had changed dramatically over time and cont
inue to change in
dramatic ways.
He visited rock ledges that had clearly once
lt up over time. This

een eaches that had gradually ui

suggested that slow, steady processes also change Earths surface.

He dug up fossils of gigantic extinct mammals, such as the ground sloth (see Fig
ure 5.2). This was
hard evidence that organisms looked very different in the past. It suggested tha
t living thingslike
Earths surfacechange over time.
Figure 5.2: On his voyage, Darwin saw giant marine iguanas and
es. He also dug up the

lue-footed oo i

fossil skeleton of a giant ground sloth like the one shown here. From left: Gian
t Marine Iguana, Blue-Footed
Boo ies, and Fossil Skeleton of a Giant Ground Sloth
The Galpagos Islands
Darwins most important o servations were made on the Galpagos Islands (see map in

Figure 5.3).
This is a group of 16 small volcanic islands 966 kilometers (600 miles) off the
west coast of South America.
Individual Galpagos islands differ from one another in important ways. Some are r
ocky and dry. Others
have etter soil and more rainfall. Darwin noticed that the plants and animals o
n the different islands also
differed. For example, the giant tortoises on one island had saddle-shaped shell
s, while those on another
island had dome-shaped shells (see Figure 5.4). People who lived on the islands
could even tell the island
a turtle came from y its shell. This started Darwin thinking a out the origin o
f species. He wondered
how each island came to have its own type of tortoise.
Influences on Darwin
Science, like evolution, always uilds on the past. Darwin didnt develop his theo
ry completely on his own.
He was influenced y the ideas of earlier thinkers.
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92

Figure 5.3: Gal

Figure 5.4: Gal
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Earlier Thinkers Who Influenced Darwin
1. Jean Baptiste Lamarck (17441829) was an important French naturalist. He was on
e of the first
scientists to propose that species change over time. However, Lamarck was wrong
a out how species
change. His idea of the inheritance of acquired characteristics is incorrect. Tr
aits an organism
develops during its own life time cannot
elieved.

e passed on to offspring, as Lamarck

2. Charles Lyell (17971875) was a well-known English geologist. Darwin took his

ook, Principles of
Geology, with him on the Beagle. In the ook, Lyell argued that gradual geologic
al processes have
gradually shaped Earths surface. From this, Lyell inferred that Earth must
older than most
people

e far

elieved.

3. Thomas Malthus (17661834) was an English economist. He wrote an essay titled O

n Population. In
the essay, Malthus argued that human populations grow faster than the resources
they depend on.
When populations ecome too large, famine and disease reak out. In the end, thi
s keeps populations
in check y killing off the weakest mem ers.
Artificial Selection
The case of artificial selection also influenced Darwin. He was also aware that
humans could reed plants
and animals to have useful traits. By selecting which animals were allowed to re
produce, they could change
an organisms traits. The pigeons in Figure 5.5 are good examples. Darwin called t
his type of change in
organisms artificial selection. He used the word artificial to distinguish it fr
om natural selection.
Wallaces Theory
Did you ever hear the saying that great minds think alike? It certainly applies to
Charles Darwin and
another English naturalist named Alfred Russel Wallace. Wallace lived at a out t
he same time as Darwin.
He also traveled to distant places to study nature. Wallace wasnt as famous as Da
rwin. However, he
developed asically the same theory of evolution. While working in distant lands
, Wallace sent Darwin
a paper he had written. In the paper, Wallace explained his evolutionary theory.
This served to confirm
what Darwin already thought.
Applying Darwins Theory
The following example applies Darwins theory. It explains how giraffes came to ha
ve such long necks (see
Figure 5.6).

 In the past, giraffes had short necks. But there was chance variation in neck le
ngth. Some giraffes
had necks a little longer than the average.
Then, as now, giraffes fed on tree leaves. Perhaps the environment changed, and
leaves ecame
scarcer. There would e more giraffes than the trees could support. Thus, there
would e a struggle
for existence.
Giraffes with longer necks had an advantage. They could reach leaves other giraf
fes could not.
Therefore, the long-necked giraffes were more likely to survive and reproduce. T
hey had greater
fitness.
These giraffes passed the long-neck trait to their offspring. Each generation, t
he population contained
more long-necked giraffes. Eventually, all giraffes had long necks.
As this example shows, chance variations may help a species survive if the envir
onment changes. Variation
among species helps ensure that at least one will e a le to survive environment
al change.
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94

Figure 5.5: Artificial Selection in Pigeons. Pigeon ho yists reed pigeons to h

ave certain characteristics.
All three of the pigeons in the
.

ottom row were

red from the common rock pigeon

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Figure 5.6: African Giraffes. Giraffes feed on leaves high in trees. Their long
necks allow them to reach
leaves that other ground animals cannot.
Norman Penny, collections manager of the entomology department of the California
Academy of

Sciences, gives QUEST viewers a peek at the California Academy of Sciences vast
utterfly collection,
and discusses the evolutionary importance of
g/quest/television/cal-

utterflies. See http://www.kqed.or

academy- utterfly-collection for additional information.

Figure 5.7: (Watch Youtu e Video)
http://www.ck12.org/flex ook/em ed/view/1390
The Farallon Islands: Californias Galapagos
As one of 552 designated National Wildlife Refuges, the Farallon Islands are vir
tually uninha ited y
humans. These islands are home to the largest sea ird reeding colony in the con
tiguous United States.
The Farallon Islands also have a rich diversity of marine life. They are the spa
wning grounds for numerous
fish and inverte rate species, and at least 36 species of marine mammals have
en o served in surrounding

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96

waters. This unique and fragile ecosystem has informally earned these islands th
e name the Galapagos of
California.
Lying just 28 miles off the coast of California, the Farallon Islands sits amid
one of the most productive marine food we s on the planet. http://www.kqed.org/quest/television/the-fa
rallon-islandscaliforniasgalapagos.
Figure 5.8: (Watch Youtu e Video)
http://www.ck12.org/flex ook/em ed/view/1530
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5.3 Evidence for Evolution
For an excellent online resource on understanding evolution and its most importa
nt key points, see this

link with The University of Berkeley: http://evolution. erkeley.edu/evoli rary/a

rticle/evo_01
In his ook On the Origin of Species, Darwin included a lot of evidence to show
that evolution had taken
place. He also made logical arguments to support his theory that evolution occur
s y natural selection.
Since Darwins time, much more evidence has een gathered. The evidence includes a
huge num er of
fossils. It also includes more detailed knowledge of living things, right down t
o their DNA.
Fossil Evidence
Fossils are a window into the past. They provide clear evidence that evolution h
as occurred. Scientists
who find and study fossils are called paleontologists. How do they use fossils t
o understand the past?
Consider the example of the horse, shown in Figure 5.9. The fossil record shows
how the horse evolved.
The oldest horse fossils show what the earliest horses were like. They were a ou
t the size of a fox, and
they had four long toes. Other evidence shows they lived in wooded marshlands, w
here they pro a ly ate
soft leaves. Through time, the climate
ced the marshes. Later

ecame drier, and grasslands slowly repla

fossils show that horses changed as well.

They ecame taller, which would help them see predators while they fed in tall g
rasses.
They evolved a single large toe that eventually ecame a hoof. This would help t
hem run swiftly
and escape predators.
Their molars ( ack teeth)
w them to grind

ecame longer and covered with cement. This would allo

tough grasses and grass seeds without wearing out their teeth.
Similar fossil evidence demonstrates the evolution of the whale, moving from the
land into the sea. An animation of this process can e viewed at http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/exhi i
tions/whales/Segment.aspx?irn=161.
Does The Fossil Record Support Evolution? This video can e seen at http://www.y
outu e.com/watch?v=QWVoXZPOCGk

(9:20).
Evidence of Evolution from Living Species
Just as Darwin did, todays scientists study living species to learn a out evoluti
on. They compare the
anatomy, em ryos, and DNA of modern organisms to understand how they evolved.
Comparative anatomy is the study of the similarities and differences in the stru
ctures of different species.
Similar ody parts may e homologies or analogies. Both provide evidence for evo
lution.
To learn more a out homology and analogy, and the differences etween them, chec
k out this link at The
University of Berkeley: http://evolution. erkeley.edu/evoli rary/article/similar
ity_hs_01
Homologous structures are structures that are similar in related organisms
se they were inherited

ecau

from a common ancestor. These structures may or may not have the same function i
n the descendants.
Figure 5.10 shows the hands of several different mammals. They all have the same
asic pattern of
ones. They inherited this pattern from a common ancestor. However, their foreli
m s now have different
functions.
Analogous structures are structures that are similar in unrelated organisms. The
structures are similar
ecause they evolved to do the same jo , not ecause they were inherited from a
common ancestor. For
example, the wings of ats and irds, shown in Figure 5.11, look similar on the
outside. They also have
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98

Figure 5.9: Evolution of the Horse. The fossil record reveals how horses evolved
.
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Figure 5.10: Hands of Different Mammals. The forelim s of all mammals have the s
ame asic one
structure.
the same function. However, wings evolved independently in the two groups of ani
mals. This is apparent
when you compare the pattern of ones inside the wings.
Figure 5.11: Wings of Bats and Birds. Wings of
ction. Look closely at

ats and irds serve the same fun

the ones inside the wings. The differences show they developed from different a
ncestors.
Comparative em ryology is the study of the similarities and differences in the e
m ryos of different
species. Similarities in em ryos are evidence of common ancestry. All verte rate
em ryos, for example,
have gill slits and tails, as shown in Figure 5.12. All of the animals in the fi
gure, except for fish, lose their
gill slits y adulthood. Some of them also lose their tail. In humans, the tail
is reduced to the tail one.
Thus, similarities organisms share as em ryos may
why it is valua le to

e gone y adulthood. This is

compare organisms in the em ryonic stage.

Vestigial Structures are structures such as the human tail one, or the small leg
s on snakes. Evolution
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Figure 5.12: Verte rate Em ryos. Em ryos of different verte rates look much more
similar than the adult
organisms do.
has reduced their size ecause the structures are no longer used. The human appe
ndix is another example
of a vestigial structure. It is a tiny remnant of a once-larger organ. In a dist
ant ancestor, it was needed to
digest food. It serves no purpose in humans today. Why do you think structures t
hat are no longer used
shrink in size? Why might a full-sized, unused structure reduce an organisms fitn

ess?
Comparing DNA is also an important tool for studying evolution. Darwin could com
pare only the
anatomy and em ryos of living things. Today, scientists can compare their DNA. S
imilar DNA sequences
are the strongest evidence for evolution from a common ancestor. Look at the cla
dogram in Figure 5.13.
It shows how humans and apes are related

ased on their DNA sequences.

Evolution and molecules are discussed at http://www.youtu e.com/watch?v=nvJFI3Ch

OUU (3:52).
Using various types of information to understand evolutionary relationships is d
iscussed in the
following videos:
1. http://www.youtu e.com/watch?v=aZc1t2Os6UU (3:38)
2. http://www.youtu e.com/watch?v=6IRz85QNjz0 (6:45)
3. http://www.youtu e.com/watch?v=JgyTVT3dqGY&feature=related (10:51)
Evidence from Biogeography
Biogeography is the study of how and why plants and animals live where they do.
It provides more
evidence for evolution. Lets consider the camel family as an example.
101
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Figure 5.13: Cladogram of Humans and Apes. This cladogram is

isons. It shows

ased on DNA compar

how humans are related to apes y descent from common ancestors.

Biogeography of Camels: An Example
Today, the camel family includes different types of camels. They are shown in Fi
gure 5.14. All of todays
camels are descended from the same camel ancestors. These ancestors lived in Nor
th America a out a
million years ago.
Early North American camels migrated to other places. Some went to East Asia. Th
ey crossed a land
ridge during the last ice age. A few of them made it all the way to Africa. Oth
ers went to South

America. They crossed the Isthmus of Panama. Once camels reached these different
places, they evolved
independently. They evolved adaptations that suited them for the particular envi
ronment where they
lived. Through natural selection, descendants of the original camel ancestors ev
olved the diversity they
have today.
Island Biogeography
The iogeography of islands yields some of the est evidence for evolution. Cons
ider the irds called finches
that Darwin studied on the Galpagos Islands (see Figure 5.15). All of the finches
pro a ly descended
from one ird that arrived on the islands from South America. Until the first i
rd arrived, there had never
een irds on the islands. The first ird was a seed eater. It evolved into many
finch species. Each species
was adapted for a different type of food. This is an example of adaptive radiati
on. This is the process
y which a single species evolves into many new species to fill availa le niches
.
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102

Figure 5.14: Camel Migrations and Present-Day Variation. Mem ers of the camel fa
mily now live in
different parts of the world. They differ from one another in a num er of traits
. However, they share asic
similarities. This is ecause they all evolved from a common ancestor. What diff
erences and similarities
do you see?
Figure 5.15: Gal
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5.4 Case Study: Eyewitness to Evolution

In the 1970s, iologists Peter and Rosemary Grant went to the Galpagos Islands. T
hey wanted to re-study
Darwins finches. They spent more than 30 years on the project. Their efforts paid
off. They were a le
to o serve evolution y natural selection actually taking place. While the Grant
s were on the Galpagos,
a drought occurred. As a result, fewer seeds were availa le for finches to eat.
Birds with smaller eaks
could crack open and eat only the smaller seeds. Birds with igger eaks could c
rack and eat seeds of all
sizes. As a result, many of the small- eaked irds died in the drought. Birds wi
th igger eaks survived
and reproduced (see Figure 5.16). Within 2 years, the average eak size in the f
inch population increased.
Evolution y natural selection had occurred.
Figure 5.16: Evolution of Beak Size in Gal
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104
5.5 Microevolution and the Genetics of Populations
Darwin knew that herita le variations are needed for evolution to occur. However
, he knew nothing a out
Mendels laws of genetics. Mendels laws were rediscovered in the early 1900s. Only
then could scientists
fully understand the process of evolution.
The Scale of Evolution
We now know that variations of traits are herita le. These variations are determ
ined y different alleles.
We also know that evolution is due to a change in alleles over time. How long a
time? That depends on
the scale of evolution.
Microevolution occurs over a relatively short period of time within a population
or species. The
Grants o served this level of evolution in Darwins finches.
Macroevolution occurs over geologic time a ove the level of the species. The fos
sil record reflects

this level of evolution. It results from microevolution taking place over many g
enerations.
Genes in Populations
Individuals do not evolve. Their genes do not change over time. The unit of evol
ution is the population.
A population consists of organisms of the same species that live in the same are
a. In terms of evolution,
the population is assumed to
mating takes place within

e a relatively closed group. This means that most

the population. The science that focuses on evolution within populations is popu
lation genetics. It is a
com ination of evolutionary theory and Mendelian genetics.
The genetic makeup of an individual is the individuals genotype. A population con
sists of many genotypes.
Altogether, they make up the populations gene pool. The gene pool consists of all
the genes of all the
mem ers of the population. For each gene, the gene pool includes all the differe
nt alleles for the gene that
exist in the population. For a given gene, the population is characterized
e frequency of the different

y th

alleles in the gene pool.

Allele frequency is how often an allele occurs in a gene pool relative to the ot
her alleles for that gene.
Look at the example in Ta le ?? . The population in the ta le has 100 mem ers. I
n a sexually reproducing
species, each mem er of the population has two copies of each gene. Therefore, t
he total num er of copies
of each gene in the gene pool is 200. The gene in the example exists in the gene
pool in two forms, alleles
A and a. Knowing the genotypes of each population mem er, we can count the num e
r of alleles of each
type in the gene pool. The ta le shows how this is done. Evolution occurs in a p
opulation when allele
frequencies change over time. What causes allele frequencies to change? That que
stion was answered y
Godfrey Hardy and Wilhelm Wein erg in 1908.
The Hardy-Wein erg Theorem
Hardy was an English mathematician. Wein erg was a German doctor. Each worked al
one to come up

with the founding principle of population genetics. Today, that principle is cal
led the Hardy-Wein erg
theorem. It shows that allele frequencies do not change in a population if certa
in conditions are met.
Such a population is said to
r equili rium are:

e in Hardy-Wein erg equili rium. The conditions fo

1. No new mutations are occurring. Therefore, no new alleles are

eing created.

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2. There is no migration. In other words, no one is moving into or out of the po
pulation.
3. The population is very large.
4. Mating is at random in the population. This means that individuals do not cho
ose mates ased on
genotype.
5. There is no natural selection. Thus, all mem ers of the population have an eq
ual chance of reproducing and passing their genes to the next generation.
When all these conditions are met, allele frequencies stay the same.
Forces of Evolution
The conditions for Hardy-Wein erg equili rium are unlikely to e met in real pop
ulations. The HardyWein erg theorem also descri es populations in which allele frequencies are not
changing. By definition,
such populations are not evolving. How does the theorem help us understand evolu
tion in the real world?
From the theorem, we can infer factors that cause allele frequencies to change.
These factors are the forces
of evolution. There are four such forces: mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, an
d natural selection.
1. Mutation :
creates new genetic variation in a gene pool. It is how all new alleles first ar
ise.
In sexually reproducing species, the mutations that matter for evolution are tho
se that occur in
gametes. Only these mutations can e passed to offspring. For any given gene, th
e chance of a

mutation occurring in a given gamete is very low. Thus, mutations alone do not h
ave much effect
on allele frequencies. However, mutations provide the genetic variation needed f
or other forces of
evolution to act.
2. Gene flow : occurs when individuals move into or out of a population. If the
rate of migration is
high, this can have a significant effect on allele frequencies. Both the populat
ion they leave and the
population they enter may change. During the Vietnam War in the 1960s and 1970s,
many American
servicemen had children with Vietnamese women. Most of the servicemen returned t
o the United
States after the war. However, they left copies of their genes
ffspring. In this way,

ehind in their o

they changed the allele frequencies in the Vietnamese gene pool. Was the gene po
ol of the American
population also affected? Why or why not?
3. Natural Selection : occurs when there are differences in fitness among mem er
s of a population.
As a result, some individuals pass more genes to the next generation. This cause
s allele frequencies
to change.
4. Genetic drift : is a random change in allele frequencies that occurs in a sma
ll population. When a
small num er of parents produce just a few offspring, allele frequencies in the
offspring may differ,
y chance, from allele frequencies in the parents. This is like tossing a coin.
If you toss a coin just
a few times, you may, y chance, get more or less than the expected 50 percent h
eads or tails. In
a small population, you may also,
an expected in the

y chance, get different allele frequencies th

next generation. In this way, allele frequencies may drift over time. There are
two special conditions
under which genetic drift occurs. They are called
effect.

ottleneck effect and founder

(a) Bottleneck effect occurs when a population suddenly gets much smaller. This
might happen

ecause of a natural disaster such as a forest fire. By chance, allele frequenci

es of the survivors
may e different from those of the original population.
( ) Founder effect occurs when a few individuals start, or found, a new populati
on. By chance,
allele frequencies of the founders may
he population they

e different from allele frequencies of t

left. An example is descri ed in Figure 5.17.

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106

Figure 5.17: Founder Effect in the Amish Population. The Amish population in the
U.S. and Canada had
a small num er of founders. How has this affected the Amish gene pool?
5.6 Macroevolution and the Origin of Species
Macroevolution is evolution over geologic time a ove the level of the species. O
ne of the main topics in
macroevolution is how new species arise. The process
ves is called speciation.

y which a new species evol

How does speciation occur? How does one species evolve into two or more new spec
ies?
Origin of Species
To understand how a new species forms, its important to review what a species is.
A species is a group of
organisms that can reed and produce fertile offspring together in nature. For a
new species to arise, some
mem ers of a species must ecome reproductively isolated from the rest of the sp
ecies. This means they
can no longer inter reed with other mem ers of the species. How does this happen
? Usually they ecome
geographically isolated first.
Allopatric Speciation
Assume that some mem ers of a species
est of the species. If

ecome geographically separated from the r

they remain separated long enough, they may evolve genetic differences. If the d
ifferences prevent them

from inter reeding with mem ers of the original species, they have evolved into
a new species. Speciation
that occurs in this way is called allopatric speciation. An example is descri ed
in Figure 5.18.
Sympatric Speciation
Less often, a new species arises without geographic separation. This is called s
ympatric speciation. The
following example shows one way this can occur.
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Figure 5.18: Allopatric Speciation in the Kai a Squirrel. The Kai a

s in the process of ecoming

squirrel i

a new species.
1. Hawthorn flies lay eggs in hawthorn trees (see Figure 5.19). The eggs hatch i
nto larvae that feed on
hawthorn fruits. Both the flies and trees are native to the U.S.
2. Apple trees were introduced to the U.S. and often grow near hawthorn trees. S
ome hawthorn flies
started to lay eggs in near y apple trees. When the eggs hatched, the larvae fed
on apples.
3. Over time, the two fly populationsthose that fed on hawthorn trees and those t
hat preferred apple
treesevolved reproductive isolation. Now they are reproductively isolated
they reed at
different times. Their
horn fruits mature.

ecause

reeding season matches the season when the apple or hawt

4. Because they rarely inter reed, the two populations of flies are evolving oth
er genetic differences.
They appear to

e in the process of ecoming separate species.

Figure 5.19: Sympatric Speciation in Hawthorn Flies. Hawthorn flies are divergin
g from one species into
two. As this example shows, ehaviors as well as physical traits may evolve and
lead to speciation.
Isolating mechanisms are discussed in the following video http://www.youtu e.com
/watch?v=-e64TfKeAXU

(2:57).
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108

Coevolution
Evolution occurs in response to a change in the environment. Environmental chang
e often involves other
species of organisms. In fact, species in sym iotic relationships tend to evolve
together. This is called
coevolution. As one species changes, the other species must also change in order
to adapt.
Coevolution occurs in flowering plants and the species that pollinate them. The
flower and ird in Figure
5.20 are a good example. They have evolved matching structures.
Figure 5.20: Results of Coevolution in a Flower and Its Pollinator. The very lon
g mouth part of this
humming ird has coevolved with the tu ular flower it pollinates. Only this speci
es of ird can reach the
nectar deep in the flower. What might happen to the flower if the ird species w
ent extinct?
Timing of Macroevolution
Is evolution slow and steady? Or does it occur in fits and starts? It may depend
on what else is going on,
such as changes in climate and geologic conditions.
When geologic and climatic conditions are sta le, evolution may occur gradually.
This is how Darwin
thought evolution occurred. This model of the timing of evolution is called grad
ualism.
When geologic and climatic conditions are changing, evolution may occur more qui
ckly. Thus, long
periods of little change may e interrupted y ursts of rapid change. This mode
l of the timing of
evolution is called punctuated equili rium. It is etter supported y the fossil
record than is
gradualism.
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5.7 End of Chapter Review & Resources

Chapter Summary
Darwins theory of evolution
eneficial traits produce

y natural selection states that living things with

more offspring than others do. This produces changes in the traits of living thi
ngs over time. During his
voyage on the Beagle, Darwin made many o servations that helped him develop his
theory of evolution.
His most important o servations were made on the Galpagos Islands. Darwin was inf
luenced y other
early thinkers, including Lamarck, Lyell, and Malthus. He was also influenced y
his knowledge of artificial
selection. Wallaces paper on evolution confirmed Darwins ideas. It also pushed him
to pu lish his ook,
On the Origin of Species. The ook clearly spells out his theory. It also provid
es evidence and logic to
support it. Fossils provide a window into the past. They are evidence for evolut
ion. Scientists who find
and study fossils are called paleontologists. Scientists compare the anatomy, em
ryos, and DNA of living
things to understand how they evolved. Evidence for evolution is provided y hom
ologous structures.
These are structures shared y related organisms that were inherited from a comm
on ancestor. Other
evidence is provided y analogous structures. These are structures that unrelate
d organisms share ecause
they evolved to do the same jo . Biogeography is the study of how and why plants
and animals live where
they do. It also provides evidence for evolution. On island chains, such as the
Galpagos, one species may
evolve into many new species to fill availa le niches. This is called adaptive r
adiation. Microevolution
occurs over a short period of time in a population or species. Macroevolution oc
curs over geologic time
a ove the level of the species. The population is the unit of evolution. A popul
ations gene pool consists
of all the genes of all the mem ers of the population. For a given gene, the pop
ulation is characterized
y the frequency of different alleles in the gene pool. The Hardy-Wein erg theor

em states that, if a
population meets certain conditions, it will
m population, allele and

e in equili rium. In an equili riu

genotype frequencies do not change over time. The conditions that must
e no mutation, no

e met ar

migration, very large population size, random mating, and no natural selection.
There are four forces of
evolution: mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection. Natural se
lection for a polygenic trait
changes the distri ution of phenotypes. It may have a sta ilizing, directional,
or disruptive effect on the
phenotype distri ution. New species arise in the process of speciation. Allopatr
ic speciation occurs when
some mem ers of a species
tic differences. If the

ecome geographically separated. They then evolve gene

differences prevent them from inter reeding with the original species, a new spe
cies has evolved. Sympatric
speciation occurs without geographic separation. Coevolution occurs when species
evolve together. This
often happens in species that have sym iotic relationships. Examples include flo
wering plants and their
pollinators. Darwin thought that evolution occurs gradually. This model of evolu
tion is called gradualism.
The fossil record etter supports the model of punctuated equili rium. In this m
odel, long periods of little
change are interrupted y ursts of rapid change.
Review Questions
1. State Darwins theory of evolution y natural selection.
2. Descri e two o servations Darwin made on his voyage on the Beagle that helped
him develop his
theory of evolution.
3. What is the inheritance of acquired characteristics? What scientist developed
this mistaken idea?
4. What is artificial selection? How does it work?
5. How did Alfred Russel Wallace influence Darwin?
6. Explain how the writings of Charles Lyell and Thomas Malthus helped Darwin de
velop his theory of
evolution y natural selection.

7. How do paleontologists learn a out evolution?

8. Descri e what fossils reveal a out the evolution of the horse.
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110
9. What are vestigial structures? Give an example.
10. Define

iogeography.

11. Descri e an example of island

on.

iogeography that provides evidence of evoluti

12. Compare and contrast homologous and analogous structures. What do they revea
l a out evolution?
13. Humans and apes have five fingers they can use to grasp o jects. Do you thin
k these are analogous
or homologous structures? Explain.
14. Why does comparative em ryology show similarities etween organisms that do
not appear to e
similar as adults?
15. The Grants saw evolution occurring from one generation to the next in a popu
lation of finches.
(a) What factors caused the short-term evolution the Grants witnessed? How did t
he Grants know
that evolution had occurred?
( ) What other factors do you think might cause evolution to occur so quickly wi
thin a population?
16. Why are populations, rather than individuals, the units of evolution?
17. What is a gene pool?
18. Descri e a Hardy-Wein erg equili rium population. What conditions must it me
et to remain in
equili rium?
19. Identify the four forces of evolution.
20. Why is mutation needed for evolution to occur, even though it usually has li
ttle effect on allele
frequencies?
21. What is founder effect? Give an example.
22. Compare and contrast microevolution and macroevolution. How are the two rela
ted?

23. Explain why genetic drift is most likely to occur in a small population.
24. Define speciation.
25. Descri e how allopatric speciation occurs.
26. What is a species niche? What do you think it might include
a species eats?

esides the food

27. Why is sympatric speciation less likely to occur than allopatric speciation?
Further Reading / Supplemental Links
Berkeley University - Understanding Evolution: http://evolution. erkeley.edu/evo
li rary/article/evo_01
PBS What is Evolution: http://www.p s.org/wg h/evolution/li rary/faq/cat01.html
The American Museum of Natural history - Hall of Human Origins http://www.amnh.o
rg/exhi itions/permanent/humanorigins/
Harvard University - Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology - http://
www.oe .harvard.edu/
Voca ulary to Know
artificial selection
fitness
Galpagos Islands
inheritance of acquired characteristics
adaptive radiation
analogous structure
iogeography
comparative anatomy
comparative em ryology
homologous structure
paleontologist
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vestigial structure
allele frequency
directional selection

 disruptive selection
gene flow
gene pool
genetic drift
Hardy-Wein erg theorem
macroevolution
microevolution
population genetics
sexual dimorphism
sta ilizing selection
allopatric speciation
coevolution
gradualism
punctuated equili rium
speciation
sympatric speciation
References
Credits
Opening image copyright Daniel Korzeniewski, 2010. Used under license from Shutt
erstock.com.
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112

Chapter 6
The Principles of Ecology
6.1 Introduction
These rilliant red feathers are actually animals called tu e worms. They live in a
n extreme environment
on the deep ocean floor, thousands of meters elow the waters surface. Their worl
d is always very cold
and completely dark. Without sunlight, photosynthesis is not possi le. So what d
o organisms eat at these

depths? Tu e worms depend on chemosynthetic microorganisms that live inside them

for food. In this and
other ways, tu e worms have adapted to the extreme conditions of their environme
nt. All organisms must
adapt to their environment in order to survive. This is true whether they live i
n water or on land. Most
environments are not as extreme as the deep ocean where tu e worms live. But the
y all have conditions
that require adaptations. In this chapter, you will read a out a wide variety of
environments and the
organisms that live in them. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are importa
nt for recycling oxygen
and creating the energy for life.
Chapter O jectives
Distinguish etween a iotic and iotic factors.
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Define ecosystem and other ecological concepts.
Descri e how energy flows through ecosystems.
Explain how food chains and we s model feeding relationships.
Identify trophic levels in a food chain or we .
Define and give examples of iogeochemical cycles that recycle matter.
Descri e the water cycle and the processes y which water changes state.
Summarize the organic and geological pathways of the car on cycle.
Outline the nitrogen cycle and state the roles of acteria in the cycle.
State the significance of the community in ecology, and list types of community
interactions.
Define predation, and explain how it affects population growth and evolution.
Descri e competition, and outline how it can lead to extinction or specializatio
n of species.
Define sym iosis, and identify major types of sym iotic relationships.
Descri e ecological succession, and explain how it relates to the concept of a c
limax community
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6.2 The Science of Ecology
Ecology is the study of how living things interact with each other and with thei
r environment. It is
a major ranch of iology, ut has areas of overlap with geography, geology, cli
matology, environmental
science, and other sciences. This chapter introduces fundamental concepts in eco
logy related to organisms
and the environment.
The Importance of Energy.
As you already learned, energy is defined as the a ility move things, do work, o
r transfer heat, and comes
in various forms, including light, heat, and electricity. There is Low-quality e
nergy that comes in dispersed
forms and High-quality energy comes in condensed forms.
Thermodynamics is the study of energy and the laws of thermodynamics, as you alr
eady learned a out
them, can e applied to energy flow in ecosystems.
Remem er: The first law of thermodynamics, or, the conservation of energy princi
ple, states that
energy may change from one form to another, ut the total amount of energy will
remain constant. That
is to say that energy is not destroyed or created; it just changes form. For exa
mple, when wood is urned,
the energy that was stored in the wood is not lost. It is given off as heat, smo
ke, and ash. The final amount
of energy is the same just in new forms.
The second law of thermodynamics is also important to environmental science and
states that disorganization, or entropy, increases in natural systems through any spontaneous pro
cess. This means that as
energy is used it is degraded to lower forms of energy.
These two laws are important to environmental science in the following ways:
1. First, and very important: we live in a closed system, the Earths ecosphere. N
early all of the
organisms on Earth o tain their energy from the sun, and the sun composes the pr
imary level of most

ecosystem food chains, save a few deep-water thermal vents and some geyser
ria. Since energy

acte

is neither created nor destroyed, as stated y the first law of thermodynamics,

we can conclude that
other than the suns energy, the energy present is what we have to work with, incl
uding the food you
live on
2. Second, when humans use non-renewa le resources (such as oil) they are conver
ting them into lessuseful energy, as stated y the second law of thermodynamics. When those energy
sources are
depleted, they are gone. Use of these energy sources often also releases differe
nt elements ack into
the environment. For example, the com ustion of oil releases car on ack into th
e air, and this
offsets the car on cycle ( which you learn a out ). This helps contri ute to cli
mate change.
What these examples attempt to illustrate is that there are inputs and outputs t
o all energy types, and
also enefits and costs to each kind. and each is controlled and limited within
the laws of oth ecology
and thermodynamics.
6.3 Five Laws of Ecology
According to Barry Commoner, there are Four Laws of Ecology (as follows). Explai
n how his laws govern
the way nature works.
Everything is connected to everything else.
Simple put, we are living on large glo al system. It is a closed system, at leas
t until we
figure out how to get natural resources from other planets. Much like your
is an

ody

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interconnected system of small systems, all networked together to work in harmon
y. The
Earth is the same. Affect the Oceans dramatically in one place and it could affe
ct other
parts of the Earth. Deforestation in one area could affect the water cycle in ot

her regions.
Everything is connected.
Everything must go somewhere.
Where does your gar age go? Imagine how much you throw away. What happens to it?
Who or what does it affect? When you pour something down the drain of your home,
where does it go? Nature has complex systems that help
s

reak down matter into it

smallest components so that more life may use them. Humans, though, create a lot
of
non- iodegrada le items that go into the environment. Everything a human creates
must,
at some point, go somewhere. Where?
Nature knows est.
Billions of years have created the complex, intricate, and amazing ecosystem ser
vices, good,
resources, and systems that humans rely upon for life and food.
There is no such thing as a free lunch.
Nothing is free. As you learned in the chapter a out energy: energy is neither c
reated
nor destroyed. It just changes shape. Nothing is free, and nothing can
d out of

e create

nothing.
Everything has limits.
No natural resource or energy source is limitless. We are using renewa le natura
l resources
at rates faster than they can replenish themselves, deteriorating our land throu
gh erosion,
emptying our water reservoirs, and depleting non-renewa le resources.
The laws of ecology serve to remind us of our place within our natural systems,
and that humans are,
ultimately, an animal too that must adhere to the natural rules that govern the
planet. They are rules
a out how all life on Earth functions, and what factors to consider in our daily
lives, social development,
land use, and usiness practices.
Critical Thinking: A ecological footprint is an evaluation of how much effect a

person has on
the environment. It is defined as the measure of your demand on natural resource
s and the
Earths natural systems. What is your ecological footprint? You can find out
ing to the

y go

Glo al Footprint Network and using their form to calculate your ecological footp
rint:
www.footprintcalculator.org
Organisms and the Environment
Organisms are individual living things. Despite their tremendous diversity, all
organisms have the same
asic needs: energy and matter. These must e o tained from the environment. The
refore, organisms are
not closed systems. They depend on and are influenced y their environment. The
environment includes
two types of factors: a iotic and iotic.
1. A iotic factors are the nonliving aspects of the environment. They include fa
ctors such as sunlight,
soil, temperature, and water.
2. Biotic factors are the living aspects of the environment. They consist of oth
er organisms, including
mem ers of the same and different species.
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116

Levels of Organization
Ecologists study organisms and their environments at different levels. The most
inclusive level is the
iosphere. The iosphere consists of all the organisms on planet Earth and the a
reas where they live.
It occurs in a very thin layer of the planet, extending from a out 11,000 meters
elow sea level to 15,000
meters a ove sea level. An image of the
ent colors on the map

iosphere is shown in Figure 6.1. Differ

indicate the num ers of food-producing organisms in different parts of the iosp
here. Ecological issues
that might

e investigated at the iosphere level include ocean pollution, air p

ollution, and glo al climate

change.
Figure 6.1: This image of Earth
Ecologists also study organisms and their environments at the population level.
A population consists of
organisms of the same species that live in the same area and interact with one a
nother. You will read more
a out populations in the Populations chapter. Important ecological issues at the
population level include:
rapid growth of the human population, which has led to overpopulation and enviro
nmental damage;
rapid decline in populations of many nonhuman species, which has led to the exti
nction of numerous
species.
Another level at which ecologists study organisms and their environments is the
community level. A
community consists of populations of different species that live in the same are
a and interact with one
another. For example, populations of coyotes and ra its might interact in a gra
ssland community. Coyotes
hunt down and eat ra its for food, so the two species have a predator-prey rela
tionship. Ecological issues
at the community level include how changes in the size of one population affect
other populations. The
Populations chapter discusses population interactions in communities in detail.
The Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a unit of nature and the focus of study in ecology. It consists
of all the iotic and a iotic
factors in an area and their interactions. Ecosystems can vary in size. A lake c
ould e considered an
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ecosystem. So could a dead log on a forest floor. Both the lake and log contain
a variety of species that
interact with each other and with a iotic factors. Another example of an ecosyst
em is pictured in Figure

6.2.
Figure 6.2: Desert Ecosystem. What are some of the
this desert ecosystem?

iotic and a iotic factors in

When it comes to energy, ecosystems are not closed. They need constant inputs of
energy. Most ecosystems
get energy from sunlight. A small minority get energy from chemical compounds. U
nlike energy, matter
is not constantly added to ecosystems. Instead, it is recycled. Water and elemen
ts such as car on and
nitrogen are used over and over again.
Niche
One of the most important concepts associated with the ecosystem is the niche. A
niche refers to the role
of a species in its ecosystem. It includes all the ways that the species interac
ts with the iotic and a iotic
factors of the environment. Two important aspects of a species niche are the food
it eats and how the
food is o tained. Look at Figure 6.3. It shows pictures of irds that occupy dif
ferent niches. Each species
eats a different type of food and o tains the food in a different way.
Ha itat
Another aspect of a species niche is its ha itat. The ha itat is the physical env
ironment in which a
species lives and to which it is adapted. A ha itats features are determined main
ly y a iotic factors such
as temperature and rainfall. These factors also influence the traits of the orga
nisms that live there.
Consider a ha itat with very low temperatures. Mammals that live in the ha itat
must have insulation to
help them stay warm. Otherwise, their ody temperature will drop to a level that
is too low for survival.
Species that live in these ha itats have evolved fur, lu er, and other traits
that provide insulation in
order for them to survive in the cold.
Human destruction of ha itats is the major factor causing other species to decre
ase and ecome endangered
or go extinct. Small ha itats can support only small populations of organisms. S
mall populations are more

suscepti le to eing wiped out

ion could ounce ack.

y catastrophic events from which a large populat

Ha itat destruction caused the extinction of the dusky seaside sparrow shown in
Figure ?? . Many other
ird species are currently declining worldwide. More than 1,200 species face ext
inction during the next
century due mostly to ha itat loss and climate change.
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118

Figure 6.3: Bird Niches. Each of these species of

for its niche. For example,

irds has a

eak that suits it

the long slender eak of the nectarivore allows it to sip liquid nectar from flo
wers. The short sturdy eak
of the granivore allows it to crush hard, tough grains.
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Competitive Exclusion Principle
A given ha itat may contain many different species,
different niche. Two

ut each species must have a

different species cannot occupy the same niche in the same place for very long.
This is known as the
competitive exclusion principle. If two species were to occupy the same niche, w
hat do you think
would happen? They would compete with one another for the same food and other re
sources in the
environment. Eventually, one species would e likely to outcompete and replace t
he other.
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6.4 Flow of Energy: Producers and Consumers
Energy enters ecosystems in the form of sunlight or chemical compounds. Some org
anisms use this energy
to make food. Other organisms get energy y eating the food.
Producers
Producers are organisms that produce food for themselves and other organisms. Th

ey use energy and

simple inorganic molecules to make organic compounds. The sta ility of producers
is vital to ecosystems
ecause all organisms need organic molecules. Producers are also called autotrop
hs. There are two asic
types of autotrophs: photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs.
1. Photoautotrophs use energy from sunlight to make food
include plants,

y photosynthesis. They

algae, and certain acteria (see Figure 6.6).

2. Chemoautotrophs use energy from chemical compounds to make food
esis. They

y chemosynth

include some acteria and also archaea. Archaea are microorganisms that resem le
acteria.
Chemoautotrophs
In some places where life is found on Earth, there is not enough light to provid
e energy for photosynthesis.
In these places, producers called chemoautotrophs use the energy stored in chemi
cal compounds to make
organic molecules y chemosynthesis. Chemosynthesis is the process y which car
on dioxide and water
are converted to car ohydrates. Instead of using energy from sunlight, chemoauto
trophs use energy from
the oxidation of inorganic compounds, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Oxidation
is an energy-releasing
chemical reaction in which a molecule, atom, or ion loses electrons.
Chemoautotrophs include
more a out in Lesson

acteria called nitrifying acteria, which you will read

3. Nitrifying acteria live underground in soil. They oxidize nitrogen-containin

g compounds and change
them to a form that plants can use.
Chemoautotrophs also include archaea. Archaea are a domain of microorganisms tha
t resem le acteria.
Most archaea live in extreme environments, such as around hydrothermal vents in
the deep ocean. Hot
water containing hydrogen sulfide and other toxic su stances escapes from the oc
ean floor at these vents,
creating a hostile environment for most organisms. Near the vents, archaea cover
the sea floor or live in or

on the odies of other organisms, such as tu e worms. In these ecosystems, archa

ea use the toxic chemicals
released from the vents to produce organic compounds. The organic compounds can
then e used y other
organisms, including tu e worms. Archaea are a le to sustain thriving communitie
s, like the one shown in
Figure 6.4, even in these hostile environments.
Some chemosynthetic acteria live around deep-ocean vents known as lack smokers. C
ompounds such
as hydrogen sulfide, which flow out of the vents from Earths interior, are used
y the acteria for energy to
make food. Consumers that depend on these acteria to produce food for them incl
ude giant tu eworms,
like these pictured in Figure 6.5. Why do acteria that live deep
ns surface rely on chemical

elow the ocea

compounds instead of sunlight for energy to make food?

Photoautotrophs
Phototautotrophs are organisms that use energy from sunlight to make food y pho
tosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process
ucose and oxygen, using

y which car on dioxide and water are converted to gl

sunlight for energy. Glucose, a car ohydrate, is an organic compound that can e
used y autotrophs and
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Figure 6.4: Red tu e worms, each containing millions of archaea microorganisms,

grow in a cluster around
a hydrothermal vent in the deep ocean floor. Archaea produce food for themselves
(and for the tu e
worms)

y chemosynthesis.

Figure 6.5: Tu eworms deep in the Gulf of Mexico get their energy from chemosynt
hetic acteria. The
acteria actually live inside the worms.
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122

other organisms for energy. As shown in Figure ?? , photoautotrophs include plan

ts, algae, and certain
acteria.
Plants are the most important photoautotrophs in land- ased, or terrestrial, eco
systems. There is great
variation in the plant kingdom. Plants include organisms as different as trees,
grasses, mosses, and ferns.
Nonetheless, all plants are eukaryotes that contain chloroplasts, the cellular mac
hinery needed for photosynthesis.
Algae are photoautotrophs found in most ecosystems, ut they generally are more
important in waterased, or aquatic, ecosystems. Like plants, algae are eukaryotes that contain ch
loroplasts for photosynthesis. Algae include single-celled eukaryotes, such as diatoms, as well as mult
icellular eukaryotes, such as
seaweed.
Photoautotrophic acteria, called cyano acteria, are also important producers in
aquatic ecosystems.
Cyano acteria were formerly called lue-green algae,
as acteria. Other photo-

ut they are now classified

synthetic acteria, including purple photosynthetic

errestrial as well as aquatic

acteria, are producers in t

ecosystems.
Both cyano acteria and algae make up phytoplankton. Phytoplankton refers to all
the tiny photoautotrophs found on or near the surface of a
is the primary producer

ody of water. Phytoplankton usually

in aquatic ecosystems.
Consumers
Consumers are organisms that depend on the producers (phototrophs or chemotrophs
) organisms for food.
They take in organic molecules y essentially eating other living things. They incl
ude all animals
and fungi. (Fungi dont really eat; they a sor nutrients from other organisms.) They
also include
many acteria and even a few plants, such as the pitcher plant in Figure ?? . Co
nsumers are also called

heterotrophs. Heterotrophs are classified y what they eat:

Her ivores consume producers such as plants or algae. They are a necessary link
etween producers
and other consumers. Examples include deer, ra its, and mice.
Carnivores consume animals. Examples include lions, polar ears, hawks, frogs, s
almon, and spiders. Carnivores that are una le to digest plants and must eat only animals are
called o ligate
carnivores. Other carnivores can digest plants

ut do not commonly eat them.

Omnivores consume oth plants and animals. They include humans, pigs,
s, gulls,

rown ear

crows, and some species of fish.

Decomposers
When organisms die, they leave
osers reak down

ehind energy and matter in their remains. Decomp

the remains and other wastes and release simple inorganic molecules ack to the
environment. Producers
can then use the molecules to make new organic compounds. The sta ility of decom
posers is essential to
every ecosystem. Decomposers are classified y the type of organic matter they
reak down:
Scavengers consume the soft tissues of dead animals. Examples of scavengers incl
ude vultures,
raccoons, and lowflies.
Detritivores consume detritusthe dead leaves, animal feces, and other organic de
ris that collects
on the soil or at the ottom of a
arthworms, millipedes,

ody of water. On land, detritivores include e

and dung eetles (see Figure 6.8). In water, detritivores include ottom feeders su
ch as sea
cucum ers and catfish.
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Figure 6.6: Different types of photoautotrophs are important in different ecosys

tems.

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124

Figure 6.7: Pitcher Plant. Virtually all plants are producers. This pitcher plan
t is an exception. It
consumes insects. It traps them in a su stance that digests them and a sor s the
nutrients.
Saprotrophs are the final step in decomposition. They feed on any remaining orga
nic matter that
is left after other decomposers do their work. Saprotrophs include fungi and sin
gle-celled protozoa.
Fungi are the only organisms that can decompose wood.
Figure 6.8: Dung Beetle. This dung
to feed its young.

eetle is rolling a all of feces to its nest

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6.5 Making and Using Food: Photosynthesis and

Cellular Respiration
The flow of energy through living organisms egins with photosynthesis. This pro
cess stores energy from
sunlight in the chemical
cose, cells release the

onds of glucose. By reaking the chemical onds in glu

stored energy and make the ATP they need. The process in which glucose is
down for energy is

roken

called cellular respiration. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are like tw

o sides of the same coin.
This is apparent from Figure 6.9. The products of one process are the reactants
of the other. Together,
the two processes store and release energy in living organisms. The two processe
s also work together to
recycle oxygen in Earths atmosphere.
Figure 6.9: This diagram compares and contrasts photosynthesis and cellular resp
iration. It also shows
how the two processes are related.

Photosynthesis
Plants and other autotrophs make food out of thin airat least, they use car on dioxi
de from the air to
make food. Most food is made in the process of photosynthesis. This process prov
ides more than 99% of
the energy used y living things on Earth. Photosynthesis also supplies Earths at
mosphere with oxygen.
Photosynthesis is often considered to
on Earth. It changes

e the single most important life process

light energy into chemical energy and also releases oxygen. Without photosynthes
is, there would e no
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126

oxygen in the atmosphere. During photosynthesis, raw materials are used to manuf
acture sugar (glucose).
Photosynthesis occurs in the presence of chlorophyll, a green plant pigment that
helps the plant utilize the
energy from sunlight to drive the process. Although the overall process involves
a series of reactions, the
net reaction can

e represented y the following:

Figure 6.10
Photosynthetic autotrophs (such as plants) capture light energy from the sun and
a sor car on dioxide
and water from their environment. Using the light energy, they com ine the react
ants to produce glucose
and oxygen, which is a waste product. They store the glucose, usually as starch,
and they release the
oxygen into the atmosphere. The sugar provides a source of energy for other plan
t processes and is also
used for synthesizing materials necessary for plant growth and maintenance. The
net effect with regard to
car on is that it is removed from the atmosphere and incorporated into the plant
as organic materials.
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages: the Light Reactions and the Calvin Cycle, w
hich oth take place in
the chloroplast of plants and other chlorophyll containing organisms.
Photosynthesis Stage I: The Light Reactions

The first stage of photosynthesis is called the light reactions. During this sta
ge, light is a sor ed and
transformed to chemical energy. By the end of stage 1, energy from sunlight has
een changed to chemical
energy, and the first stage of photosynthesis is now complete.
Photosynthesis Stage II: The Calvin Cycle
The reactions of this stage can occur without light, so they are sometimes calle
d light-independent or
dark reactions. This stage of photosynthesis is also known as the Calvin cycle
ecause its reactions were
discovered y a scientist named Melvin Calvin. He won a No el Prize in 1961 for
this important discovery.
In the Calvin cycle, chemical energy from the light reactions is used to make gl
ucose. The Calvin cycle
takes over where the light reactions end. It uses stored chemical energy (from t
he light reactions) and
car on dioxide from the air to produce glucose, the molecule that virtually all
organisms use for food.
The Chloroplast: Theater for Photosynthesis
The theater where oth stages of photosynthesis take place is the chloroplast. Chlo
roplasts are organelles
that are found in the cells of plants and algae. (Photosynthetic
have chloroplasts, ut they

acteria do not

contain structures similar to chloroplasts and produce food in the same way.) Lo
ok at the Figure 6.12.
The figure is a high power microscopic photo of the upper part of a Winter Jasmi
ne leaf. If you could look
at a single leaf of this plant under a microscope, you would see small green ova
ls, like those shown. These
small green ovals are chloroplasts.
Cellular Respiration
You have just read how photosynthesis stores energy in glucose. How do living th
ings make use of this
stored energy? The answer is cellular respiration. This process releases the ene
rgy in glucose to make ATP,
the molecule that powers all the work of cells.
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Figure 6.11: The two stages of photosynthesis are the light reactions and the Ca
lvin cycle. Do you see how
the two stages are related?
Figure 6.12: High power microscopic photo of the upper part of a Winter Jasmine
leaf. Viewed under a
microscope many green chloroplasts are visi le.
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128

The reciprocal process of photosynthesis is called respiration. Cellular respira

tion actually urns glucose
for energy. However, it doesnt produce light or intense heat as some other types
of urning do. This
is ecause it releases the energy in glucose slowly, in many small steps. The ne
t result of this process is
that sugar is roken down
iration involves many

y oxygen into car on dioxide and water. Cellular resp

chemical reactions, which can

e summed up with this chemical equation:

Figure 6.13
Cellular respiration occurs in the cells of all living things. This process occu
rs not only in plants, ut also
in humans and animals. So, unlike photosynthesis, respiration can occur during
oth the day and night.
During respiration, car on is removed from organic materials and expelled into t
he atmosphere as car on
dioxide.
Anaero ic vs. Aero ic Respiration
Cellular respiration that proceeds without oxygen is called anaero ic respiratio
n, and this was pro a ly
the first kind of respiration present in organisms
d in the atmosphere. A out

efore oxygen levels increase

2 or 3 illion years ago, oxygen was gradually added to the atmosphere y early
photosynthetic acteria.

After that, living things could use oxygen for respiration. Cellular respiration
that proceeds in the presence
of oxygen is called aero ic respiration.
Today, most living things use oxygen to make energy from glucose (aero ic respir
ation). However, many
living things can still also make energy for life without oxygen. This is true o
f some plants and fungi and
also of many acteria. These organisms use aero ic respiration when oxygen is pr
esent, ut when oxygen is
in short supply, they use anaero ic respiration instead. Certain acteria can on
ly use anaero ic respiration.
In fact, they may not e a le to survive at all in the presence of oxygen.
Fermentation
An important way of making energy without oxygen is called fermentation. Many a
cteria and yeasts
carry out fermentation. People use these organisms to make yogurt,
and iofuels. Human

read, wine,

muscle cells also use fermentation. This occurs when muscle cells cannot get oxy
gen fast enough to
meet their energy needs through aero ic respiration. There are two types of ferm
entation: lactic acid
fermentation and alcoholic fermentation.
Lactic acid fermentation is carried out
ed y your own muscle

y the acteria in yogurt. It is also us

cells when you work them hard and fast. Did you ever run a race and notice that
your muscles feel tired
and sore afterward? This is ecause your muscle cells used lactic acid fermentat
ion for energy. This causes
lactic acid to uild up in the muscles. It is the uildup of lactic acid that ma
kes the muscles feel tired and
sore.
Alcoholic fermentation is carried out y yeasts and some acteria. It is used to
make read, wine, and
iofuels. Have your parents ever put corn in the gas tank of their car? They did
if they used gas containing
ethanol. Ethanol is produced
other plants. This type of
fermentation also explains why
holic fermentation and

y alcoholic fermentation of the glucose in corn or

read dough rises. Yeasts in read dough use alco

produce car on dioxide gas. The gas forms u les in the dough, which cause the
dough to expand. The
u les also leave small holes in the read after it akes, making the
ht and fluffy. Do you see

read lig

the small holes in the slice of read in Figure 6.14?

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Figure 6.14: The small holes in read are formed y u les of car on dioxide ga
s. The gas was produced
y alcoholic fermentation carried out y yeast.
6.6 Food Chains and Food We s
Food chains and food we s are diagrams that represent feeding relationships. The
y show who eats whom.
In this way, they model how energy and matter move through ecosystems.
Food Chains
A food chain represents a single pathway through which energy and matter flow th
rough an ecosystem.
An example is shown in Figure 6.15. Food chains are generally simpler than what
really happens in
nature. Most organisms consumeand are consumed ymore than one species.
Figure 6.15: This food chain includes producers and consumers. How could you add
decomposers to the
food chain?
A musical summary of food chains can
TE6wqG4n 3M

e heard at http://www.youtu e.com/watch?v=

(2:46).
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Food We s
A food we represents multiple pathways through which energy and matter flow thr
ough an ecosystem.

It includes many intersecting food chains. It demonstrates that most organisms e

at, and are eaten, y
more than one species. An example is shown in Figure 6.16.
Figure 6.16: Food We . This food we consists of several different food chains.
Which organisms are
producers in all of the food chains included in the food we ?
Trophic Levels
The feeding positions in a food chain or we are called trophic levels. The diff
erent trophic levels are
defined in Ta le 6.1. Examples are also given in the ta le. All food chains and
we s have at least two or
three trophic levels. Generally, there are a maximum of four trophic levels.
Ta le 6.1: Trophic Levels
Trophic Level
Where It Gets Food
Example
1st Trophic Level: Producer
Makes its own food
Plants make food
2nd Trophic Level:
Primary
Consumes producers
Mice eat plant seeds
Consumer
3rd Trophic Level:
Secondary
Consumes primary consumers
Snakes eat mice
Consumer
4th Trophic Level: Tertiary ConConsumes secondary consumers
Hawks eat snakes

sumer
Many consumers feed at more than one trophic level. Humans, for example, are pri
mary consumers when
they eat plants such as vegeta les. They are secondary consumers when they eat c
ows. They are tertiary
consumers when they eat salmon.
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Trophic Levels and Energy Transfer

The different feeding positions in a food chain or we
. The first trophic level

are called trophic levels

consists of producers, the second of primary consumers, the third of secondary c

onsumers, and so on.
There usually are no more than four or five trophic levels in a food chain or we
. Humans may fall into
second, third, and fourth trophic levels of food chains or we s. They eat produc
ers such as grain, primary
consumers such as cows, and tertiary consumers such as salmon.
Energy is passed up the food chain from one trophic level to the next. However,
only a out 10 percent of
the total energy stored in organisms at one trophic level is actually transferre
d to organisms at the next
trophic level. The rest of the energy is used for meta olic processes or lost to
the environment as heat.
As a result, less energy is availa le to organisms at each successive trophic le
vel. This explains why there
are rarely more than four or five trophic levels. The amount of energy at differ
ent trophic levels can e
represented y an energy pyramid like the one in Figure 6.17.
Pyramid of Energy
Figure 6.17: This pyramid shows the total energy stored in organisms at each tro
phic level in an ecosystem.
Starting with primary consumers, each trophic level in the food chain has only 1
0 percent of the energy of
the level elow it. The pyramid makes it clear why there can e only a limited n
um er of trophic levels in

a food chain or we .
Trophic Levels and Biomass
With less energy at higher trophic levels, there are usually fewer organisms as
well. Organisms tend to
e larger in size at higher trophic levels, ut their smaller num ers result in
less iomass. Biomass is
the total mass of organisms at a trophic level. The decrease in iomass from low
er to higher levels is also
represented y Figure 6.18.
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Figure 6.18: Ecological Pyramid. This pyramid shows how energy and
ase from lower to

iomass decre

higher trophic levels. Assume that producers in this pyramid have 1,000,000 kilo
calories of energy. How
much energy is availa le to primary consumers?
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6.7 Community Interactions

Biomes as different as grasslands and estuaries share something extremely import
ant. They have populations of interacting species. Moreover, species interact in the same
in all iomes. For example,

asic ways

all iomes have some species that prey on other species for food. Species intera
ctions are important iotic
factors in ecological systems. The focus of study of species interactions is the
community.
What Is a Community?
In ecology, a community is the
populations of different

iotic component of an ecosystem. It consists of

species that live in the same area and interact with one another. Like a iotic f
actors, such as climate or
water depth, species interactions in communities are important
natural selection. The in-

iotic factors in

teractions help shape the evolution of the interacting species. Three major type
s of community interactions
are predation, competition, and sym iosis.
Predation
Predation is a relationship in which mem ers of one species (the predator) consu
me mem ers of other
species (the prey). The lions and cape
of predators and prey.

uffalo in Figure 1 are classic examples

In addition to the lions, there is another predator in this figure. Can you find
it? The other predator is
the cape uffalo. Like the lion, it consumes prey species, in this case species
of grasses. Predator-prey
relationships account for most energy transfers in food chains and we s (see the
Principles of Ecology
chapter).
Figure 6.19: An adult male lion and a lion cu feed on the carcass of a South Af
rican cape uffalo.
Types of Predators
The lions in Figure 1 are true predators. In true predation, the predator kills
its prey. Some true
predators, like lions, catch large prey and then dismem er and chew the prey ef
ore eating it. Other true
predators catch small prey and swallow it whole. For example, snakes swallow mic
e whole.
Some predators are not true predators ecause they do not kill their prey. Inste
ad, they graze on their
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prey. In grazing, a predator eats part of its prey

ple, deer graze on plants ut
do not usually kill them. Animals may also
uitoes suck tiny

ut rarely kills it. For exam

e grazed upon. For example, female mosq

amounts of lood from animals ut do not harm them, although they can transmit d
isease.
Predation and Populations
True predators help control the size of prey populations. This is especially tru
e when a predator preys

on just one species. Generally, the predator-prey relationship keeps the populat
ion size of oth species
in alance. This is shown in Figure 2. Every change in population size of one sp
ecies is followed y
a corresponding change in the population size of the other species. Generally, p
redator-prey populations
keep fluctuating in this way as long as there is no outside interference.
Figure 6.20: As the prey population increases, the predator population starts to
rise. With more predators,
the prey population starts to decrease, which, in turn, causes the predator popu
lation to decline. This
pattern keeps repeating. There is always a slight lag
ulation and changes in

etween changes in one pop

the other population.

Some predator species are known as keystone species,
mportant role in their

ecause they play such an i

community. Introduction or removal of a keystone species has a drastic effect on

its prey population. This,
in turn, affects populations of many other species in the community. For example
, some sea star species
are keystone species in coral reef communities. The sea stars prey on mussels an
d sea urchins, which have
no other natural predators. If sea stars are removed from a coral reef community
, mussel and sea urchin
populations would have explosive growth, which in turn would drive out most othe
r species and destroy
the reef community.
Sometimes humans deli erately introduce predators into an area to control pests.
This is called iological
pest control. One of the earliest pests controlled in this way was a type of ins
ect, called a scale insect.
The scale insect was accidentally introduced into California from Australia in t
he late 1800s. It had no
natural predators in California and was destroying the states citrus trees. Then,
its natural predator in
Australia, a type of eetle, was introduced into California in an effort to cont
rol the scale insect. Within
a few years, the insect was completely controlled y the predator. Unfortunately
, iological pest control

does not always work this well. Pest populations often re ound after a period of
decline.
Adaptations to Predation
Both predators and prey have adaptations to predation. Predator adaptations help
them capture prey.
Prey adaptations help them avoid predators. A common adaptation in
and prey species

oth predator

is camouflage, or disguise. One way of using camouflage is to lend in with the

ackground. Several
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examples are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 6.21: Can you see the cra in the photo on the left? It is camouflaged wi
th algae. The preying
mantis in the middle photo looks just like the dead leaves in the
e stripes on the ze ras

ackground. Th

in the right photo lend the animals together, making it hard to see where one z
e ra ends and another
egins.
Another way of using camouflage is to look like a different, more dangerous anim
al. Using appearance to
mimic another animal is called mimicry. Figure 4 shows an example of mimicry. The m
oth in the
figure has markings on its wings that look like the eyes of an owl. When a preda
tor comes near, the moth
suddenly displays the markings. This startles the predator and gives the moth ti
me to fly away.
Figure 6.22: The moth on the left mimics the owl on the right. This
Some prey species have adaptations that are the opposite of camouflage. They hav
e right colors or other
highly noticea le traits that serve as a warning for their predators to stay awa
y. For example, some of the
most colorful utterflies are poisonous to irds, so
eating them. By eing so

irds have learned to avoid

colorful, the utterflies are more likely to e noticedand avoided y their predato

rs.
Predation, Natural Selection, and Co-evolution
Adaptations to predation come a out through natural selection (see the Evolution
in Populations chapter).
When a prey organism avoids a predator, it has higher fitness than mem ers of th
e same species that were
killed y the predator. The organism survives longer and may produce more offspr
ing. As a result, traits
that helped the prey organism avoid the predator gradually
the prey population.

ecome more common in

Evolution of traits in the prey species leads to evolution of corresponding trai

ts in the predator species.
This is called co-evolution. In co-evolution, each species is an important facto
r in the natural selection
of the other species. Predator-prey co-evolution is illustrated y rough-skinned
newts and common garter
snakes, oth shown in Figure 5. Through natural selection, newts evolved the a i
lity to produce a strong
toxin. In response, garter snakes evolved the a ility to resist the toxin, so th
ey could still safely prey
upon newts. Then, newts evolved the a ility to produce higher levels of toxin. T
his was followed y
garter snakes evolving resistance to the higher levels. In short, the predator-p
rey relationship led to an
evolutionary arms race, resulting in extremely high levels of toxin in newts.
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Figure 6.23: The rough-skinned newt on the left is highly toxic to other organis
ms. Common garter snakes,
like the one on the right, have evolved resistance to the toxin.
Competition
Competition is a relationship etween organisms that strive for the same limited
resources. The resources might e food, nesting sites, or territory. Two different types of compe
tition are intraspecific and
interspecific competition.

 Intraspecific competition occurs

e, two male

etween mem ers of the same species. For exampl

irds of the same species might compete for mates in the same territory. Intrasp
ecific competition
is a necessary factor in natural selection. It leads to adaptive changes in a sp
ecies through time (see
the Evolution in Populations chapter).
Interspecific competition occurs
le, two predator

etween mem ers of different species. For examp

species might compete for the same prey. Interspecific competition takes place i
n communities of
interacting species. It is the type of competition referred to in the rest of th
is section.
Interspecific Competition and Extinction
When populations of different species in a community depend on the same resource
s, there may not e
enough resources to go around. If one species has a disadvantage, such as more p
redators, it may get fewer
of the necessary resources. As a result, mem ers of that species are less likely
to survive, and the species
will have a higher death rate than the other species. Fewer offspring will
oduced and the species may

e pr

eventually die out in the area.

In nature, interspecific competition has often led to the extinction of species.
Many other extinctions
have occurred when humans introduced new species into areas where they had no pr
edators. For example,
ra its were introduced into Australia in the mid-1800s for sport hunting. Ra i
ts had no predators in
Australia and quickly spread throughout the continent. Many species of Australia
n mammals could not
successfully compete with ra its and went extinct.
Interspecific Competition and Specialization
Another possi le outcome of interspecific competition is the evolution of traits
that create distinct differences among the competing species. Through natural selection, competing speci
es can ecome more
specialized. This allows them to live together without competing for the same re
sources. An example

is the anolis lizard. Many species of anolis live and prey on insects in tropica
l rainforests. Competition
among the different species led to the evolution of specializations. Some anolis
evolved specializations to
prey on insects in leaf litter on the forest floor. Others evolved specializatio
ns to prey on insects on the
ranches of trees. This allowed the different species of anolis to co-exist with
out competing.
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Sym iotic Relationships

Sym iosis is a close association etween two species in which at least one speci
es enefits. For the other
species, the outcome of the association may e positive, negative, or neutral. T
here are three asic types
of sym iotic relationships: mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
1. Mutualism is a sym iotic relationship in which oth species enefit. Lichen i
s a good example. A
lichen is not a single organism ut a fungus and an alga. The fungus a sor s wat
er from air and
minerals from rock or soil. The alga uses the water and minerals to make food fo
r itself and the
fungus. Another example involves go y fish and shrimp (see Figure 6). The nearly
lind shrimp
and the fish spend most of their time together. The shrimp maintains a
the sand in which

urrow in

oth the go y and the shrimp live. When a predator comes near, the fish touches
the shrimp with
its tail as a warning. Then,
e predator is gone.

oth fish and shrimp retreat to the urrow until th

Each gains from this mutualistic relationship: the shrimp gets a warning of appr
oaching danger, and
the fish gets a safe home and a place to lay its eggs. Co-evolution often occurs
in species involved
in mutualistic relationships. Many examples are provided
the species that

y flowering plants and

pollinate them. Plants have evolved flowers with traits that promote pollination

y particular species.
Pollinator species, in turn, have evolved traits that help them o tain pollen or
nectar from certain
species of flowers. For example, the plant with tu e-shaped flowers shown in Fig
ure 7 co-evolved
with humming irds. The irds evolved long, narrow eaks that allowed them to sip
nectar from the
tu ular loom.
Ta le 6.2: The multicolored shrimp in the front and the green go y fish ehind
it have a mutualistic relationship. The shrimp shares its

urrow with the fish,

and the fish warns the shrimp when predators are near. Both species

enefit

from the relationship.

title
2. Comensalism is a sym iotic relationship in which one species enefits while t
he other species is
not affected. In commensalism, one animal typically uses another for a purpose o
ther than food.
For example, mites attach themselves to larger flying insects to get a free ride, a
nd hermit cra s
use the shells of dead snails for shelter. Co-evolution explains some commensal
relationships. An
example is the human species and some of the species of acteria that live insid
e humans. Through
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138
natural selection, many species of
ide the human ody

acteria have evolved the a ility to live ins

without harming it.

3. Parasitism is a sym iotic relationship in which one species (the parasite)
nefits while the other

species (the host) is harmed. Some parasites live on the surface of their host.
Others live inside their
host, entering through a reak in the skin or in food or water. For example, rou
ndworms are parasites
of the human intestine. The worms produce huge num ers of eggs, which are passed
in the hosts feces
to the environment. Other humans may

e infected y swallowing the eggs in conta

minated food or
water. This usually happens only in places with poor sanitation.Some parasites e
ventually kill their
host. However, most parasites do not. Parasitism in which the host is not killed
is a successful way
of life and very common in nature. A out half of all animal species are parasiti
c in at least one stage
of their lifecycle. Many plants and fungi are parasitic during some stages, as w
ell. Not surprisingly,
most animals are hosts to one or more parasites.Species in parastic relationship
s are likely to undergo
co-evolution. Host species evolve defenses against parasites, and parasites evol
ve ways to evade host
defenses. For example, many plants have evolved toxins that poison plant parasit
es such as fungi
and acteria. The microscopic parasite that causes malaria in humans has evolved
a way to evade
the human immune system. It hides out in the hosts lood cells or liver where the
immune system
cannot find it.
Ecological Succession
Ecological succession is the process
hanges through time.

y which a whole community of populations c

It occurs following a distur ance that creates unoccupied areas for colonization
. The first colonizer species
are called pioneer species. They change the environment and pave the way for oth
er species to move into
the area. Succession occurs in two different ways, depending on the starting con
ditions: primary succession
and secondary succession.
Primary succession occurs in an area that has never
ally, the area is nothing

een colonized efore. Gener

ut are rock. This type of environment can come a out in a num er of ways, incl
uding:
Lava can flow from a volcano and harden into rock.
A glacier can retreat and leave ehind are rock.
A landslide can uncover a large area of are rock.
After the distur ance, pioneer species move in first. They include acteria and

lichens that can live on

are rock. Along with wind and water, these pioneer species help to weather the
rock and form soil. Once
soil egins to form, other plants can move in. At first, the plants include gras
ses and other species that can
grow in thin, poor soil. As more plants grow and die, organic matter is added to
the soil. This improves
the soil and helps it hold water. The improved soil allows shru s and trees to m
ove into the area. An
example of primary succession is shown in Figure 8.
Secondary succession occurs in a formerly inha ited area that was distur ed. The
distur ance could
e a fire, flood, or human action such as logging or farming. Secondary successi
on can occur faster than
primary succession ecause the soil is already in place. In secondary succession
, the pioneer species are
plants that are adapted to exploit distur ances rather than are rock. They typi
cally include plants such
as grasses, irch trees, and fireweed. Organic matter from the pioneer species i
mproves the soil so other
trees and plants can move into the area. An example of secondary succession is s
hown in Figure 9.
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Figure 6.24: On an island near New Zealand, are rocks from a volcanic eruption
are slowly eing colonized
y pioneer species.
Figure 6.25: This formerly cultivated farm field in Poland is reverting to decid
uous forest in the process
of secondary succession.
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140
Climax Communities
Many early ecologists thought that a community always went through a predicta le
series of stages during

succession. They also thought that the end result of succession was a final stag
e called a climax community. The type of climax community was
mate. For example,

elieved to e determined mainly y cli

in mild, wet temperate climates, evergreen rainforests were thought to

edicta le end result of
succession. Climax communities were also thought to e very
racteristic, in turn, was

e the pr

iodiverse. This cha

elieved to make them sta le, or resistant to change.

Today, most ecologists think that change, rather than sta ility, is more charact
eristic of ecological systems.
They argue that most communities are distur ed too often to reach a climax commu
nity stage. They also
argue that high iodiversity does not always make a community sta le. Some commu
nities that have low
iodiversity, such as salt marshes, are very resistant to change. On the other h
and, some communities
that have high iodiversity, such as coral reefs, are easily affected y distur
ances. High iodiversity may
increase species interactions. This, in turn, may make species more interdepende
nt and communities more
likely to change when they are distur ed.
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6.8 End of Chapter Review & Resources
Chapter Summary
Ecology is the study of how living things interact with each other and with thei
r environment. The
environment includes a iotic (nonliving) and iotic (living) factors. An ecosyst
em consists of all the
iotic and a iotic factors in an area and their interactions. A niche refers to
the role of a species in its
ecosystem. A ha itat is the physical environment in which a species lives and to
which it is adapted.
Two different species cannot occupy the same niche in the same place for very lo
ng. Ecosystems require
constant inputs of energy from sunlight or chemicals. Producers use energy and i
norganic molecules to

make food. Consumers take in food y eating producers or other living things. De
composers reak down
dead organisms and other organic wastes and release inorganic molecules ack to
the environment. Food
chains and food we s are diagrams that represent feeding relationships. They mod
el how energy and
matter move through ecosystems. The different feeding positions in a food chain
or we are called trophic
levels. Generally, there are no more than four trophic levels ecause energy and
iomass decrease from
lower to higher levels. Living things need energy to carry out all life processe
s. They get energy from food.
Autotrophs make their own food. Heterotrophs get food y eating other living thi
ngs. Most autotrophs
make food using photosynthesis. This process occurs in two stages: the light rea
ctions and the Calvin cycle.
Some acterial autotrophs make food using chemosynthesis. This process uses chem
ical energy instead of
light energy to produce food. Many autotrophs make food through the process of p
hotosynthesis, in which
light energy from the sun is changed to chemical energy that is stored in glucos
e. All organisms use cellular
respiration to reak down glucose, release energy. Living things must have chemi
cal energy from food to
power life processes. Most of the chemical energy in food comes ultimately from
the energy in sunlight.
The last two stages of aero ic respiration require oxygen. However, not all orga
nisms live in places where
there is a plentiful supply of oxygen so they use anaero ic respiration instead,
which does not require
oxygen. Competition among species is an important factor in co-evolution. The Fo
ur Laws of Ecology are
important reference points a out ecosystems and natural communities function, an
d are the asis for the
alanced and sustained ways that natural systems are supported.
Review Questions
1. Define iotic and a iotic factors of the environment. Give an example of each
.
2. How do ecologists define the term ecosystem?

3. State the competitive exclusion principle.

4. What is a producer? Name two examples.
5. What is an autotroph? Give an example.
6. What is an hetrotroph? Give an example.
7. Identify three different types of consumers. Name an example of each type.
8. Descri e the role of decomposers in food we s.
9. Draw a terrestrial food chain that includes four trophic levels. Identify the
trophic level of each
organism in the food chain.
10. Compare and contrast the ecosystem concepts of niche and ha itat.
11. What can you infer a out an ecosystem that depends on chemoautotrophs for fo
od?
12. Explain how energy limits the num er of trophic levels in a food chain or we
.
13. What are the stages of photosynthesis? Which stage occurs first?
14. Descri e the chloroplast and its role in photosynthesis.
15. What is fermentation? Name two types of fermentation.
16. What process produces fuel for motor vehicles from living plant products? Wh
at is the waste product
of this process?
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142
17. Compare and contrast photosynthesis and cellular respiration. Why are the pr
ocesses like two sides
of the same coin?
18. Explain how living things recycle oxygen in Earths atmosphere.
19. The first living things appeared on Earth at least a
otosynthetic organisms

illion years efore ph

appeared. How might the earliest organisms have o tained energy efore photosynt
hesis evolved?
What process could they have used to make food?
20. In ecology, what is a community?
21. Define predation and give an example of a predator and its prey.

22. What are two possi le outcomes of interspecific competition?

23. List three

asic types of sym iotic relationships.

24. What is ecological succession and when does it occur?

25. A forest was recently distur ed, and several pioneer species have moved in.
Which type of ecological
succession is taking place? How do you know?
26. Why do species interactions often lead to co-evolution of the species involv
ed? Give an example to
illustrate your answer.
27. Understand the Four Laws of Ecology and how they apply to ecosystems. How sh
ould they apply to
human actions?
Further Reading / Supplemental Links
Appenzeller, Tim, The Case of the Missing Car on. National Geographic Magazine,
Fe ., 2004.
Miller, G. Tyler, Essentials of Ecology (4th edition). Brooks Cole, 2006.
http://www.enviroliteracy.org/article.php/479.html
http://en.wikipedia.org
Ro ert Poulin and Serge Morand, Parasite Biodiversity. Smithsonian, 2005.
Mark Ross and David Reesor, Predator: Life and Death in the African Bush. Harry
N. A rams, Inc.,
2007.
Bernhard Stadler and Tony Dixon, Mutualism: Ants and Their Insect Partners. Cam
ridge University Press, 2008.
Marlene Zuk, Riddled with Life: Friendly Worms, Lady ug Sex, and the Parasites t
hat Make Us Who
We Are. Harcourt, 2007.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/a stract/292/5519/1115
Voca ulary to Know
a iotic factor
iomass
iological pest control - Deli erate introduction of a predator species into an
area in order to control

a pest species.
iotic factor
camouflage - Common adaptation in predator and prey species that involves disgui
se.
carnivore
cellular respiration - The process
r on dioxide, water,

y which cells oxidize glucose and produce ca

and energy.
chemoautotroph
climax community - Final stage of ecological succession.
co-evolution - Evolution of interacting species in which each species is an impo
rtant factor in the
natural selection of the other species.
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commensalism - Sym iotic relationship in which one species enefits while the ot
her species is not
affected.
community - Biotic component of an ecosystem.
competition - Relationship
sources.

etween organisms that strive for the same limited re

competitive exclusion principle

decomposer
detritivore
detritus
ecological succession - Process y which a whole community changes through time
following a distur ance.
ecology
Ecosystem
food chain
food we
grazing - Type of predation in which the predator eats part of its prey ut rare
ly kills it.

 ha itat
her ivore
intraspecific competition - Competition etween mem ers of the same species.
interspecific competition - Competition etween mem ers of different species.
keystone species - Predator species that plays an important role in the communit
y y controlling the
prey population and, indirectly, the populations of many other species in the co
mmunity.
mimicry - Using appearance to mimic another animal.
mutualism - Sym iotic relationship in which oth species enefit.
omnivore
parasitism - Sym iotic relationship in which one species (the parasite)
while the other species

enefits

(the host) is harmed.

photoautotroph
pioneer species - First colonizer species in an area undergoing ecological succe
ssion.
predation - Relationship in which mem ers of one species (the predator) consume
mem ers of other
species (the prey).
primary succession - Ecological succession that occurs in an area that has never
een colonized efore.
saprotroph
scavenger
secondary succession - Ecological succession that occurs in a formerly inha ited
area that was distur ed.
sym iosis - Close association etween two species in which at least one species
enefits.
trophic level
true predation - Type of predation in which the predator kills its prey.
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144
Chapter 7

World Biomes
7.1 Introduction
Around the world there are unique climatic conditions that contri ute to unique
eocysystems. There are
patterns in the types of ecosystems around the world called iomes. There are te
rrestrial iomes, that span
the arctic, temperate, and tropical regions. There are also fresh water, costal
and marine aquatic iomes,
which make up a out 70% of the worlds iomes.
Chapter O jectives
Define iome and climate, and explain how iomes are related to climate.
Outline how climate determines growing conditions for plants and affects the num
er and iodiversity
of plants in a iome.
Explain how climate is related to iodiversity of
nisms.

iomes and adaptations of orga

State how terrestrial iomes are classified and distri uted around the glo e.
Outline a iotic and iotic factors in tundra and oreal forest iomes.
Descri e climatic factors and organisms of temperate zone

iomes.

List a iotic factors in deserts and adaptations of desert organisms.

Identify a iotic factors and organisms in tropical iome.
Descri e how aquatic iomes are divided into zones, and list types of aquatic or
ganisms.
Identify marine iomes, and state which
Name types of freshwater

iomes have the highest iodiversity.

iomes, and descri e how they differ from one another.

145
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7.2 Biomes and Climate

If you look at the two pictures in Figure 1 elow, you will see very few similar
ities. The picture on the
left shows a desert in Africa. The picture on the right shows a rainforest in Au
stralia. What is the most
o vious difference etween the two places? It could e that the desert does not

have any visi le plants,

whereas the rainforest is densely packed with trees. What causes these two place
s to e so different? The
main reason is climate.
Figure 7.1: Sahara Desert in northern Africa (left). Rainforest in northeastern
Australia (right).
The two pictures a ove represent two different types of
forests. A iome is a

iomes: deserts and rain

group of similar ecosystems that cover a road area. Biomes are major su divisio
ns of the iosphere. They
can e classified into two major types:
Terrestrial iomes:
Aquatic iomes:

iomes on land

iomes in water

You will read a out terrestrial iomes in Lesson 16.2 and aquatic iomes in Less
on 16.3. First, however,
it is important to understand how climate influences
important a iotic (non-

iomes. Climate is the most

living) factor affecting the distri ution of terrestrial iomes of different typ
es. Climate determines the
growing conditions in an area, so it also determines what plants can grow there.
Animals depend directly
or indirectly on plants, so the type of animals that live in an area also depend
s on climate.
What Is Climate?
Climate is the average weather in an area over a long period of time, whereas we
ather is a day to day
explanation. Weather and climate are descri ed in terms of factors such as tempe
rature and precipitation.
The climate of a particular location depends, in turn, on its latitude (distance
from the equator) and
altitude (distance a ove sea level). Other factors that affect an areas climate i
nclude its location relative
to the ocean or mountain ranges. Temperature and moisture are the two climatic f
actors that most affect
terrestrial iomes.
Temperature
In general, temperature on Earths surface falls from the equator to the poles. Ba
sed on temperature,

climates can e classified as tropical, temperate, or arctic, as shown in Figure

2. Temperature also falls
from lower to higher altitudes, for example, from the ase of a mountain to its
peak. This explains why
the tops of high mountains in tropical climates may e snow-capped year-round.
The ocean may also play an important role in the temperature of an area. Coastal
areas may have milder
climates than areas farther inland at the same latitude. This is
perature of the ocean

ecause the tem

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146

Figure 7.2: Major climate zones ased on temperature include tropical, temperate
, and arctic zones. The
tropical zone extends from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Tropic of Cancer. The
two temperate zones
extend from the tropical zone to the arctic or antarctic circle. The two arctic
zones extend from the arctic
or antarctic circle to the north or south pole.
changes relatively little from season to season, and this affects the temperatur
e on near y coasts. As a
result, many coastal areas have oth warmer winters and cooler summers than inla
nd areas.
Moisture
Based on the amount of water availa le to plants, climates can e classified as
arid (dry), semi-arid, semihumid, or humid (wet). The moisture of a
on and evaporation.

iome is determined y oth precipitati

Evaporation, in turn, depends on heat from the sun. Worldwide precipitation patt
erns result from glo al
movements of air masses and winds, which are shown in Figure 3. For example, war
m, humid air masses
rise over the equator and are moved north and south
air masses cool and

y glo al air currents. The

cannot hold as much water. As a result, they drop their moisture as precipitatio
n. This explains why
many tropical areas receive more precipitation than other areas of the world.

When the same air masses descend at a out 30 north or south latitude (see Figure
3), they are much
drier. This explains why dry climates are found at these latitudes. These latitu
des are also warm and
sunny, which increases evaporation and dryness. Dry climates are found near the
poles, as well. Extremely
cold air can hold very little moisture, so precipitation is low in arctic zones.
However, these climates also
have little evaporation ecause of the extreme cold. As a result, cold climates
with low precipitation may
not

e as dry as warm climates with the same amount of precipitation.

Distance from the ocean and mountain ranges also influences precipitation. For e
xample, one side of a
mountain range near the ocean may receive a lot of precipitation
oist air masses regularly

ecause warm, m

move in from the water. As air masses egin to rise up over the mountain range,
they cool and drop their
moisture as precipitation. This is illustrated in Figure 4.
By the time the air masses reach the other side of the mountain range, they no l
onger contain moisture.
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Figure 7.3: This model of Earth shows the direction in which air masses typicall
y move and winds usually
low at different latitudes. These movements explain why some latitudes receive
more precipitation than
others.
Figure 7.4: The windward side of this mountain range has a humid climate, wherea
s the leeward side has
an arid climate. On the windward side, warm moist air comes in from the ocean, r
ises and cools, and drops
its moisture as rain or snow. On the leeward side, the cool dry air falls, warms
, and picks up moisture
from the land. How has this affected plant growth on the two sides of the mounta
in range?
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148
As a result, land on this side of the mountain range receives little precipitati
on. This land is in the rain
shadow of the mountain range. Many inland areas far away from the ocean or mount
ain ranges are also
dry. Air masses that have passed over a wide expanse of land to reach the interi
or of a continent usually
no longer carry much moisture.
Climate and Plant Growth
Plants are the major producers in terrestrial iomes. Almost all other terrestri
al organisms depend on
them either directly or indirectly for food. Plants need air, warmth, sunlight,
water, and nutrients to grow.
Climate is the major factor affecting the num er and diversity of plants that ca
n grow in a terrestrial
iome. Climate determines the average temperature and precipitation, the length
of the growing season,
and the quality of the soil, including levels of soil nutrients.
Growing Season
The growing season is the period of time each year when it is warm enough for pl
ants to grow. The
timing and length of the growing season determine what types of plants can grow
in an area. For example,
near the poles the growing season is very short. The temperature may rise a ove
freezing for only a couple
of months each year. Because of the cold temperatures and short growing season,
trees and other slowgrowing plants are una le to survive. The growing season gets longer from the po
les to the equator. Near
the equator, plants can grow year-round if they have enough moisture. A huge div
ersity of plants can grow
in hot, wet climates.
The timing of precipitation also affects the growing season. In some areas, most
of the precipitation
falls during a single wet season (such as in California), rather than throughout
the year (such as in New
England). In these areas, the growing season lasts only as long as there is enou
gh moisture for plants to

grow.
Soil
Plants need soil that contains adequate nutrients and organic matter. Nutrients
and organic matter are
added to soil when plant litter and dead organisms decompose. In cold climates,
decomposition occurs
very slowly. As a result, soil in cold climates is thin and poor in nutrients. S
oil is also thin and poor in
hot, wet climates ecause the heat and humidity cause such rapid decomposition t
hat little organic matter
accumulates in the soil. The frequent rains also leach nutrients from the soil.
Thin, poor soil is shown in
the left drawing of Figure 5. The right drawing shows thick, rich soil. This typ
e of soil is generally found
in temperate climates and is

est for most plants.

Biome Biodiversity and Adaptations

Because plants are the most important producers in terrestrial
that affects their growth

iomes, anything

also influences the num er and variety of other organisms that can e supported
in a iome. Therefore,
climate has a major impact on the iodiversity of

iomes.

Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the num er of different species of organisms in a iome (
or ecosystem or other ecological unit). Biodiversity is usually greater in warmer
iversity generally decreases

iomes. Therefore, iod

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Figure 7.5: The soil on the left has a thin layer of topsoil, the part of soil w
here most plant roots o tain
moisture and nutrients. The topsoil is light in color, which means that it is po
or in nutrients and organic
matter. The soil on the right has a thicker layer of topsoil. Its dark color ind
icates that the topsoil is rich

in nutrients and organic matter.

from the equator to the poles. Biodiversity is usually greater in wetter
as well. Remem er the

iomes,

desert and rainforest pictured in Figure 1? The iodiversity of these two

is vastly different. Both

iomes

iomes have warm climates, ut the desert is very dry, and the rainforest is ver
y wet. The desert has very
few organisms, so it has low
organisms, and therefore

iodiversity. Some parts of the desert may have no

zero iodiversity. In contrast, the rainforest has the highest iodiversity of a

ny iome on Earth.
A discussion of iodiversity (6a) is availa le at http://www.youtu e.com/watch?v
=vGxJAre Koc
(6:12).
Figure 7.6: (Watch Youtu e Video)
http://www.ck12.org/flex ook/em ed/view/173
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150

Adaptations
Plants, animals, and other organisms evolve adaptations to suit them to the a io
tic factors in their iome.
A iotic factors to which they adapt include temperature, moisture, growing seaso
n, and soil. This is why
the same type of iome in different parts of the world has organisms with simila
r adaptations. For example,
iomes with dry climates worldwide have plants with similar adaptations to aridi
ty, such as special tissues
for storing water (see Figure 6).
Figure 7.7: (left) The large hollow leaves of an African aloe plant store water
and help the plant survive
in its arid iome. (right) Cacti like these are found in arid
erica. They store water in

iomes of North Am

their thick, arrel-like stems.

In iomes with a severe cold or dry season, plants may ecome dormant during tha
t season of the year. In

dormant plants, cellular activities temporarily slow down, so the plants need le
ss sunlight and water. For
example, many trees shed their leaves and ecome dormant during very cold or dry
seasons. Animals in
very cold or dry iomes also must adapt to these a iotic factors. For example, a
daptations to cold include
fur or fat, which insulates the ody and helps retain

ody heat.

Changes in ecosystems (6 ) are discussed at http://www.youtu e.com/watch?v=jHWgW

xDWhsA
(7:47) and http://www.youtu e.com/watch?v=5q lwORXwrg (2:26).
Figure 7.8: (Watch Youtu e Video)
http://www.ck12.org/flex ook/em ed/view/174
151
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Figure 7.9: (Watch Youtu e Video)

http://www.ck12.org/flex ook/em ed/view/175
7.3 Terrestrial Biomes
Terrestrial iomes include all land areas on Earth where organisms live. The maj
or iomes cover large
regions and are found on more than one continent. They are generally classified
on the asis of climatic
factors and the types of plants that are the primary producers.
Classification of Terrestrial Biomes
Scientists have created several different systems for classifying terrestrial i
omes. Biomes in most classification systems include tundra,
sland, chaparral, tropical

oreal forest, temperate forest, temperate gras

forest, tropical grassland, and desert. The worldwide distri ution of these
es is shown in Figure 1.

iom

Figure 7.10: Distri ution of Earth

The distri ution of iomes shown in Figure 1 reflects glo al patterns of tempera
ture and moisture. It
also reflects conditions in earlier times. Many areas have

een distur ed y hum

an actions, some more

so than others. For example, most tundra
human actions, ut

iomes have een changed very little y

many forests have een completely cleared. Some

orests, cannot e replaced

iomes, including tropical rainf

once they have een destroyed. Figure 2 summarizes important features of most of
the iomes shown in
Figure 1. Refer to
ghout this lesson.

oth figures as you read a out these terrestrial iomes throu

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152

Figure 7.11: These

iomes are descri ed more fully in the text. Refer to

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Arctic and Su arctic Biomes
Artic and su arctic iomes are found near the north and south poles or at high a
ltitudes in other climate
zones. The iomes include tundra and oreal forests. Both have cold, dry climate
s and poor soil. They
can support only limited plant growth and have low

iodiversity.

Tundra
Tundra is an arctic iome where it is too cold for trees to grow. Outside of the
polar ice caps, tundra has
the coldest temperatures on Earth. There are two types of tundra: arctic tundra,
which is also found in
Antarctica, and alpine tundra, which is found only at high altitudes.
Arctic tundra occurs north of the arctic circle and south of the antarctic circl
e. It covers much of
Alaska and vast areas of northern Canada and Russia. It is also found along the
northern coast of
Antarctica.
Alpine tundra occurs in mountains around the world at any latitude,
ve the tree line.

ut only a o

The tree line is the edge of the zone at which trees are a le to survive. Alpine
tundra is found in

the Rocky Mountains in the United States and in several other mountain ranges ar
ound the world.
Both types of tundra receive very low precipitation,
ecause of the cold. Arctic

ut little of it evaporates

tundra has permafrost, which is soil that is frozen year-round. The top layer of
soil thaws in the summer,
ut deeper layers do not. As a result, water cannot soak into the ground. This l
eaves the soil soggy
and creates many ogs, lakes, and streams. Alpine tundra does not have permafros
t, except at very high
altitudes. Therefore, alpine tundra soil tends to e dry rather than soggy.
Glo al warming poses a serious threat to Arctic tundra iomes ecause it is caus
ing the permafrost to
melt. When permafrost melts, it not only changes the tundra. It also releases la
rge amounts of methane
and car on dioxide into the atmosphere. Both are greenhouse gases, which contri
ute to greater glo al
warming.
The most common vegetation in tundra is mosses and lichens. They can grow in ver
y little soil and
ecome dormant during the winter. Tundra is too cold for amphi ians or reptiles,
which cannot regulate
their own ody heat. Insects such as mosquitoes can survive the winter as pupae
and are very numerous
in summer. In addition, many species of irds and large herds of cari ou migrate
to arctic tundra each
summer. However, few
have adapted to the

irds and mammals live there year-round. Those that remain

extreme cold. Polar ears are an example. They have very thick fur to insulate t
hem from the cold. In
alpine tundra, animals must adapt to rugged terrain as well as to cold. Alpine a
nimals include mountain
goats, which not only have wool to keep them warm
gile.

ut are also sure-footed and a

Boreal Forests
A oreal forest is a su arctic
aring, needle-leaved

iome covered with conifers. Conifers are cone- e

evergreen trees such as spruces. Boreal forests are found only in the northern h
emisphere. They occur just

south of the arctic circle in Alaska, Canada, northern Europe, and Russia (where
they are called taiga).
They also occur in extreme northern regions of Minnesota, New York State, New Ha
mpshire, and Maine.
Boreal forests have harsh continental climates, with very cold winters and relat
ively warm summers. The
growing season is also short. Precipitation is quite low, ut there is little ev
aporation. Most of the
precipitation falls in the summer when plants are growing, so there is enough mo
isture for dense plant
growth. A thick carpet of evergreen needles on the forest floor causes the soil
to e too acidic for most
other plants.
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154
Conifers have adapted to the difficult conditions in several ways. They have sha
llow roots that suit them
for the thin soil. They have needles instead of leaves, which reduce water loss
during the long, dry winters.
The needles are also very dark green in color, which maximizes a sorption of sun
light for photosynthesis.
Although oreal forests are dense with conifers, there are only a few different
species of trees. Vegetation
on the forest floor consists mostly of mosses and lichens. Animals found in ore
al forests include insects,
irds, and mammals such as ra its, foxes, and rown
heir winters there. Like

ears. Cari ou also spend t

tundra, the oreal forest is too cold for amphi ians or reptiles.
Temperate Biomes
Temperate iomes cover most of the continental United States and Europe. They al
so cover large parts of
Asia. Types of temperate

iomes include forests, grasslands, and chaparral.

There are two types of temperate forests: temperate deciduous forests and temper
ate rainforests. Both
types have a temperate climate and good soil. A temperate climate is a moderate
climate that is neither
extremely hot nor extremely cold. A temperate climate can e either continental
or coastal. Continental

temperate climates are found inland, and they tend to have cold winters, hot sum
mers, and moderate
precipitation. Coastal temperate climates are found near the ocean, and they ten
d to have mild winters,
cool summers, and high precipitation.
Temperate deciduous forests are found in areas with continental temperate climat
es, such as the
eastern United States and Canada and throughout much of Europe. These forests co
nsist mainly of
deciduous trees, such as maples and oaks, which lose their leaves in the fall. T
here are many other
species of plants as well. Animals include insects, amphi ians, reptiles, and i
rds. Mammals are also
common, including ra its and wolves.
Temperate rainforests are found in areas with coastal temperate climates, such a
s the northwestern
coast of North America and certain coastal regions of other continents. These fo
rests consist mainly of
evergreen trees, such as hemlocks and firs. Mosses, lichens, and ferns grow on t
he forest floor. There
are also many epiphytic plants. Animals include insects, amphi ians, reptiles, a
nd irds. There are
also many mammals, such as squirrels and deer.
Epiphytes are plants that grow on other plants. They use the other plants for
support, not nutrients, and generally do not harm the plants they grow on. They
grow
high in the ranches of trees where there is more sunlight availa le for photosy
nthesis.
Temperate grasslands are temperate
re found in the mid-

iomes that consist mainly of grasses. They a

western region of North America and in inland areas of most other continents. Th
e climate is continental,
and precipitation is relatively low. However, the majority of the precipitation
falls during the growing
season when plants need it the most.
Biomes are often referred to y local names. For example, a temperate grassland
iome is known as prairie
in North America, out ack in Australia, pampa in South America, and steppe in ce
ntral Asia. Can you

find each of these temperate grasslands on the map in Figure 1?

The soil of temperate grasslands is the richest, deepest soil on Earth. It is de
nsely covered with thick
grasses that decompose to add large amounts of organic matter and nutrients to t
he soil. Grasses also have
thick mats of roots that hold the soil in place and prevent erosion. The low rai
nfall does not leach many
nutrients from the soil, ut it does lead to frequent fires. The fires help prev
ent woody vegetation from
moving in if a grassland is distur ed. This is ecause grasses can grow ack aft
er a fire, whereas most
woody plants cannot.
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The rich, deep soil supports high productivity. This is why the temperate grassl
and of the US midwest is
known as the Bread asket of America. Grass plants are closely spaced and can sup
port many her ivore
consumers. These range from grasshoppers to deer. Many worms and other inverte r
ates (animals without
a ack one) consume organic matter in the soil. Grassland animals also include c
arnivores such as foxes
and coyotes.
Chaparral is a shru forest iome dominated y densely-growing evergreen shru s
or small trees, such
as scru oak. There are few other species of plants. Chaparral is found mainly i
n central and southern
California and around the Mediterranean Sea. The climate, called a Mediterranean
climate, has mild wet
winters and hot dry summers. Fires are frequent ecause of the summer dryness, a
nd the soil is relatively
poor.
The majority of chaparral trees and plants are adapted to the dry summers. For e
xample:
Trees are short, which reduces their need for water.
Many plants are dormant during the dry season, which also reduces water needs.
The leaves of some plants have waxy coatings, which reduce water loss.

Most chaparral plants are adapted to frequent fires, as well. For example:
Many plants can grow

ack quickly from the roots after urning to the ground.

Some plants produce seeds that need fire in order to germinate.

Many plants have thick underground stems that can survive fires.
The densely growing trees make it difficult for very large animals to penetrate
the chaparral, so most
chaparral animals are small. They include insects,
The largest animals are

irds, reptiles, and rodents.

deer, which rowse on the leaves of chaparral trees.

Deserts
A desert is a iome that receives no more than 25 centimeters (10 inches) of pre
cipitation per year. Deserts
are found in oth temperate and tropical areas. The largest deserts are found at
a out 30 north or south
latitude due to the dry air masses over these latitudes. Deserts also occur in r
ain shadows. A rain shadow
is a dry region on the leeward side of a mountain range (see Lesson 16.1). Examp
les of rain shadow deserts
include Death Valley and the Mojave Desert, oth partly in California. The dry a
ir in deserts leads to
extreme temperature variations from day to night. Without water vapor in the air
, there are no clouds to
lock sunlight during the day or hold in heat at night.
Desert soil is usually very poor. They tend to
c content. Because of the

e sandy or rocky and lack organi

low precipitation, minerals are not leached out and may ecome too concentrated
for plants to tolerate.
Plant cover is very sparse, so most of the soil is exposed and easily eroded
wind. The occasional rain

tends to e rief ut heavy, causing runoff and more erosion.

Most desert plants have evolved adaptations to the extreme dryness. For example:
Many plants have special water-storing tissues in leaves, stems, or roots.
Some plants have very long taproots that can reach down to the water ta le.
Some plants have wide-spreading roots that can a sor

water over a large area.

Plants may have small, spiny leaves that help reduce water loss.

Most desert animals have adaptations to the extreme heat and

r example:

right sunlight. Fo

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156
Many small animals stay underground in urrows during the day and come out only
at night.
Most animals that are active in daytime spend as much time as possi le in the sh
ade of rocks or
plants.
Some animals have very large ears or other appendages, which help them lose heat
to the environment,
keeping them cooler.
Many animals are light in color, which helps them reflect sunlight and stay cool
er.
Tropical Biomes
Tropical iomes receive more sunlight than any other iomes on Earth. They also
have high temperatures
year-round. In addition to deserts, tropical
ds.

iomes include forests and grasslan

Tropical Forests
There are two types of tropical forests: tropical rainforests and tropical dry f
orests. Both occur near the
equator, so they have plenty of sunlight and warmth year-round. However, they di
ffer in the amount and
timing of the precipitation they receive.
Tropical rainforests receive more precipitation than any other
ound near the

iome. They are f

equator in Central and South America and Africa. The soil is thin and poor, part
ly ecause the lush
plant growth uses up nutrients
ity of animals as

efore they can accumulate in the soil. Biodivers

well as plants is greater than in all other iomes com ined. Most plants are tal
l, roadleaf evergreen
trees. They form a dense canopy over the forest, so little sunlight reaches the
forest floor. The many
vines and epiphytes reach sunlight
also live in trees,

y growing on trees. Numerous animal species

including monkeys, sloths, and leopards.

 Tropical dry forests occur in tropical areas where most of the precipitation fal
ls during a single
wet season. As a result, there is a pronounced dry season. Tropical dry forests
are found in parts
of Central and South America, Africa, and India. Trees and other plants are wide
ly spaced ecause
there is not enough water for denser growth. The plants also have adaptations to
help them cope
with seasonal drought. For example, many go dormant during the dry season, which
reduces their
need for water. Animals that live in tropical dry forests include ar oreal anima
ls such as monkeys
and ground-dwelling animals such as rodents.
Tropical Grasslands
Tropical grasslands are tropical
rimary producers are

iomes with relatively low rainfall where the p

grasses. Tropical grasslands are found mainly in Africa, where they are called s
avannas. They have high
temperatures year-round, ut relatively low precipitation. Moreover, most of the
precipitation falls during
a single wet season, leaving the rest of the year very dry. The soil is also poo
r.
In addition to grasses, there are scattered clumps of trees in most tropical gra
sslands. The trees are
drought-adapted species such as acacia, which have narrow leaves that reduce wat
er loss. Acacia trees
also have thorns that discourage
l known for their huge

rowsing y her ivores. Africa savannas are wel

herds of her ivores, including ze ra, giraffe, and wilde eest. They are also wel
l known for their large
carnivoressuch as lions, cheetahs, and hyenasthat prey on the her ivores.
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7.4 Aquatic Biomes
Terrestrial organisms are generally limited y temperature and moisture. Therefo
re, terrestrial iomes are
defined in terms of these a iotic factors. In contrast, most organisms that live
in the water do not have to

deal with extremes of temperature or moisture. Instead, their main limiting fact
ors are the availa ility of
sunlight and the concentration of dissolved nutrients in the water.
What Are Aquatic Biomes?
Aquatic iomes are iomes found in water. Water covers 70 percent of Earths surfa
ce, so aquatic iomes
are a major component of the
an terrestrial iomes.

iosphere. However, they have less total iomass th

Aquatic iomes can occur in either salt water or freshwater. A out 98 percent of
Earths water is salty,
and only 2 percent is fresh. The primary saltwater iome is the ocean. Major fre
shwater iomes include
lakes and rivers.
Aquatic Zones
In large odies of standing water (including the ocean and lakes), the water can
e divided into zones
ased on the amount of sunlight it receives. There is enough sunlight for photos
ynthesis only in - at most
- the top 200 meters of water. Water down to this depth is called the photic zon
e. Deeper water, where
too little sunlight penetrates for photosynthesis, is called the aphotic zone.
Surface water dissolves oxygen from the air, so there is generally plenty of oxy
gen in the photic zone to
support organisms. Water near shore usually contains more dissolved nutrients th
an water farther from
the shore. This is ecause most dissolved nutrients enter a ody of water from l
and, carried y runoff or
rivers that empty into the ody of water. When aquatic organisms die, they sink
to the ottom, where
decomposers release the nutrients they contain. As a result, deep water may cont
ain more nutrients than
surface water.
Deep ocean water may e forced to the surface y currents in a process called 
upwelling.
When this happens, dissolved nutrients are
ocean. The

rought to the surface from the deep

nutrients can support large populations of producers and consumers, including ma

ny species

of fish. As a result, areas of upwelling are important for commercial fishing.Wi

th these
variations in sunlight, oxygen, and nutrients, different parts of the ocean or a
lake have different types and
num ers of organisms. Therefore, life in a lake or the ocean is generally divide
d into zones. The zones
correlate mainly with the amount of sunlight and nutrients availa le to producer
s. Figure 1 shows ocean
zones. Lakes have similar zones.
The littoral zone is the shallow water near the shore. In the ocean, the littora
l zone is also called
the intertidal zone.
The pelagic zone is the main ody of open water farther out from shore. It is di
vided into additional
zones ased on water depth. In the ocean, the part of the pelagic zone over the
continental shelf is
called the neritic zone, and the rest of the pelagic zone is called the oceanic
zone.
The enthic zone is the
thic zone is divided

ottom surface of a ody of water. In the ocean, the en

into additional zones ased on depth elow sea level.

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158

Figure 7.12: The ocean is divided into many different zones, depending on distan
ce from shore and depth
of water. The pelagic zone is divided into neritic and oceanic zones
stance from shore. Into

ased on di

what additional zones is the pelagic zone divided on the asis of water depth? W
hat additional zones make
up the enthic zone?
Aquatic Organisms
Aquatic organisms are classified into three asic categories: plankton, nekton,
and enthos. Organisms in
these three categories vary in where they live and how they move.
Plankton are aquatic organisms that live in the water itself and cannot propel t
hemselves through

water. They include oth phytoplankton and zooplankton. Phytoplankton are

ia and al-

acter

gae that use sunlight to make food y photosynthesis. Zooplankton are tiny anima
ls that feed on
phytoplankton.
Nekton are aquatic animals that live in the water and can propel themselves y s
wimming or other
means. Nekton include inverte rates such as shrimp and verte rates such as fish.
Benthos are aquatic organisms that live on the surface elow a ody of water. Th
ey live in or on
the sediments at the
Figure 2).

ottom. Benthos include sponges, clams, and sea stars (see

Marine Biomes
Marine iomes are aquatic iomes found in the salt water of the ocean. Major mar
ine iomes are neritic,
oceanic, and enthic iomes. Other marine iomes include intertidal zones, estua
ries, and coral reefs.
Neritic Biomes
Neritic iomes occur in ocean water over the continental shelf (see Figure 1). T
hey extend from the
low-tide water line to the edge of the continental shelf. The water here is shal
low, so there is enough
sunlight for photosynthesis. The water is also rich in nutrients, which are wash
ed into the water from
the near y land. Because of these favora le conditions, large populations of phy
toplankton live in neritic
iomes. They produce enough food to support many other organisms, including
zooplankton and

oth

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Figure 7.13: This sea star, or starfish, is an example of a enthic organism. Th

e tiny white projections on
the ottom surface of the sea star allow it anchor to, or slowly crawl over, the
ottom surface of the ocean.
nekton. As a result, neritic
ty. They are occupied y

iomes have relatively great iomass and iodiversi

many species of inverte rates and fish. In fact, most of the worlds major saltwat
er fishing areas are in
neritic iomes.
Oceanic Biomes
Oceanic iomes occur in the open ocean eyond the continental shelf. There are l
ower concentrations of
dissolved nutrients away from shore, so the oceanic zone has a lower density of
organisms than the neritic
zone. The oceanic zone is divided into additional zones ased on water depth (se
e Figure 1).
The epipelagic zone is the top 200 meters of water, or the depth to which enough
sunlight can
penetrate for photosynthesis. Most open ocean organisms are concentrated in this
zone, including
oth plankton and nekton.
The mesopelagic zone is etween 200 and 1,000 meters elow sea level. Some sunli
ght penetrates
to this depth ut not enough for photosynthesis. Organisms in this zone consume
food drifting down
from the epipelagic zone, or they prey upon other organisms in their own zone. S
ome organisms are
detrivores, which consume dead organisms and organic de ris that also drift down
through the water.
The athypelagic zone is etween 1,000 and 4,000 meters elow sea level. No sunl
ight penetrates
elow 1,000 meters, so this zone is completely dark. Most organisms in this zone
either consume
dead organisms drifting down from a ove or prey upon other animals in their own
zone. There are
fewer organisms and less iomass here than in higher zones. Some animals are io
luminescent, which
means they can give off light (see Figure 3). This is an adaptation to the total
darkness.
The a yssopelagic zone is etween 4,000 and 6,000 meters elow sea level. The ha
dopelagic zone
is found in the water of deep ocean trenches
ones are similar to

elow 6,000 meters. Both of these z

the athypelagic zone in eing completely dark. They have even lower
species diversity.

iomass and

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160

Figure 7.14: The anglerfish lives in the

re protruding from the

athypelagic zone. The rod-like structu

anglerfish
Benthic Biomes
Benthic iomes occur on the
, including sponges,

ottom of the ocean where enthos live. Some enthos

are sessile, or una le to move, and live attached to the ocean floor. Other ent
hos, including clams, urrow
into sediments on the ocean floor. The
al zones ased on how far

enthic zone can e divided into addition

elow sea level the ocean floor is (see Figure 1).

The su littoral zone is the part of the ocean floor that makes up the continenta
l shelf near the
shoreline. The water is shallow enough for sunlight to penetrate down to the oce
an floor. Therefore,
photosynthetic producers such as seaweed can grow on the ocean floor in this zon
e. The littoral zone
is rich in marine life.
The athyal zone is the part of the ocean floor that makes up the continental sl
ope. It ranges from
a out 1,000 to 4,000 meters elow sea level. The athyal zone contains no produc
ers ecause it is
too far elow the surface for sunlight to penetrate. Although consumers and deco
mposers live in this
zone, there are fewer organisms here than in the su littoral zone.
The a yssal zone is the part of the ocean floor in the deep open ocean. It varie
s from a out 4,000
to 6,000 meters elow sea level. Organisms that live on the ocean floor in this
zone must e a le to
withstand extreme water pressure, continuous cold, and scarcity of nutrients. Ma
ny of the organisms
sift through sediments on the ocean floor for food or dead organisms.
The hadal zone is the ocean floor elow 6,000 meters in deep ocean trenches. The
only places

where organisms are known to live in this zone are at hydrothermal vents, where
inverte rates such
as tu eworms and clams are found. They depend on microscopic archaea organisms f
or food. These
tiny chemosynthetic producers o tain energy from chemicals leaving the vents (se
e the Principles of
Ecology chapter).
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Intertidal Zone
The intertidal zone is a narrow strip along the coastline that falls
h- and low-tide water lines.

etween hig

It is also called the littoral zone (see Figure 1). A dominant feature of this z
one is the regular movement
of the tides in and out. In most areas, this occurs twice a day. Due to the tide
s, this zone alternates
etween eing under water at high tide and eing exposed to the air at low tide.
An intertidal zone is
pictured in Figure 4.
Figure 7.15: These pictures show the Bay of Fundy off the northeastern coast of
Maine in North America.
The picture on the left shows the ay at high tide, and the picture on the right
shows the ay at low tide.
The area covered y water at high tide and exposed to air at low tide is the int
ertidal zone.
The high tide repeatedly rings in coastal water with its rich load of dissolved
nutrients. There is also
plenty of sunlight for photosynthesis. In addition, the shallow water keeps larg
e predators, such as whales
and ig fish, out of the intertidal zone. As a result, the intertidal zone has a
high density of living things.
Seaweeds and algae are numerous, and they support many consumer species, either
directly or indirectly,
including arnacles, sea stars, and cra s.
Other conditions in the intertidal zone are less favora le. For example, there a
re frequent shifts from a water
to an air environment. There are also repeated changes in temperature and salini

ty (salt concentration).
These changing conditions pose serious challenges to marine organisms. The movin
g water poses yet
another challenge. Organisms must have some way to prevent
ea with the tides.

eing washed out to s

Barnacles, like those in Figure 5, cement themselves to rocks. Seaweeds have roo
tlike structures, called
holdfasts, which anchor them to rocks. Cra s urrow underground to avoid
ashed out with the

eing w

tides.
Other Marine Biomes
The intertidal zone has high iodiversity. However, it is not the marine iome w
ith the highest iodiversity.
That distinction goes to estuaries and coral reefs. They have the highest
ersity of all marine iomes.

iodiv

An estuary is a ay where a river empties into the ocean. It is usually semi-enc

losed, making it a
protected environment. The water is rich in dissolved nutrients from the river a
nd shallow enough
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162

Figure 7.16: Barnacles secrete a cement-like su stance that anchors them to rock
s.
for sunlight to penetrate for photosynthesis. As a result, estuaries are full of
marine life. Figure 6
shows an estuary on the California coast near San Francisco.
Figure 7.17: This satellite photo shows the San Francisco Estuary on the Califor
nia coast. This is the largest
estuary on the lower west coast of North America. Two rivers, the Sacramento and
the San Joaquin, flow
into the estuary (upper right corner of photo). The estuary is almost completely
enclosed y land ut still
connected to the ocean.
A coral reef is an underwater limestone structure produced y tiny inverte rate
animals called

163
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corals. Coral reefs are found only in shallow, tropical ocean water. Corals secr
ete calcium car onate
(limestone) to form an external skeleton. Corals live in colonies, and the skele
tal material gradually
accumulates to form a reef. Coral reefs are rich with marine organisms, includin
g more than 4,000
species of tropical fish. Figure 7 shows a coral reef in the Hawaiian Islands.
Figure 7.18: Colorful fish swim in warm, shallow ocean water near a coral reef o
ff the Hawaiian Islands.
Freshwater Biomes
Freshwater iomes occur in water that contains little or no salt. Freshwater io
mes include standing
water and running water iomes.
Standing Freshwater Biomes
Standing freshwater iomes include ponds and lakes. Ponds are generally smaller
than lakes and shallow
enough for sunlight to reach all the way to the
of the water is too deep for

ottom. In lakes, at least some

sunlight to penetrate. As a result, like the ocean, lakes can

nes ased on availa ility of

e divided into zo

sunlight for producers.

The littoral zone is the water closest to shore. The water in the littoral zone
is generally shallow
enough for sunlight to penetrate, allowing photosynthesis. Producers in this zon
e include oth
phytoplankton and plants that float in the water. They provide food, oxygen, and
ha itat to other
aquatic organisms. The littoral zone generally has high productivity and high i
odiversity.
The limnetic zone is the top layer of lake water away from shore. This zone cove
rs much of the lakes
surface, ut it is only as deep as sunlight can penetrate. This is a maximum of
200 meters. If the
water is muddy or cloudy, sunlight cannot penetrate as deeply. Photosynthesis oc
curs in this zone,

and the primary producers are phytoplankton, which float suspended in the water.
Zooplankton
and nekton are also found in this zone. The limnetic zone is generally lower in
productivity and
iodiversity than the littoral zone.
The profundal zone is the deep water near the ottom of a lake where no sunlight
penetrates.
Photosynthesis cannot take place, so there are no producers in this zone. Consum
ers eat food that
drifts down from a ove, or they eat other organisms in the profundal zone. Decom
posers reak down
dead organisms that drift down through the water. This zone has low iodiversity
.
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164
The enthic zone is the
, the ottom of the

ottom of a lake. Near the shore, where water is shallow

lake receives sunlight, and plants can grow in sediments there. Organisms such a
s crayfish, snails,
and insects also live in and around the plants near shore. The plants provide sh
elter from predatory
fish as well as food and oxygen. In deeper water, where the ottom of the lake i
s completely dark,
there are no producers. Most organisms that live here are decomposers.
The surface water of a lake is heated y sunlight and
near the ottom. Because

ecomes warmer than water

warm water is less dense that cold water, it remains on the surface. When dead o
rganisms sink to the
ottom of a lake, they are roken down
from the dead organism.

y decomposers that release the nutrients

As a result, nutrients accumulate at the lakes ottom. In spring and fall in temp
erate climates, the surface
water of a lake reaches the same temperature as the deeper water. This gives the
different water layers the
same density, allowing them to intermix. This process, called turnover,
utrients from the ottom

rings n

of the lake to the surface, where producers can use them.

Lakes can e categorized on the

asis of their overall nutrient levels, as shown

in Ta le 1. Oligotrophic
lakes have low nutrient levels, so they also have low productivity. With few pro
ducers (or other aquatic
organisms), the water remains clear and little oxygen is used up to support life
. Biodiversity is low.
Ta le 7.1: Trophic Classification of Freshwater Lakes
Type of Lake
Nutrient Level
Productivity
Clarity of Water
Oxygen Level
Oligotrophic
Low
Low
High
High
Mesotrophic
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Eutrophic
High
High
Low
Low
Hypertrophic
Very high
Very high
Very low
Very low

Acid rain is another cause of low productivity in lakes. Acid rain falling into
a lake
causes the lake water to
sults

ecome too acidic for many species to tolerate. This re

in a decline in the num er and diversity of lake organisms. This has happened to
many
lakes throughout the northeastern United States. The water in the lakes is very
clear
ecause it is virtually devoid of life.Lakes with high nutrient levels have high
er productivity,
cloudier water, lower oxygen levels, and higher iomass and
igh nutrient levels in lakes

iodiversity. Very h

are generally caused y contamination with fertilizer or sewage. The high concen
tration of nutrients may
cause a massive increase in phytoplankton, called a phytoplankton loom (see Fig
ure 8). The loom
locks sunlight from su merged plants and other producers and negatively impacts
most organisms in the
lake.
Running Freshwater Biomes
Running freshwater iomes include streams and rivers. Streams are generally smal
ler than rivers. Streams
may start with surface runoff, snowmelt from a glacier, or water seeping out of
the ground from a spring.
If the land is not flat, the water runs downhill. The water joins other streams
and then rivers as it flows
over the land. Eventually, the water empties into a pond, lake, or the ocean.
Some species living in rivers that empty into the ocean may live in freshwater d
uring some
stages of their life cycle and in salt water during other stages. For example, s
almon
are orn and develop in freshwater rivers and then move downstream to the ocean,
where
they live as adults. In contrast, some eels are orn and develop in the ocean an
d then
move into freshwater rivers to live as adults.Compared with standing water, runn
ing water is
etter a le to dissolve oxygen needed y producers and other aquatic organisms.
When a river rushes over

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Figure 7.19: The phytoplankton

trating elow the

loom on this lake locks most sunlight from pene

surface, creating a condition detrimental to many other aquatic organisms.

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166

a waterfall, like the one in Figure 9, most of the water is exposed to the air,
allowing it to dissolve a
great deal of oxygen. Flowing water also provides a continuous supply of nutrien
ts. Some nutrients come
from the decomposition of dead aquatic organisms. Other nutrients come from the
decomposition of dead
terrestrial organisms, and other organic de ris such as leaves, that fall into t
he water.
Figure 7.20: Flowing water forms a waterfall on the South Yu a River in Nevada C
ounty, California. As
the water falls through the air, it dissolves oxygen needed y aquatic organisms
.
Algae are the main producers in running freshwater
, algae can float suspended

iomes. If water flows slowly

in the water, and huge populations may form, like the phytoplankton loom in Fig
ure 8 a ove. If water
flows rapidly, algae must attach themselves to rocks or plants to avoid eing wa
shed away and generally
cannot form very large populations.
Plants are also important producers in most running water iomes. Some plants, s
uch as mosses, cling to
rocks. Other plants, such as duckweed, float in the water. If nutrient levels ar
e high, floating plants may
form a thick mat on the surface of the water, like the one shown in Figure 10 (l
eft photo). Still other
plants grow in sediments on the ottoms of streams and rivers. Many of these pla
ntslike the cattails in

Figure 10 (right photo)have long narrow leaves that offer little resistance to th
e current. In addition to
serving as a food source, plants in running water provide aquatic animals with p
rotection from the current
and places to hide from predators.
Figure 7.21: The picture on the left shows a thick mat of duckweed floating on a
river. The picture on the
right shows cattails growing in sediments at the edge of a stream ed. Notice th
e cattails
Consumers in running water include
most common inverte-

oth inverte rate and verte rate animals. The

rates are insects. Others include snails, clams, and crayfish. Some inverte rat
es live on the water surface,
others float suspended in the water, and still others cling to rocks on the ott
om. All rely on the current
to ring them food and dissolved oxygen. The inverte rates are important consume
rs as well as prey to
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the many verte rates in running water. Verte rate species include fish, amphi ia
ns, reptiles, irds, and
mammals. However, only fish live in the water all the time. Other verte rates sp
end part of their time on
land.
The movement of running water poses a challenge to aquatic organisms, which have
adapted
in various ways. Some organisms have hooks or threadlike filaments to anchor the
mselves to
rocks or plants in the water. Other organisms, including fish, have fins and str
eamlined
odies that allow them to swim against the current.The interface etween running
freshwater and
land is called a riparian zone. It includes the vegetation that grows along the
edge of a river and the
animals that consume or take shelter in the vegetation. Riparian zones are very
important natural areas
for several reasons:
They filter pollution from surface runoff efore it enters a river.

 They help keep river water clear

y trapping sediments.

They protect river anks from erosion y running water.

They help regulate the temperature of river water y providing shade.
Wetlands
A wetland is an area that is saturated or covered y water for at least one seas
on of the year. Freshwater wetlands are also called swamps, marshes, or
ude estuaries, which are

ogs. Saltwater wetlands incl

descri ed earlier in this lesson. Wetland vegetation must

gged soil, which contains

e adapted to water-lo

little oxygen. Freshwater wetland plants include duckweed and cattails (see Figu
re 10, a ove). Some
wetlands also have trees. Their roots may e partly a ove ground to allow gas ex
change with the air.
Wetlands are extremely important

iomes for several reasons.

They store excess water from floods and runoff.

They a sor

some of the energy of running water and help prevent erosion.

They remove excess nutrients from runoff efore it empties into rivers or lakes.
They provide a unique ha itat that certain communities of plants need to survive
.
They provide a safe, lush ha itat for many species of animals.
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168
7.5 End of Chapter Review & Resources
Chapter Summary
A

iome is a group of similar ecosystems that cover a

average weather in an

road area. Climate is the

area over a long period of time. Climate is the most important a iotic factor af
fecting the distri ution of
terrestrial iomes. Climate includes temperature and precipitation, and it deter
mines growing season and
soil quality. Climate is the major factor affecting the num er and diversity of
plants in terrestrial iomes.
By affecting plants, which are the main producers, climate affects the
ity of terrestrial iomes.

iodivers

Plants and other organisms also evolve adaptations to climatic factors in their

iomes, including adaptations

to extreme cold and dryness. Aquatic
ors such as water depth

iomes are divided into zones ased on fact

and amount of sunlight availa le for photosynthesis. Aquatic organisms include p

lankton, nekton, and
enthos. Marine iomes include neritic, oceanic, and enthic iomes. Intertidal
zones, estuaries, and
coral reefs are marine
ay e standing water

iomes with the highest iodiversity. Freshwater iomes m

iomes, such as lakes, or running water iomes, such as rivers. Wetlands are io
mes in which the ground
is saturated or covered y water for at least part of the year. A iotic factors
such as water depth affect
organisms in aquatic iomes. Organisms in all iomes are also affected y iotic
factors, which include
their interactions with other species.
Review Questions
1. Name three factors that help determine the climate of an ecosystem.
2. What is a rain shadow?
3. List some important factors related to climate that plants need in order to g
row?
4. Explain how the quality of soil in an area is influenced y climate.
5. Why is iodiversity higher at the equator than it is near the poles?
6. Identify the two types of tundra and where they are found.
7. Name two temperate iomes and the main type of plant found in each

iome.

8. In which iome are you most likely to find grasses, ze ras, and lions?
9. If you were to design a well-adapted desert animal, what traits would you giv
e it to help it survive
in its desert environment?
10. Compare and contrast two types of temperate forests.
11. If the tropics receive more sunlight year-round than any other
e some plants in tropical

iome, why ar

rainforests adapted to low levels of sunlight?

12. The land areas where terrestrial iomes are found cover only 30 percent of E
arths surface. The rest
of the surface is covered y water. What do you think are some of the organisms

that live in water

iomes?
13. In a large

ody of standing water, what is the photic zone?

14. State why the oceanic zone has a lower concentration of nutrients than the n
eritic zone.
15. Why is moving water a major challenge for organisms in the littoral zone of
the ocean?
16. Why does the profundal zone of a lake have no producers?
17. A new species of ioluminescent fish has een discovered in the ocean. Which
oceanic zone is most
likely the home of this fish? Explain your answer.
18. A developer plans to extend a golf course into a riparian iome. Outline env
ironmental arguments
you could make against this plan.
19. Compare and contrast plankton, nekton, and

enthos.

20. In the deep ocean far from shore, why might you find more dissolved nutrient
s at the ottom than
at the surface?
169
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Further Reading / Supplemental Links
Miller, G. Tyler, Essentials of Ecology (4th edition). Brooks Cole, 2006.
Michael Alla y, Grasslands. Chelsea House Pu lications, 2006.
Michael Alla y, Temperate Forests. Chelsea House Pu lications, 2006.
Michael Alla y, Tropical Rain Forests. Chelsea House Pu lications, 2006.
Trevor Day, Taiga. Chelsea House Pu lications, 2006.
Peter D. Moore, Tundra. Chelsea House Pu lications, 2006.
Susan L. Woodward, Biomes of Earth: Terrestrial, Aquatic, and Human-Dominated. G
reenwood
Press, 2003.
http://ag.arizona.edu/OALS/watershed/highlands/chaparral/chsoils.html
http://environment.newscientist.com/article/mg18725124.500.html
http://estrellamountain.edu/faculty/fara ee/ io k/BioBookcommecosys.html

 http://ridge.icu.ac.jp/gen-ed/ iomes.html
http://users.rcn.com/jkim all.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/B/Biomes.htmll
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/nt/nt0115.html
http://eartho servatory.nasa.gov/La oratory/Biome/
http://www.thewildclassroom.com/ iomes/index.html
http://users.rcn.com/jkim all.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/B/Biomes.html
Trevor Day, Lakes and Rivers. Chelsea House Pu lications, 2006.
Trevor Day, Oceans. Chelsea House Pu lications, 2006.
Stephen Hutchinson and Lawrence E. Hawkins, Oceans: A Visual Guide. Firefly Book
s, 2005.
Peter D. Moore, Wetlands. Chelsea House Pu lications, 2006.
David Sanger and John Hart, San Francisco Bay: Portrait of an Estuary. Universit
y of California
Press, 2003
Susan L. Woodward, Biomes of Earth: Terrestrial, Aquatic, and Human-Dominated. G
reenwood
Press, 2003.
http://ridge.icu.ac.jp/gen-ed/ iomes.html
http://estrellamountain.edu/faculty/fara ee/ io k/BioBookcommecosys.html
http://ridge.icu.ac.jp/gen-ed/ iomes.html
http://sf ay.wr.usgs.gov/
http://users.rcn.com/jkim all.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/B/Biomes.html
http://www.davidsanger.com/san-francisco- ay- ook/
http://www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/edu/curriculum/section5.pdf
http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/La-Mi/Life-in-Water.html
Harm J.de Blij, Peter O. Muller,and Richard S. Williams, Physical Geography: The
Glo al Environment (3rd edition). Oxford University Press, 2004.
Ross E. Koning,Climate and Biomes, Plant Physiology Information We site.
Susan L. Woodward, Biomes of Earth: Terrestrial, Aquatic, and Human-Dominated. G
reenwood
Press, 2003.
http://estrellamountain.edu/faculty/fara ee/ io k/BioBookcommecosys.html

 http://ridge.icu.ac.jp/gen-ed/ iomes.html
http://users.rcn.com/jkim all.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/B/Biomes.html
Voca ulary to Know
a yssal zone- Part of the ocean floor that is under the deep ocean.
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170
alpine tundra - Tundra
titude, ut only

iome that occurs in mountains around the world at any la

a ove the tree line.

a yssopelagic zone - Water etween 4,000 and 6,000 meters elow sea level in the
oceanic zone.
aquatic

iome - Biome in water.

aphotic zone - Deep water in a lake or the ocean where too little sunlight penet
rates for photosynthesis
to occur.
arctic tundra - Tundra
the antarctic circle.

iome that occurs north of the arctic circle and south of

athyal zone - Part of the ocean floor that makes up the continental slope.
athypelagic zone - Water etween 1,000 and 4,000 meters elow sea level in the
oceanic zone.
enthic iome - Marine iome that occurs on the ottom of the ocean where
s live.

entho

enthic zone - Bottom surface of the ocean or a lake.

enthos - Aquatic organisms that live on the surface elow a

ody of water.

iodiversity - Num er of different species of organisms in a iome (or ecosystem

or other unit).
iome - Group of similar ecosystems that cover a road area.
oreal forest - Su arctic iome covered with conifers.
chaparral - Temperate
densely-growing

iome with a Mediterranean climate that consists mainly of

evergreen shru s such as scru oak.

climate - Average weather in an area over a long period of time.
coral reef - Underwater limestone structure formed
called corals.

y tiny inverte rate animals

 desert - Temperate or tropical

f precipitation per

iome that receives no more than 25 centimeters o

year.
epipelagic zone - Top 200 meters of water in the oceanic zone.
epiphyte - Type of plant that grows on other plants for support.
estuary - Bay where a river empties into the ocean.
freshwater iome - Biome such as a lake or river that has water with little or n
o salt.
growing season - Period of time each year when it is warm enough for plants to g
row.
hadal zone - Part of the ocean floor that is in deep ocean trenches.
hadopelagic zone - Water of deep ocean trenches elow 6,000 meters in the oceani
c zone.
intertidal zone - Narrow strip along the coastline of the ocean that falls
en high- and low-tide

etwe

water lines.
limnetic zone - Top layer of deep water in a lake, down to the depth that sunlig
ht penetrates.
littoral zone - Shallow water near the shore of a lake or the ocean.
marine iome - Aquatic iome found in the salt water of the ocean.
mesopelagic zone - Water
anic zone.

etween 200 and 1,000 meters elow sea level in the oce

nekton - Aquatic animals that live in the water itself and can propel themselves
y swimming or
other means.
neritic iome - Marine iome that occurs in ocean water over the continental she
lf.
neritic zone - Part of the pelagic zone over the continental shelf.
oceanic iome - Marine iome that occurs in ocean water eyond the continental s
helf.
oceanic zone - Part of the pelagic zone

eyond the continental shelf.

permafrost - Frozen soil year-round.

pelagic zone - Main ody of open water away from shore in a lake or the ocean.
photic zone - Depth of water in a lake or the ocean to which sunlight can penetr
ate and photosynthesis
can occur.

 plankton - Aquatic organisms that live in the water itself and cannot propel the
mselves through
water.
profundal zone - Deep water in a lake near the
es.

ottom where no sunlight penetrat

rain shadow - Land on the leeward side of a mountain range that receives very li
ttle precipitation.
riparian zone - Interface etween running freshwater and land.
su littoral zone - Part of the ocean floor that makes up the continental shelf.
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temperate deciduous forest - Temperate
consists mainly of

iome that receives moderate rainfall and

deciduous trees such as maples.

temperate grassland - Temperate iome that receives relatively low precipitation
and consists mainly
of grasses.
temperate rainforest - Temperate
mainly of evergreen

iome that receives heavy rainfall and consists

trees such as hemlocks.

terrestrial iome - Biome on land.
tree line - Edge of the zone at which trees are a le to survive.
tropical dry forest - Tropical iome that receives relatively low rainfall, has
a dry season, and consists
mainly of widely spaced, drought-adapted trees.
tropical grassland - Tropical iome that receives relatively low rainfall, has a
dry season, and consists
mainly of grasses.
tropical rainforest - Tropical
ainly of tall, roadleaf

iome that receives heavy rainfall and consists m

evergreen trees.
tundra - Arctic iome where it is too cold for trees to grow.
turnover - Process in which different layers of lake water intermix and
trients from the ottom
to the surface.

ring nu

 upwelling - Process in which deep ocean water is forced to the surface

ts, ringing dissolved
nutrients from the

y curren

ottom to the surface.

wetland - Area that is saturated or covered y water for at least one season of
the year.
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172
Chapter 8
Anthropocene
8.1 Introduction
Humans are having a massive affect in the worlds ecosystems, extinction rates, an
d iome healt. Some
call humans the new era in geological history of Earth.
Chapter O jectives
Understand mans effect on Earths systems.
Define and understand Anthropocene.
Understand the term shifting aselines.
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8.2 What is the Anthropocene?
New geological ages are characterized y changes in glo al environmental conditi
ons and large scale shifts in
types of species. Recently Earth has entered into a new geological age: The Anth
ropocene, from anthropo
= man and cene = new [geological age]. Humans are now changing the world on a gl
o al scale and ushering
in the new era in geologic time.
In a feat unprecedented for a single animal species, humanitys total energy use h
as now exceeded that of the entire ancient iosphere
hing a out a

efore oxygenic photosynthesis, reac

tenth of the energy processed y todays iosphere. From Lenton (2008).

The iosphere itself, at all levels from genetic to the landscape, is increasing
ly a human product.

(Allen y, 2000: 15).

The interactions
d complex

etween environmental change and human societies have a long an

history, spanning many millennia. They vary greatly through time and from place
to place.
Despite these space and time differences, in recent years a glo al perspective h
as egun to
emerge that forms the framework for a growing ody of research within the enviro
nmental
sciences. Crucial to the emergence of the this perspective has
awareness

een the dawning

of two fundamental aspects of the nature of the planet. The first is that the Ea
rth itself is
a single system, within which the iosphere is an active essential component. In
terms of
a sporting analogy, life is a player, not a spectator. Second, human activities
are now so
pervasive and profound in their consequences that they affect the Earth at a glo
al scale in
complex, interactive and accelerating ways; humans now have the capacity to alte
r the Earth
System in ways that threaten the very processes and components, oth iotic and
a iotic, upon
which humans depend. From International Geosphere Biosphere Program (2001), page
4.
For all ut the past 100200 years of human history, humanity was clearly only a p
assenger on
Spaceship Earth. But now, humankind has stepped out of its passenger seat and is
wrestling
the previous pilots for control of the ship. This seems a very dangerous course of
action, as
long as we dont know how the craft responds to pertur ations, how the controls ar
e wired, and
what all the indicators signaling change are really trying to tell us. Andraea (
2002) page 2.
Evidence of Human Change of the Planet
Our analysis indicates that 83% of the earths land surface is influenced directly
y human
eings, whether through human land uses, human access from roads, railways or ma
jor rivers,

electrical infrastructure (indicated

upancy y human

y lights detected at night), or direct occ

eings at densities a ove 1 person per km2. We refer to the human influence on t
he lands
surface measure as the Human Footprint. Last of the Wild Project, Center for Inter
national
Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), Earth Institute at Colum ia Universi
ty.
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174

Ta le 8.1:
Human Influence on Earth. Click on image for a zoom. From Last of the Wild Proje
ct, Center for
International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), Earth Institute at Col
um ia University.
In the past hundred years, we have seen:
1. The complete conversion of 15% of all ice-free land surface to human use.
2. The partial conversion of 55% of all ice-free land surface to human use.
3. The fixation (conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into fertilizer) of 190 mega
tons of nitrogen per year
(in 2005), compared with pre-agriculture terrestrial fixation of 150-190 megaton
s of nitrogen per year
y natural processes (Smil, 2000: 248) In addition,
industrial processes

urning of fossil fuels and

released 100 megatons of nitrogen oxides and ammonia into the atmosphere in 1995
(Galloway (2008).
4. The appropriation of 25% to 40% of total net primary productivity of the plan
et for human use.
5. Changes in the composition of the atmosphere.
6. The damming of most of the worlds rivers. Humans have extensively altered rive
r systems through
impoundments and diversions to meet their water, energy, and transportation need
s. Today, there
are >45,000 dams a ove 15 m high, capa le of holding ack >6500 km3 of water (1)
, or a out 15%
of the total annual river runoff glo ally. (Nillson et al, 2005).

7. The eginning of a massive extinction of life, a out one species every 20 min
utes (Wilson, 1992).
One fifth of all species will e gone
son, 2003: 102).

y 2030 if the present rate continues (Wil

8. The total iomass of the worlds population increased to roughly 40 megatons of

car on. To put
this num er into perspective, consider: The
igatons of car on, the

iomass of all life is roughly 500 G

iomass of all wild verte rates on land is roughly 5 megatons, and the
f all verte rates in

iomass o

the ocean is a out 50 megatons of car on. We have eight time the mass of all wil
d land verte rates,
and a out the same iomass as all the fish and whales in the ocean. Domesticated
animals have a
iomass of roughly 100 megatons of car on. The iomass of our animals is a out 2
0 times the mass
of all wild verte rates on land, and 50% larger than the mass of all verte rates
in the ocean. Smil
(2002: 186, 283284).
9. The mass of all motor vehicles is roughly 1,000 megatons. Machines now need mo
re car on every
year than humans do. The glo al food harvest now amounts to a out 1.3 gigatons o
f car on per
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year, whereas almost 1 gigaton of fossil car on is used annually to produce meta
ls and plastic from
which machines are assem led, and a out 4 gigatons of car on are used each year
to power them.
Smil (2002: 269).
10. The a ility to reach almost any point on land within 48 hours. Wilderness? On
ly 10% of the land
area is remote more than 48 hours from a large city. Travel time to major cities:
A glo al map of
Accessi ility.

Ta le 8.2:
Time in days (d) to reach a place on land from a near y major city. From Travel
time to major cities:
A glo al map of Accessi ility.
When Did the Anthropocene Start?
The exact eginning of the anthropocene is still eing de ated, ut Paul Crutzen
and Eugene Stoermer
have proposed that the anthropocene starts in the 18th century.
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176
To assign a more specific date to the onset of the anthropocene seems somewhat ar
itrary,
ut we propose the latter part of the 18th century, although we are aware that a
lternative
proposals can e made (some may even want to include the entire holocene). Howev
er, we
choose this date
uman activities

ecause, during the past two centuries, the glo al effects of h

have ecome clearly noticea le. This is the period when data retrieved from glac
ial ice cores
show the eginning of a growth in the atmospheric concentrations of several green
house gases,
in particular C02 and CH4. Such a starting date also coincides with James Watts i
nvention of
the steam engine in 1784. A out at that time, iotic assem lages in most lakes
egan to show
large changes. From The Anthropocene
0).

y Paul Crutzen and Eugene F. Stoermer (200

Cause
The anthropocene is the result of the vast expansion of human populations. If th
ere were only a few million
people on earth, we would not e changing the planet. But six and a half illion
people are enough to
produce important and noticea le changes.
Video of Population Growth View this video produced y the Population Connection
, showing the growth of population on a map of the world, from 1 AD until the pr
esent. Each dot on the map represents
1,000,000 people. (This is a high-resolution video, click on the

ox in the lowe

r right to view full screes).

Growth is exponential, with most people eing

orn in the last few decades.

The rate of population increase has een slowing. Still, we, as environmental ge
oscientists, must face the
pro lem: What will happen to earth if the population continues to increase?
177
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Ta le 8.3:
World Population: Left: Since prehistoric times (log scale).
Right: Since 800 AD (linear scale). Drawn using data from US Census Bureau, Hist
orical Estimates of
World Population, and World Population 1950-2050.
The recent, rapid increase of population led to the anthropocene. Note that the
population is now
increasing at the rate of one illion people every 13 years. This adds 1,000 dot
s every 10 years in the
video.
Effects of the Anthropocene
There are three main effects on Earth

y the Anthropocene:

1. Biomes (ecosystems, extinction rates)

2. Ecosystem goods and services
3. Glo al climate change
Biome
Biomes organize the iological communities of the earth
the dominant vegetation,

ased on similarities in

climate, geographic location, and other characteristics (Biomes: Encyclopedia of

Earth). In the past, they included deserts, tropical rain forests, tundra, fres
hwater streams and lakes, grasslands, estuaries, and open
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178

ocean. Now, all are influenced y people. Nature is im edded within human system

s according to Erle
Ellis and Navin Ramankutty. They propose to replace the older iomes with new an
thropogenic iomes
ased on the human influence on ecosystems.
Ecology needs to move eyond human footprints, impacts and domination. Ecosystem
processes in anthropogenic iomes are primarily a function of human populations and their ecosy
stem interactions (land
use). Forests, rangelands & croplands include people. Trees [are] mixed with cro
plands and housing.
Anthropogenic landscapes are heterogeneous mixtures of different land use and la
nd cover classes.
Ta le 8.4:
From Ellis and Ramankutty, Anthropogenic Biomes: A 21st century framework for ec
ology and the
earth sciences. See: Anthropogenic Biomes article in Encyclopedia of Earth.
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Ecosystem Goods and Services
Earth System processes provide environmental goods and services that sustain lif
e and are essential for
human well- eing. These ecosystem goods and services include pota le water, fertil
e soil, clean air and
flood mitigation. Throughout history these have largely een taken for granted,
ecause they were not
significantly affected
s on the environment

y human activities ... The magnitude of the human impact

including direct effects of iogeochemical cycles, now threatens the quality and
long-term delivery of
ecosystem goods and services. From Glo al Land Project Transition Team (2005).
The water, food, fuel, fi er, oxygen, clean air, and places to live that we depe
nd on are threatened.
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180
181
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Ta le 8.5: (continued)
Ta le 8.5:
As the worlds population increases, we are reducing the a ility of the systems to
provide the services
we need. Often, we are demanding more services than the ecosystems can provide.
We may e reaching
the point eyond which we cannot sustain our societies. Notice I wrote may
1798 Thomas

e. In

Malthus pu lished An Essay on the Principles of Population, then in 1968 Paul Er

lich pu lished his ook The Population Bom , and in 1972 the Clu of Rome pu lis
hed the est selling environmental ook in history, Limits to Growth. All sounde
d similar warnings. Then came the industrial revolution, the green revolution, i
ncreased food supplies, conservation of some resources, and the discovery of new
resources. Today there are many more people enjoying life. Clearly, we are stres
sing the a ility of
earth to provide some services. But, we are not quite sure how close we are to t
he tipping point of an
unsustaina le future.
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182
Its tough to make predictions, especially a out the future. Yogi Berra.
Ta le 8.5: (continued)
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Report of 2005 is the latest report to discu
ss the limits to growth.
The report states we are using some resources faster than they can
d:

e replenishe

1. At least one quarter of important commercial fish stocks are over harvested.
2. From 5% to possi ly 25% of glo al freshwater use exceeds long-term accessi le
supplies.
3. Some 1535% of irrigation withdrawals exceed supply rates and are therefore uns
ustaina le.
4. Reduction in stratospheric ozone is leading to increased UV radiation at eart
hs surface and to
possi ly more skin cancer.
5. Changes to ecosystems have contri uted to a significant rise in the num er of
floods and major
wildfires on all continents since the 1940s.

6. Actions to increase one ecosystem service often cause the degradation of othe
r services.
Glo al Climate Change
Human activity has altered Earths car on and energy udget and other processes fr
om the stratosphere,
through the atmosphere to the land and down to the
shows the many ways

ottom of the sea. The figure

we alter the nitrogen cycle, and some of the many feed ack loops in the system.
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Ta le 8.6:
The influence of human activity on the climate system. Click on image for a zoom
. Image from
UNESCO GRID-Arendal Vital Graphics-Climate Change.
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184

8.3 Shifting Baselines

Did you ever meet a relative you had not seen in many years, and you noticed the
y had changed. May e
they were slimmer. But people they saw often did not notice the change
t occurred slowly. Your

ecause i

aseline for comparison was several years old. The persons close friends aseline
was only a few days old.
Our a ility to notice change is determined y our aseline.
See the YouTu e video Shifting Baselines in the Sound: http://www.youtu e.com/wa
tch?v=nkUEY CSTnk
(5:40)
If we have always lived in a city with smog or air pollution, we accept it as no
rmal. We dont remem er
the days when the city had clear, clean, unpolluted air. Our
ity is normal. A much older

aseline says the c

aseline says the city is polluted.

This is the phenomena of the shifting aseline. It colors our a ility to notice

environmental change

ecause

change is often slow, spanning generations. Sam Houston, visiting Texas today, w
ould e shocked y the
change. He would notice the uffalo and the wide-open spaces are gone, the night
is not very dark, and
the streams are muddy with few fish.
You shoulda seen it when:
1. You could see grass on the

ottom in at least 10 to 12 feet of water.

2. Oyster reefs were so a undant they were navigational hazards.

3. Water flowed out of water wells at the land surface.
4. The shad run was so strong it looked like you could walk across the river on t
heir acks.
5. You could paddle up any creek and fill the skiff with cra

dou lers.

6. Ducks and geese were there for the taking.

7. Sturgeon roe was more a undant than Russian caviar.
All these statements once applied to Chesapeake Bay and the Northern Neck. Today
, it is hard
to imagine what the Bay was like at the time Europeans arrived.
Scientists refer to changes in perception (Old Timers Syndrome) as Shifting Baselin
es. From
Northum erland Association for Progressive Stewardship.
Some examples:
1. People were once uncommon. It was possi le to walk for days without meeting a
nother person. Now,
it is possi le to walk for days without getting out of an ur an area, say from B
oston to Philadelphia.
2. Fish were once extremely plentiful. Many wrote that there were so many fish i
n the ocean it was
almost possi le to walk across a ay on the acks of the fish. Watch the YouTu e
video Emptied
Oceans.
3. Streams and rivers were crystal clear. Beowulf could see clearly underwater i
n a river. The Rhine
gold was visi le on the ottom of the Rhine.
4. Once we stood in awe of the night sky with millions of stars spread across th
e lack vastness of space.

Our ancestors could clearly see stars and the milky way on moonless nights. Now
most people can
see only the
apolis.

rightest stars if they are lucky, or no stars if they are in a meg

185
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Ta le 8.7:
Light pollution hides the eauty of the
night sky.
5. The commonplace of the prehistoric landscape was very different from the mode
rn landscape.
Look at the changes in 152 years at Gowanus Bay in Brooklyn, New York. For more,
read Civil
society strategies on the Gowanus Canal y Lindsay Camp ell. What would a reside
nt from 1851 think of modern Brooklyn? What was your hometown like 100 years ago
?
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186

Ta le 8.8:
An 1851 oil painting
at Gowanus Bay in

y Australian artist Henry Gritten. The full title is Sun Set

the Bay New York and the original hangs in the Allport Li rary and Museum of Fine
Arts in Tasmania.
The ay at that time was a Marshy inlet with game, fish, oysters; Gowanus oysters
exported to Europe.
From Ephemeral New York.
Gowanus Bay in 2003. Ah, the Gowanus, that fetid Brooklyn canal synonymous with c
ontamination
and death. Sewage, industrial waste perhaps even human remains still molder at i
ts murky ottom.
On occasion, its famously noxious, sulfurous aroma wafts over its anks. Click on
the image for a zoom.
From Wired New York Forum.

187
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8.4 End of Chapter Review & Resources
Chapter Summary
Humans are having a profound effect on Earths natural systems. The Anthropocene,
from anthropo =
man and cene = new [geological age]. Humans are now changing the world on a glo
al scale and ushering
in the new era in geologic time. As much as 83% of the earths land surface is inf
luenced directly y
human eings. The Anthropocene pro a ly started somewhere in the 18th century wi
th the start of the
industrial revolution, and is the result of the vast expansion of human populati
ons. There are three main
effects on Earth y the Anthropocene: 1) Biomes (ecosystems, extinction rates),
2) Ecosystem goods and
services, 3) Glo al climate change. Shifting aselines means we have a hard time
seeing the changes in
the environment, as in cases where they are gradual over some years, the current
state of the environment
may seem normal and we no long really know what it ought to e like.
Review Questions
1. What is the Anthropocene?
2. What is a shifting aseline?
3. Give examples of how the Anthropocene has affected your local environment?
4. Give examples of how a shifting
e changes to your

aseline might not allow you to notice all th

environment? What do you elders say it used to

e like?

5. What are three major effects of the Anthropocene on Earths systems? Give some
examples.
Further Reading / Supplemental Links
The Economist: A Man-Made World: http://www.economist.com/node/18741749
The National Geographic on the Anthropcene: http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/20
11/03/age-ofman/kol ert-text

 The BBC : Anthropocene - Have humans create a new geological age? http://www. c
.co.uk/news/scienceenvironment-13335683
Voca ulary to Know
anthropocene
shifting aselines
extinction rates
iome
ecosystem services
geological age
References
Allen y, B. (2000). Earth systems engineering and management. IEEE Technology an
d Society Magazine
19(4): 10-24.
Andraea, Meinrat O. 2002. Humanity: passenger or pilot on spaceship earth? Glo a
l Change Newsletter,
Decem er 2002, pages 27.
www.ck12.org
188
Crutzen, P. J. and E. F. Stoermer (2000). The Anthropocene. Glo al Change Newsle
tter (41): 1718.
Galloway, J. N., A. R. Townsend, et al. (2008). Transformation of the Nitrogen C
ycle: Recent Trends,
Questions, and Potential Solutions. Science 320 (5878): 889-892. Humans continue
to transform the glo al
nitrogen cycle at a record pace, reflecting an increased com ustion of fossil fu
els, growing demand for nitrogen in agriculture and industry, and pervasive inefficiencies in its use. Much a
nthropogenic nitrogen is lost
to air, water, and land to cause a cascade of environmental and human health pro
lems. Simultaneously,
food production in some parts of the world is nitrogen-deficient, highlighting i
nequities in the distri ution
of nitrogen-containing fertilizers. Optimizing the need for a key human resource
while minimizing its negative consequences requires an integrated interdisciplinary approach and the dev

elopment of strategies to
decrease nitrogen-containing waste.
Glo al Land Project Transition Team (2005) Glo al Land Project: Science Plan and
Implementation
Strategy. International Geosphere Biosphere Report 53.
International Geosphere Biosphere Program. (2001). Glo al Change and the Earth S
ystem: A Planet
Under Pressure, IGBP Science No. 4. The Role of Population.
Lenton, T. (2008). Engines of life. Nature 452 (7188): 691-692. Book review of E
nergy in Nature and
Society y Vaclav Smil.
Nilsson, C., C. A. Reidy, et al. (2005). Fragmentation and Flow Regulation of the
Worlds Large River
Systems. Science 308(5720): 405-408.
Ro erts, C. (2007). The Unnatural History of the Sea, Island Press/Shearwater Bo
oks.
Smil, Vaclav (2002) The Earths Biosphere: Evolution, Dynamics, and Change. MIT Pr
ess.
Wilson, Edward O. (1992) The Diversity of Life. Belknap.
Wilson, Edward O. (2003) The Future of Life. Vintage Books.
189
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Chapter 9
Populations & Ur an Sprawl
Introduction
What exactly is the population pro lem? How can it e solved?
Solving the population pro lem is not going to solve the pro lems of racism. . .
of sexism. . .
of religious intolerance. . . of war. . . of gross economic inequality But if you
dont solve
the population pro lem, youre not going to solve any of those pro lems. Whatever
pro lem
youre interested in, youre not going to solve it unless you also solve the populat
ion pro lem.
Whatever your cause, its a lost cause without population control. Paul Ehrlich, 19
96 (From

Paul Ehrlich and the Population Bom , PBS video produced y Canadian
r. David Suzuki,

iologist D

April 26, 1996.)

Chapter O jectives
Understand the history of views on population.
Compare the importance of population size to that of population density.
Explain how conservation iologists use Minimum Via le Population (MVP) and Popu
lation Via ility
Analysis (PVA).
Explain how patchy ha itats influence the distri ution of individuals (animals)
within a population.
Define and explain population dispersion and pyramids.
Interpret population pyramids to indicate populations irth and death rates and l
ife expectancy.
Analyze the effect of age at maturity on population size.
Understand survivorship and define population dynamics.
Descri e exponential (J-curve) growth and the logistic (S-curve) growth. Compare
conditions.
Clarify the relationship
ate.

etween population growth rate, irth rate, and death r

Compare migration, immigration, nomadism, irruption, range expansion, and coloni

zation in terms
of their effects on population density.
Give examples of population growth patterns in nature.
Descri e , and explain the conditions under which it occurs.
Analyze the concept of carrying capacity in terms of population growth and resou
rce availa ility.
Compare and contrast density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors.
Relate predator-prey cycles to density-dependent population control.
Compare and contrast the adaptations and environmental characteristic of r-selec
ted species to those
of K-selected species.
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190

 Contrast the Neo-Malthusian or limits to growth and cornucopian or technological fix

iews of
human population growth.
Descri e the four stages of human population growth as outlined
ic transition

y the demograph

model.
Using age-sex structures, contrast population growth in developed countries to g
rowth in undeveloped
countries.
Explain the concept of replacement fertility rate.
Discuss the implications of Stage 5 population dynamics.
Know and understand predictions for future worldwide human population growth.
Explore the concept of sustaina ility as a goal for economic, social, and enviro
nmental decisionmaking.
Explain the tool of ecological footprint analysis as a means of evaluating the s
ustaina ility of lifestyles
for individuals, countries and the world.
Calculate your ecological footprint and compare it to averages for your country
and the world.
Recognize our human potential to make decisions which could direct future popula
tion growth.
Explore some options for social, political and cultural change, and environmenta
l conservation which
could help to alance population dynamics and resource utilization.
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9.1 Characteristics of Populations

Humans have shown concern for overpopulation since the Ancient Greeks
osts for their ex-

uilt outp

panding citizenship and delayed age of marriage for men to 30. In 1798, Thomas M
althus predicted that
the human population would outgrow its food supply
tury. That time ar-

y the middle of the 19th cen

rived without a Malthusian crisis, ut Charles Darwin nevertheless em raced Malt

hus ideas and made

them the foundation of his own theory of evolution
68 essay, The Tragedy

y natural selection. In a 19

of the Commons, Garrett Hardin exhorted humans to relinquish their freedom to ree
d, arguing in the
journal, Science, that the population pro lem has no technical solution, ut requires
a fundamental
extension in morality. In 1979, the government of China instituted a irth planning
policy, charging
fines or economic compensation fees for families with more than one child. Others h
ave opposing views,
however. Julian Simon, professor of Business Administration and Senior Fellow at
the Cato Institute, argued that The Ultimate Resource is population,
olutions to any pro lems

ecause people and markets find s

presented y overpopulation. A group known as cornucopians continues to promote

the view that more
is etter.
Figure 9.1: The Chinese government mandates population control

y charging

Would you support a law for idding you to marry until a certain age? Do you know
how such a law
would affect population growth? Would you limit the size of all families to one
child (Figure 9.1)? Do
you elieve families should welcome as many children as possi le? Should these d
ecisions e regulated
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192

y law, or y individual choice? Clearly, the population pro lem reaches

logy to economics,

eyond io

law, morality, and religion. Although the latter su jects are eyond the scope o
f this text, the study of
population iology can shed some light on human population issues. Lets look at w
hat iologists have
learned a out natural populations. Later, we will look more closely at human pop
ulations, and compare
them to populations in nature.
Measuring Populations

In iology, a population is a group of organisms of a single species living with

in a certain area. Ecologists
study populations ecause they directly share a common gene pool. Unlike the spe
cies as a whole, mem ers
of a population form an inter reeding unit. Natural selection acts on individual
s within populations, so
the gene pool reflects the interaction

etween a population and its environment.

Biologists study populations to determine their health or sta ility, asking ques
tions such as:
Is a certain population of endangered grizzly ears growing, sta le, or declinin
g?
Is an introduced species such as the ze ra mussel or purple loosestrife growing
in num ers?
Are native populations declining

ecause of an introduced species?

What factors affect the growth, sta ility, or decline of a threatened population
?
The first step in characterizing the health of a population is measuring its siz
e. If you are studying the
population of purple loosestrife plants on your lock , you can pro a ly count e
ach individual to o tain an
accurate measure of the populations size. However, measuring the population of lo
osestrife plants in your
county would require sampling techniques, such as counting the plants in several
randomly chosen small
plots and then multiplying the average
retive, highly mo ile, or

y the total area of your county. For sec

rare species, traps, motion-detecting cameras, or signs such as nests,

tracks, or droppings allow

urrows,

estimates of population size.

Figure 9.2: Purple loosestrife plant populations show patchiness due to uneven d
istri ution of their wetland
ha itats, and clumped dispersion, due to local variation in soils.
Two pro lems with a solute size lead ecologists to descri e populations in other
terms. First, ecause
your county may not e the same size as others, the total num er of individuals
is less meaningful than
the population density of individuals the num er of individuals per unit area or
volume. Ecologists

use population densities more often for comparisons over space or time, although
total num er is still
important for threatened or endangered species.
Concern a out threatened and endangered species has led conservationists to atte
mpt to define minimal
via le population size for some species. A species MVP is the smallest num er of
individuals which can
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exist without extinction due to random catastrophic variations in environmental

(temperature, rainfall),
reproduction ( irth rates or age-sex structure), or genetic diversity. In 1978,
Mark Shaffer incorporated
an estimate for grizzly
VA), a model of

ear MPV into the first Population Via ility Analysis (P

interaction etween a species and the resources on which it depends. PVAs are sp
ecies-specific, and require
a great deal of field data for accurate computer modeling of population dynamics
. PVAs can predict the
pro a ility of extinction, focus conservation efforts, and guide plans for susta
ina le management.
Patterns in Populations I: in Space (or Patterns in Space)
A second pro lem in measuring population size relates to the distri ution of ind
ividuals within the
populations oundaries. If your county has extensive wetlands in the southern hal
f, ut very few in
the north, a countywide population density estimate of purple loosestrife, which
grows primarily in shallow
freshwater pond edges, marshes, and fens, would e misleading (Figure 9.2). Patc
hy ha itat scattered
suita le areas within population oundaries inevita ly leads to a patchy distri
ution of individuals within
a population. On a smaller scale, plants within even a single wetland area may
e clumped or clustered
(grouped), due to soil conditions or gathering for reproduction. The characteris
tic pattern of spacing of
individuals within a population is dispersion (Figure 9.3). Clumped dispersion i
s most common, ut

species that compete intensely, such as cactus for water in a desert, show unifo
rm, or evenly spaced,
dispersion.
Figure 9.3: Populations of cacti in the desert, such as this group of cholla, sh
ow uniform, or even, dispersion
due to fierce competition for water. The diagrams to the right show nearly unifo
rm (top), random (middle),
and clumped ( ottom) dispersion patterns.
Other species, whose individuals do not interact strongly, show a random, or unp
redicta le, distri ution.
Useful measures of population density must take into account oth patchiness of
ha itat and dispersion of
individual organisms within the populations

oundaries.

Age-Sex Structure of a Population

Density and dispersion descri e a populations size, ut size is not everything. C
onsider three populations
of endangered grizzly ears, each containing one individual per 20 km2, and a to
tal of 100 individuals in
2,000 km2. These populations are equal with respect to size. One population, howeve
r, has 50 immature
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194

Figure 9.4: Grizzly ear populations include adults up to 25 or 30 years old, ca

pa le of reproducing, and
young immature ears under 6 years old. Healthy populations include roughly equa
l proportions of each
age group.
(non-reproducing young) ears and 50 adult ears a le to reproduce. A second pop
ulation has the same
num er of immature and adult ears, ut of the 50 adults, 45 are male. The third
population has 30
immature ears and 70 ears of reproductive age. Which population is healthiest
(Figure 9.4)?
The answer is not simple, ut age and sex differences
gnificant indicators of

etween populations are si

health. Biologists concerned a out a populations future study age and sex within
the population and then
graph the results to show the age-sex structure as a population pyramid, althoug
h the result does not
always resem le a pyramid. The X-axis in this dou le
age of the population,

ar graph indicates percent

with males to the left and females to the right. The Y-axis indicates age groups
from irth to old age.
Figure 9.5: A generalized age-sex structure or population pyramid shows the prop
ortion of males and
females (X-axis) at each age level (Y-axis). This example shows a slightly highe
r proportion of females
compared to males, and a much higher proportion of young individuals compared to
old.
The population in the generalized example (Figure 9.5) contains a large proporti
on of young individuals,
suggesting a relatively high
the population per unit

irth rate (num er of irths per individual within

time). The ars narrow at each age interval, showing that a significant num er o
f individuals die at every
age. This relatively high death rate (num er of deaths per individual within the
population per unit
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time) indicates a short life expectancy, or average survival time for an individ
ual. Note the slightly
greater proportion of females compared to males at each age level. Careful study
could determine whether
the cause for this im alance is the ratio of female to male irths, or higher de
ath rates for males throughout
a shorter lifespan. You will learn in a later lesson that this pattern is charac
teristic of human populations
in less developed countries.
Figure 9.6: Age structures can reveal a population
A populations age structure may reveal its health (Figure 9.6). A growing populat
ion (Type I) usually

has more young individuals than adults at eyond reproductive age. A sta le popu
lation (Type II) often
has roughly equal num ers of young mem ers and adults. A declining population sh
ows more adults and
fewer young (Type III). Sex structure may also affect the health of a population
. Sex determination in sea
turtles, for example, is temperature-dependent; lower egg incu ation temperature
s produce males, while
temperatures as little as 1-2oC higher produce females (Figure 9.7). Some
ists predict that climate

iolog

change may result in sea turtle sex structure shifts toward females, which could
further endanger already
threatened species. Continued monitoring of age-sex structures among sea turtles
might e a le to detect
such changes

efore they ecome irreversi le.

Figure 9.7: The sex of a sea turtle is determined y the temperature at which it
develops
Although it is not shown in population pyramids, an important factor affecting p
opulation size is the
age at which individuals
t maturity (when

ecome a le to reproduce (Ta le 9.1). Recall that age a

reproduction ecomes possi le) was the factor that even ancient Greeks recognize
d could affect population
growth, when they prohi ited marriage for males under the age of 30. We will ret
urn to this relationship
in a later lesson, ut for now, try to grasp it intuitively: if a person delays
reproduction until age 30 and
then has one child each year for two years, his or her fertility is 2. A person
who has two children, one
each year, eginning at age 20 also has a fertility of 2. Assume that these four
children are orn in the
same two-year period, and that each offspring reproduces two children at the sam
e age as his/her parent
did. Sixty years after the initial four child irths, the delayed reproduction indiv
idual will have 2 X 2
X 2 = 8 descendants. However, the early reproducing family will have 2 X 2 X 2 X
2 = 16 offspring
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196

dou le the population increase of the first family. Do you think this could this
e one way to slow human
population growth?
Ta le 9.1: Num er of Offspring Produced Over Time
Age at First
Initial
Repro20 years later
30 years later
40 years later
60 years later
Reproduction
duction
20 years
Generation 1:
Generation 2:
Generation 3:
Generation 4:
2 offspring
4 offspring
8 offspring
16
30 years
Generation 1:
Generation 2:
Generation 3:
2 offspring
4 offspring
8

Patterns in Populations Through Time

The characteristics of populations introduced a ove irth rate, death rate, and
life expectancy interact
to form several asic strategies for survival. Insurance companies egan investi
gations into life expectancies
for various groups of people males vs. females, for example and compiled the dat
a in life ta les.
Biologists plot these patterns through time in survivorship curves, which graph
the num er of all
individuals still living (in powers of ten, on the Y-axis) for each age (on the
X-axis). The three asic types
of survivorship curves are illustrated in Figure 9.8.
Figure 9.8: Survivorship curves correlate with strategies species use to adapt t
o various environments.
Large organisms in relatively sta le environments have few offspring ut high le
vels of parental care;
most individuals survive to old age (Type I). Smaller organisms in less sta le e
nvironments produce many
offspring ut provide little parental care, and few survive to old age (Type III
). Type II species show
intermediate characteristics in response to a death rate which remains constant
throughout life.
Species showing a Type I pattern have the highest survival rates, with most indi
viduals living to old age.
Many large animals, including humans, show this late loss pattern of survivorship;
few offspring, high
levels of parental care, and low infant death rates characterize Type I species. As
we will see in a later
lesson, human populations in rich countries fit this pattern more closely than d
o those in undeveloped
countries.
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Species with Type III survivorship patterns experience high death rates among of
fspring; relatively few
survive to old age. Most plants and inverte rates and many fish show this early lo
ss pattern. Parents
invest most of the reproductive energy in high num ers of offspring to offset th
e high death rates, and little

or no energy remains for parental care.

Species showing intermediate, Type II survivorship curves experience uniform dea
th rates throughout their
lives. Some irds and many asexual species show this constant loss pattern.
Well look at these strategies more closely in the next lesson as we study how pop
ulations grow and change:
population dynamics.
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198
9.2 Population Dynamics
Imagine a huge owl of your favorite potato salad, ready for a picnic on a eaut
iful, hot, midsummer
day. The cook was careful to prepare it under strictly sanitary conditions, usin
g fresh eggs, clean organic
vegeta les, and new jars of mayonnaise and mustard. Familiar with food poisoning
warnings, s/he was so
thorough that only a single acterium made it into that vast amount of food. Whi
le such a scenario is
highly unrealistic without authentic canning, it will serve as an example as we
egin our investigation of
how populations change, or population dynamics. Because potato salad provides an
ideal environment
for acterial growth, just as your mother may have warned, we can use this singl
e acterial cell in the
potato salad to ask:
How Do Populations Grow Under Ideal Conditions?
Given food, warm temperatures, moisture, and oxygen, a single aero ic
cell can grow and divide

acterial

y inary fission to ecome two cells in a out 20 minutes. The two new cells, st
ill under those ideal
conditions, can each repeat this performance, so that after 20 more minutes, fou
r cells constitute the
population. Given this modest dou ling, how many acteria do you predict will e
happily feeding on
potato salad after five hours at the picnic? After youve thought a out this, comp
are your prediction with
the data in Ta le ?? .

Ta le 9.2: Like many populations under ideal conditions, acteria show exponenti
al or geometric growth.
Each acterium can undergo inary fission every 20 minutes. After 5 hours, a sin
gle acterium can produce
a population of 32,768 descendants.
Ta le 9.2:
Time (Hours and Minutes)
Population Size (Num er of Bacteria)
0
1
20 minutes
2
40 minutes
4
1 hour
8
1 hour 20 minutes
16
1 hour 40 minutes
32
2 hours
64
2 hours 20 minutes
128
2 hours 40 minutes
256
3 hours
512
3 hours 20 minutes
1024
3 hours 40 minutes

2048
4 hours
4096
4 hours 20 minutes
8192
4 hours 40 minutes
16,384
5 hours
32,768
( Source: CK-12 Foundation, License: CC-BY-SA)
Are you surprised? This phenomenal capacity for growth of living populations was
first descri ed y
Thomas Ro ert Malthus in his 1798 Essay on the Principle of Population. Although
Malthus focused on
human populations, iologists have found that many populations are capa le of th
is explosive reproduction,
if provided with ideal conditions. This pattern of growth is exponential, or geo
metric growth: as the
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population grows larger, the rate of growth increases. If you have worked compou
nd interest pro lems in
math or played with num ers for estimating the interest in your savings account,
you can compare the
growth of a population under ideal conditions to the growth of a savings account
under a constant rate of
compound interest. The graph in Figure 9.9, using potato salad
s the pattern of

acterial data, show

exponential growth: the population grows very slowly at first, ut more and more
rapidly as time passes.
Figure 9.9: Exponential or geometric growth is very slow at first,
es as the population grows.

ut accelerat

Because rate of growth depends on population size, growth rate increases as popu

lation increases. Most

populations have the a ility to grow exponentially,
rs only under ideal con-

ut such growth usually occu

ditions that are not found in nature. Note the

Of course, if acterial populations always grew exponentially, they would long a
go have covered the Earth
many times over. While Thomas Malthus emphasized the importance of exponential g
rowth on population,
he also stated that ideal conditions do not often exist in nature. A
for all life is energy. Growth,

asic limit

survival, and reproduction require energy. Because energy supplies are limited,
organisms must spend
them wisely. We will end this lesson with a much more realistic model of populat
ion growth and the
implications of its limits, ut first, lets look more carefully at the characteri
stics of populations which
allow them to grow.
For a discussion of exponential growth, see (I&E 1e): http://www.youtu e.com/wat
ch?v=-3MI0ZX5WRc
(10:43).
Births and Deaths: Balancing Costs of Reproduction and Survival
The growth rate of a population is the change in population size per mem er of t
he population per
unit of time. The sym ol r denotes growth rate. Growth rate clearly depends on
irth rate , the num er
of irths per individual within the population per unit of time, as well a death
rate d, the num er of
deaths per individual per unit of time. The following equation calculates growth
rate, according to our
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200

Figure 9.10: (Watch Youtu e Video)

http://www.ck12.org/flex ook/em ed/view/176

preliminary understanding:
r =

growth rate = irth rate death rate

If irth rate exceeds death rate, r is positive and the population grows. If dea
th rate exceeds irth rate, r
is negative and the population declines. And if
equili rium, growth rate is

irth rate and death rate are in

zero, and the population remains sta le. In a sta le population, each individual
, on the average, produces
one offspring which survives long enough to reproduce itself. Mere survival is n
ot success in the game of
life; natural selection requires that survivors reproduce. As Malthus realized,
nearly all species have the
potential to grow to reproduce many more than just a single replacement offsprin
g. However, species
vary in the strategies they use to achieve reproductive success, making trade-of
fs etween the energy and
time costs of survival and those of reproduction. Age at first reproduction, freque
ncy of reproduction,
num er of offspring, parental care, reproductive lifespan, and offspring death r
ate are some of the traits
which uild strategies for successful reproduction.
Analyzing extreme examples can help you understand the trade-offs species must m
ake etween survival
and reproductive success. Lets compare two groups of irds. Somewhat like precoci
ous children who
mature early, precocial irds run around to find their own food soon after hatch
ing. Geese, ducks, and
chickens use this strategy for raising their young (Figure 9.11). Often living a
nd nesting on the ground,
precocial species are su ject to high predation rates, so few survive long enoug
h to reproduce. Therefore,
those who do reproduce lay many eggs at once, and these eggs are large. The youn
g emerge well-developed,
ready to feed and escape predators soon after hatching. Precocial species invest
a great deal of energy in
a large num er of offspring ut do not spend much energy on parental care, ecau
se even though some
offspring are likely to die, others will survive long enough to reproduce.

Figure 9.11: Geese and ducks use a

Contrast this precocial strategy with the opposite, altricial strategy used y r
o ins and humming irds
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(Figure 9.12). These irds hatch helpless and naked, completely unprepared for i
ndependent life. Parents
invest little energy in just a few, small eggs; humming irds eggs are the smalles
t in the ird world, and
average two per nest. However, survival of these offspring matters a great deal,
ecause there are so few.
So, parents uild ela orate nests safely hidden in trees and invest a great deal
of energy hunting for food
around-the-clock until the young have developed enough to fledge and find food o
n their own.
Figure 9.12: Humming irds illustrate an
Precocial and altricial irds play y the rules of costs and
p using a different strategy.

enefits, each grou

Cow irds, however, make up their own rules, earning them the title of parasites in
the ird world. How
can a ird e a parasite? Cow irds are altricial, ut they parasitize
their eggs in other irds

y laying

nests, there y escaping the high costs of parental care (Figure 9.13). Cow ird e
ggs are usually slightly
larger and hatch a little sooner than the host eggs affording cow ird parents a
it of extra energy. Early
ird hatchlings do indeed get the worm, easily out-competing their smaller host si l
ings for parental
food deliveries. Sometimes, they are strong enough to ungratefully oust their si s
from the nest. On the
other hand, host parents occasionally recognize and eject the foreign egg efore
it hatches. Yellow war lers
simply lock off the offending egg (along with their own eggs) y uilding a new
nest ottom. They then
lay a new clutch of their own eggs (The eggs are not their primary energy invest
ment). A five-story nest

holds the record for yellow war ler (and cow ird?) determination!
Figure 9.13: A rown-headed cow ird egg in a phoe e
Many species fall in etween the extremes of precocial and altricial strategies,
ut all must make trade-offs
etween the costs of reproduction and those of surviving predation, competition,
and disease, in order to
ensure that at least one offspring per adult survives long enough to reproduce.
Its worth reprising the
survivorship curves introduced in the previous lesson to illustrate these tradeoffs (Figure 9.14). Which
curve illustrates the precocial strategy used y ducks, chickens, and grouse? Wh
ich curve demonstrates the
altricial strategy of ro ins and humming irds? What shape do you think a cow irds
survivorship curve
might take?
One more strategy, introduced in the last lesson, involves variation of age at m
aturity. All other factors
eing equal (num er and size of offspring, survival rates, and more), delayed re
production lowers population
growth rate. Bald eagles require five years of growth efore they are a le to re
produce. If they were to lay
the same num er of eggs during their first year, those first-year offspring and
several generations of their
offspring, as well as the parents, would
tremendously increasing

e a le to reproduce during that time,

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202

Figure 9.14: Survivorship curves show the various strategies for achieving popul
ation growth y adjustments in irth rate and death rate. Recall that
the overall population. By delaying reproduction, ald eagles not only ensure go
od energy supplies for
reproduction at maturity, ut also limit population density to suit their large
odied, long-lived life history.
Migration and Other Movements Affect Population Densities
Populations change not only through irths and deaths, ut also via immigration,

movement of individuals into a population from other areas, and emigration, movement of individuals
out of a population.
If we add per capita rates of immigration and emigration into our equation for p
opulation growth rate, it
ecomes:
r = ( + i) (d + e)
growth rate = ( irth rate + immigration rate) (death rate + emigration rate)
Many kinds of movement adaptations regularly add to or su tract from population
density.
Most species have some means of dispersal movement of offspring away from the pa
rents. This
ehavior reduces competition within the population, promotes colonization of suita
le ha itat,
and improves reproductive success. Some dispersal mechanisms take advantage of n
atural energy in
the environment. For example, dandelion seeds grow parachutes which allow wind to c
arry them
far from their parents and sometimes entirely out of a population (Figure 9.15).
For the same
reason, immo ile animals such as corals often produce motile larva. Mo ile anima
ls often evolve
ehaviors which ensure dispersal. A lone gray wolf which leaves its
ust find a mate

irth pack m

and an unoccupied territory in order to reproduce; within the pack, usually only
the alpha male and
female have offspring. Dispersal ehaviors are common in the living world; have
you - as a teenage
high school student, egun to feel stirrings of the wish to leave home?
Migration, the direct, often seasonal movement of a species, is a predicta le ch
ange for some animal
populations. Many northern hemisphere irds, such as Swainsons Hawks (Figure 9.16
), migrate
thousands of miles southward in the fall and return north to nest in the spring
in order to follow
summers long days which provide extra hunting time and a greater a undance of foo
d.
203

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Figure 9.15: Wind carries dandelion seeds away from their parent plants. The par
achute adaptation allows
for dispersal, reducing competition within the population and promoting coloniza
tion of suita le ha itat.
Apparently, energy enefits outweigh costs for this annual long-distance commute
. Elk migrate vertically
up the mountains in spring as snow recedes and down the mountains in fall as win
ter advances. Monarch
utterflies migrate in shifts; somewhat like a relay team, successive generations d
ivide the task of moving
from Mexican wintering grounds to northern summer ha itats. Such migrations do n
ot add to or su tract
from populations as much as they move entire populations from one set of
ies and environmental

oundar

conditions to another. Some species, such as Peregrine Falcons, have oth migrat
ory and non-migratory
forms, so their populations may grow or decline with migration. Gray Whales migr
ate 12,500 miles from
Alaska to Mexico for calving, ut at least one population limits its northward j
ourney to the Oregon coast
(Figure 9.17). Seasonal densities of migratory species vary considera ly, ut re
sources and environmental
enefits vary as well. Migration can affect all four factors of the growth rate
equation.
Other types of movement are less predicta le, ut still may affect population gr
owth.
Nomadism, regular, wide-ranging wandering ehavior, allows some species to compe
nsate for fluctuating food sources. Normally arctic species, Snowy Owls occasionally venture a
s far south as Texas,
southern Russia, and northern China (Figure 9.18). Bohemian waxwings are notorio
usly nomadic,
feeding on highly varia le erry supplies.
Irruptions or invasions are irregular movements, often caused y food source fai
lures. Owls such
as Great Grays and Boreals occasionally invade northern US states from their Can
adian homes when

rodent populations decline. Some may remain to nest following such an irruption.
Range expansion involves the gradual extension of a population
al oundaries.

eyond its origin

Recent examples in the US include Cardinals, now common in northern areas where
they were
originally a sent. The Swainsons Thrush follows an indirect and unnecessarily lon
g migration path
- retracing, scientists elieve, a range expansion from 10,000 years ago. Intent
ional introductions
of non-native species such as the House Sparrow and reintroductions of extirpate
d species such
as Peregrine Falcons throughout the Eastern US are human-initiated colonizations
, which are often
followed

y range expansions.

Closely related to range expansion is colonization, ut the latter often involve

s newly created, or at
least newly found, ha itats. Illustrating oth range expansion and colonization,
the small red-eyed
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204

Figure 9.16: Entire populations of Swainson

205
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Figure 9.17: Gray Whales migrate up to 12,500 miles

Figure 9.18: Normally arctic species, Snowy Owls occasionally wander as far sout
h as Texas, southern
Russia, and northern China. This nomadic ehavior allows them to feed on prey wh
ich have unpredicta le
fluctuations in population density.
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206

dragonfly spread throughout Europe in the late 20th century and colonized Britai
n in 1999 (Figure
9.19).
Figure 9.19: Small red-eyed dragonflies expanded their range throughout northwes
t Europe in the late 20
Two lectures on demography (6c) are availa le at http://www.youtu e.com/watch?v=
3diw1Hu3auk
(50:36) and http://www.youtu e.com/watch?v=Wg3ES yK ic (49:38).
Figure 9.20: (Watch Youtu e Video)
http://www.ck12.org/flex ook/em ed/view/171
Figure 9.21: (Watch Youtu e Video)
http://www.ck12.org/flex ook/em ed/view/172
207
www.ck12.org

How Do Populations Grow in Nature?

You learned a ove that populations can grow exponentially if conditions are idea
l. While exponential
growth occurs when populations move into new or unfilled environments or re ound
after catastrophes,
most organisms do not live in ideal conditions very long, if at all. Lets look at
some data for populations
growing under more realistic conditions.
Biologist Georgyi Gause studied the population growth of two species of Parameci
um in la oratory cultures.
Both species grew exponentially at first, as Malthus predicted. However, as each
population increased, rates
of growth slowed and eventually leveled off. Each species reached a different ma
ximum, due to differences
in size of individuals and space and nutrient needs,
-shaped growth pattern.

ut oth showed the same, S

Figures 9.22, 9.23, and 9.24 show this growth pattern graphically as an S-shaped
curve.
Figure 9.22: Two species of Paramecium illustrate logistic growth, with differen
t plateaus due to differences

in size and space and nutrient requirements. The growth pattern resem les and is
often called an S-curve.
Slow ut exponential growth at low densities is followed y faster growth and th
en leveling.
Perhaps even more realistic is the growth of a sheep population, o served after
the introduction of fourteen
sheep to the island of Tasmania in 1800. Like the la Paramecia, the sheep popul
ation at first grew
exponentially. However, over the next 20 years, the population sharply declined
y 1/3. Finally, the
num er of sheep increased slowly to a plateau. The general shape of the growth c
urve matched the
S-shape of Paramecium growth, except that the sheep overshot their plateau at first
.
As Malthus realized, no population can maintain exponential growth indefinitely.
Inevita ly, limiting
factors such as reduced food supply or space lower
ates, or lead to emigration,

irth rates, increase death r

and lower the population growth rate. After reading Malthus work in 1938, Pierre
Verhulst derived a
mathematical model of population growth which closely matches the S-curves o ser
ved under realistic
conditions. In this logistic (S-curve) model, growth rate is proportional to the
size of the population
ut also to the amount of availa le resources. At higher population densities, l
imited resources lead to
competition and lower growth rates. Eventually, the growth rate declines to zero
and the population
ecomes sta le.
The logistic model descri es population growth for many populations in nature. S
ome, like the sheep in
Tasmania, overshoot the plateau
and elow a plateau

efore sta ilizing, and some fluctuate wildly a ove

average. A few may crash and disappear. However, the plateau itself has ecome a
foundational concept
in population iology known as carrying capacity (K). Carrying capacity is the m
aximum population
size that a particular environment can support without ha itat degradation. Limi
ting factors determine
carrying capacity, and often these interact. In the next section, we will explor

e in more detail the kinds of

factors which restrict populations to specific carrying capacities and some adap
tations that limit growth.
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208

Figure 9.23: Sheep introduced to Tasmania show logistic growth, except that they
overshoot their carrying
capacity

efore sta ilizing.

Figure 9.24: Growth of populations according to Malthus

209
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Limits to Population Growth
A limiting factor is a property of a populations environment living or nonliving
which controls
the process of population growth. Biologists have identified two major types of
limiting factors: Densitydependent factors and Density-independent factors.
Density-dependent factors promote intraspecific competition competition etween
mem ers
of the same population for the same resource as the population grows and
more crowded.

ecomes

Density-dependent limiting factors have the potential to control population size

. Consider food supply
as an example. When population density is low, amount of food per individual is
high, and irth
rates are high. As density increases, food supply per individual decline and
th rates drop, causing

ir

growth rate to decline. Eventually, food shortages may lead to increased death r
ates and a negative
growth rate, lowering population size. Lower population size means more food per
individual, and the
population egins to grow again, reaching or temporarily overshooting the carryi
ng capacity. Food