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DEFINITIVE HANDBOOK OF TRANSISTOR MODELING
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Part 1
"Modeling can be ,:t;url'! " subtitled
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Introduction
In many applications, oomputer aided desiiD (CAD) is the best
approaoh to analyzing a oirouit. It has beoome quite olear from the
present state and complexity of eleotronio oircuit design that
cirouit simulation will be a necessary part of CAD for a lona time to
oome. Since the inception of CAD, oirouit designers have tried to
effectively model the oircuits that they wish to simulate in order to
produce accurate results. However, with the limited availability of
CAD models, it is impraotioal or ineffioient to simulate oirouits
that only have ideal devices. At this point, the circuit desiiDer
may well wonder whether the diffioulties of using CAD outweigh its
advantages as a cheap and fast alternative to breadboarding. In any
oase, the problems of devioe modeling are not insurmountable and a
good first cut model can be obtained from data sheet information and
oaloulations made fairly quiokly giving the desiiDer an aoourate
device model for a wide range of applioations.
The alternative method to modeling oomponents from manufaotureer's
data sheets oonsists of spending long hours in the laboratory taking
volumes of data and oan be of little use if the data oan not be
translated into a form suitable for use with Spioe or Spioe
parameters. In either case, after the data is reduoed to a set of
parameters, the model must then be tested and verified. Normally,
this may take several iterations of parameter tweaking. Under normal
oircumstances, analyzing oolumns of data or the reading of plots of
astericks oan take many hours. Here's where Soft Scope can be a
valuable help. The vast amount of menu-driven functions and data
manipulation capabilities drastically decrease the time needed for
data analysis and reduction. However, do not be lulled into a false
sense of security. MODELING IS NOT EASY! I!!! I It can take the
average engineer a minimum of 2-3 weeks to just become familiar with
the procedures of modeling semiconductor devices.
Transistors
A large number of Bipolar transistors models exist for a variety of
operational modes. However, for simulation programs suoh as Spioe, a
general nonlinear model must be used. The integral-oharge model of
Gummel and Poon which is acourate for static and dynamic simulations
and for low and high power applioations was chosen. This modified
Gummel-poon model extends the original model to inolude several
effects at high bias levels. The model will automatioally simplify
to the simpler Ebers-Moll model when certain parameters are not
specified. Not all parameters need be speoified everytime the model
is used. The model parameters needed depend on the way the device is
used. For instanoe, a transistor is used only in a DC
application, AC parameters are not needed, and incorporation of AC
parameters will cause an unnecessary inorease in run time. In order
to provide the best results for oircuit simulation and modeling
follow the rule, "Use the simplest model possible".
"
The parameters necessary to define a model should be meaningful
to an engineer and their determinatiorr should be straightforward and
not time-consuming. However, for some parameters this is not always
the case. Also, the analyst should not be concerned when some
"nbminal characteristics" cannot be fitted exactly by the Spice model
equations. Examination of the device specifications and data sheets
usually show a large variation in device characteristics. Below is a
listing of the most significant BJT Parameters and when and when not
to use each one of them.
BJT Model PArameter Applicability
Parameter
IS,NF,BF
ISE,NE
RE
RB
IKF
VAF
RC
BR,NR
ISC,NC
IKR
VAR
CJE,MJE,VJE
CJC,MJC,VJC
TF,TR
Use Default When:
Insufficient data to determine NF.
Transistor does not exhibit a "Non-Ideal"
region. Transistor does not operate in the
"Non-Ideal region.
Insufficient data to determine RE or RE is
lumped in with RB.
Transistor does not operate at high enough
base current for effect of RB to be
significant.
Transistor does not show high injection
effects, i.e. B does not decrease with high
IC. Transistor does not operate in the high
injection region.
Transistor operates with low VCE where early
voltage effects are not significant.
Transistor does not operate at high enough
collector current for RC to have an effect.
Insufficient data to determine the reverse
characteristics. Transistor is never reversed-
biased in the particular application.
Insufficient data to determine reverse
characteristics. Transistor does not exhibit
a reverse "Non-Ideal" characteristic.
Insufficient reverse data. Transistor does not
exhibit a reverse high injection characteristic.
Insufficient reverse data. Transistor operates
with low VEC where reverse Early effects are not
significant.
Transistor used only in a DC circuit application.
If used in switching application, delay time
is not critical.
Transistor used only in a DC circuit application.
,
, ,
Modeling .Overview
A transistor model will only be as accurate as the parameters
that describe it. However. accuracy is not always the most important
criteria for a device model. MAKING A MODEL BEHAVE LIKE THE REAL
DEVICE IS !!!!! Actual device measurements will provide accurate data
for the calculation of accurate parameters, but indicate nothing
about the distribution boundaries of the device parameters unless
numerous devices are tested. The manufacturer's data sheets, on the
other hand, yield parameter values which are often very inaccurate,
yet they place a bounds on the parameter variations which may be used
for best and worst case analysis. Data sheet information is
generally very conservative and a number of key parameters can not be
obtained from them. yet it provides a good first cut at a device
model.
Both procedures. parameter extraction from manufacturer's data
sheets or laboratory measurements, are described in detail in the
following pages. In either case, curve fitting and customizing of
a model for a particular circuit application will be necessary.
In addition to the standard processes for finding device models
(mathematical parameter extraction techniques) an effective and
expedient technique for obtaining a device model is to use a trial
and error method.
After obtaining accurate data curves from manufacturer's data
sheets or laboratory measurements (Forward/Reverse Characteristics -
Collector Characteristics - Rise/Fall Time Graphs - Transient Time
Circuit Curves - Frequency Response Curves / See Spice examples at
end of procedures) insert "Ball Park" parameters into models of Spice
files which will generate the same type of curve. Then adjust or
"tweak" the parameters until the SPICE generated curves are similar
to the data sheet or laboratory curve.
The mastering of this technique requires a fairly good knowledge
of how parameters interact, as well as. how each parameter affects the
operation of the particular device. Throughout this manual and in
the example of the 2N2901 at the end, we have tried to provide some
good insight into this area.
** Note. it is almost impossible, if not useless, to try to
exactly match the Spice generated data against the researched data.
First of all, the operating point of the device will greatly affect
the data recorded and unless exact conditions can be duplicated
between the test circuit and the Spice circuit, the resulting
parameters will be different. The difference is not do to the fact
that one set of parameters is wrong, but to the fact that the
operating conditions of each circuit are different. In order to
use this method, an analyst should be familiar with other
techniques of modeling, such as, parameter extraction from data
sheets and laboratory measurements.
For more information and in depth studies of modeling
techniques, the Spice user is directed to obtain the list of
publications listed in the bibliography.
\
Background
The default BJT (Fig. 1 & 2) is an ideal transistor with a
forward current gain of 100 and a reverse current gain of 1. It
does not have a "non-ideal" region or a high injection region.
Both the forward and reverse current gains are constant for any
value of collector current. Both the base, collector, and emitter
capacitances and resistances are zero. As can be seen by the
extensiveness of the parameter list, the transistor model and its
associated curves can be as simple or complex as required.
The DC model is defined by the parameters IS, BF, NF, ISE, IKF,
and NE, which determine the forward current gain characteristics, and,
BR, NR, ISC, IKR, and NC, which determine the reverse current gain
characteristics and VAF and VAR, which determine the output
conductance for the forward and reverse regions. Three ohmic
resistances RB, RC, and RE are included. Base Charge storage is
modeled by forward and reverse transit times TR, and TF and nonlinear
depletion layer capacitances which are determined by CJE, VJE, and
MJE for the B-E junction, CJC, VJC, and MJC for the B-C junction, and
CJS, VJS, and MJS for the C-S (collector-substrate) junction. Of the
40 parameters used to characterize the transistor, 15 parameters (IRB,
RBM, XTF, VTF, ITF, PTF, XCJC, CJS, MJS, VJS, XTB, XTI, KF, AF, and
FC) are related to Flicker-Noise and higher order effects which are
not ordinarily needed nor specified in most manufacturer's data
sheets.
Methods for determination of model parameters from manufacturer's
data sheets are shown next, followed by laboratory measurement
techniques. The available data from sheets may not be as
comprehensive as that required for a complete model and many device
data sheets do not provide sufficient information to calculate the
entire range of parameters. For instance, reverse DC characteristics
may not be shown or the data that is may only be typical, minimum,
maximum or limited in range. Data sheets from various manufacturer's
may have to be pieced together in order to provide a full set of
data. In any case, the best information is likely to be found on the
data sheets of the manufacturer who first made the part. That might
not be of much help, especially if you don't know who first made the
device, but it brings up an important point. Since device modeling
is a task usually given to a "NEW - HIRE", it is recommended that the
advise of a Senior Engineer with experience be sort after when a
difficult problem is encountered. Get used to asking questions,
because your going to have a lot of them. By the way, this paper was
written by "NEW - HIRE'S" and we assure you that our Senior Engineer
runs everytime he see's us because he knows there's a barrage of
questions coming at him.
The techniques and, formulas presented in the procedures section
of the manual are for a NPN transistor. In order to make them
applicable to PNP transistors just put a negative sign in front of
any voltage used. Also, the example at the end of the manual uses a
PNP transistor to clarify this point.
\
INTRODUCTION:
SPICE contains "built-in" equations. for the Gummel-Poon model
of a PNP Bipolar Junction Transistor. The model diagram and
definina equations are listed in the following section. Of the
40 parameters used to characterize the transistor, 25 of them have
have been calculated to customize the Gummel-Poon model to simulate
the 2N2907A PNP BJT. The other 15 parameters (IRB, RBM, XTF, VTF,
ITF, PTF, XCJC, CJS, MJS, VJS, XTB, XTI, KF, AF, Fe) are related
to Flicker-Noise and higher order effects which are not ordinarily
~ p e i f i e in manufacturer's data.
BACKGROUND:
COLLECTOR
RC
3
Rl CC JD
+
BASE
R8
2
.J. JF
t JR

R2 CE JA
1
RE
EMITTER
JA = non-ideal forward region base current
JB = ideal forward region base current
JC = non-ideal inverse region base current
JD = ideal inverse region base current
JF = forward region dependent current
JR = inverse region dependent current
CC = collector Junction capacitance
CE = emitter junction capacitance
RC = collector bulk resistance
RB = base bulk resistance
RE = emitter bulk resistance
R1 = collector-base junction leakage resistance*
R2 = emitter-base junction leakage resistance*
* not included in SPICE model
I, I,
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,
oetlnln& Iquetlon.:
JA lSI
SPICI .odel plr&aeter lSI C2xIS
Oetlult IS! 0
where: C2. non-I dell normlllzln, coefficient
IS ,"tur"tlon current
SPICE .odel plrometer NI emitter junction ,rldln, con.tant
Detlult NI 1.5
VB'I' bl.e-emltter junction voltl,e (voltl,e trom 2 to 1 on
the .odel dll,r&a)
Vt tI 0.026 volt. at 27"C (300"l)
q
[ ( ~ B I J ]
n
JB
WF(Vt 1
~ -
BF
SPICI .odd par ...ter IS .aturation current
De t&uIt IS
lxlO-
16
(
SPICI .odel parometer BP' Idell .Ixlmus torvard a
Det&ult 8F 100
SPICI .odd pareaeter NF
torvard current e.i lon coefficient
Det&ult "F 1
~ ( ~ J
JC
ISC c WC(Vt)_l
SPICI .odel parometer ISC ClxIS
Default ISC 0
where: C4. Don-Idell normlllzln, coefficient
IS aturltlon current
SPICI .odel par...ter WC bl.e-collector ,rldln, con.taat
Deflult NC 2
VB,c, bl.e-collector junction voltl,e
(voltl,e from 2 to 3 on the model dll,roa)
JO n [.
BR
(V
B

C
) J
\ NR(Vt) _
SPICE andel plrometer 8R Idell .Ixlmus rever.e a
Oetlult DR 1
SPICI .odel plrometer Ni rever.e current eml lon coefflcl.at
Oeflult Ni 1
"
II ['
Jr QB C
QB (S.. belov.)
JR.!!
QB
[
(
VB'C' \ ]
C NR(Vt)_l
Ql
1 -
1
(
SPICI _d.l p.r.... t.r VAl
torw.rd
rly yoltS
o.t.ult VAl
-
SPICI 8IOd.l p.ramet.r VAR rever rly
yoltS
o.t.ult VAR
-
(VB'I'j ]
[
t
VB
'
C
' J
Q2 .ILL
Nr(Vt -1 + IL NIl(Vt -1
10' IU
SPICI 8IOd.l p.r...t.r 10' corD.r tor torw.rd a hlsh curr.Dt roll-off
o.t.ult 10'
SPICI 8IOd.l p.r.... t.r IKR corD.r tor r.v.r a hlsh curr.nt roll-off
O.f.ult IKII -
CI __ __
ILl'I
VB' E' '\
VJI I
vh.r.:
IS [
+ Trr It Vt C
SPICI DOdel CJI ba.o-emltter
c.paci tance
DofauH CJE - 0
SPICI DOdel parLmeter VJI baae-emitter junctioo contact
potontial
Default VJI . 75
SPICI,DOdel parLSOter KJI b-emltter junction
exponential t.ctor
Default KJE ,33
,

trF
2[ (V
B
'
C
' ~
IF 1.44 VTF
tF 11+ITFI (IF+It;)
SPICI IIIOdel par .... t.r tF Id.al t o ~ r d tran.lt tl
Default tF 0
SPICE IIlOdel par .... t.r ITF co.fflcl.nt for bl d.pend.nc. ot TF
O.tault ITF
0
SPICI ""d.l par....t.r VIF voltaS' dcrlblns ba-coll.ctor voltas.
d.p.nd.nc. ot rF
O.tault VIF
0
SPICI .adel p.r....t.r ITF bl,b-curr.nt p.rllDlt.r tor .tt.ct on TF
Default ITF 0
CC
CJC
wb.r.:
ll[
KJC + ti x Vt
SPICE mod.l p.r.... t.r.:
CJC bu.-collector z.ro-bl d.pl.tion cap.cltanc.
( O.fault CJC 0
VJC bu.-coll.ctor junction cont.ct pot.ntl.l
O.fault VJC . 15
KJC bu.-collector junction .xpon.ntl.l t.ctor
Default IIJC ... .33
tit

Id.al rev.r.e tr.n.lt ti
O.tault TI

0
'.
Modeling Transistors From Manufacturers' Data Sheets
1. NF Forward Current Emission Coefficient
NF's normal value is between 1 and 2.
'it is proper to assume a value of 1.
saturation current IS.
If data cannot be obtained
Its value will effect the
Use a plot of IC vs. VBE (Data sheet "ON" plot)
NF = VBE1 - VBE2/(VT*(ln(IC1/IC2)
2. IS Transport Saturation Current
Eq. 111
The saturation current is determined by the doping profile and
emitter-base junction cross-sectional area. A typical value is
10E-16 Amps, however, a variation of several orders of magnitude
is not uncommon. The saturation currents (IS, ISE, ISC ) will
affect among other things the slope of the forward DC curves (IC
and IB vs. VBE). (Fig. 3)
A data sheet "ON" voltage plot yields a point where VBE=VCE, find
IC and insert in the equation below. ***SEE NOTE AT BR***
Measure VBE to at least three decimal places.
IS = IC/(exp (VBE/NF*VT)-l)
= IE/(exp (VBE/NF*VT)-l)
3. BF Ideal Maximum Forward Beta
or
where VBE=VCE and
currents are small
(linear region)
BF is the value of B in the ideal region of the transistor.
Although this parameter looks easy to find, it must be determined
by trail and error because many transistors do not have a clear
ideal region. Beta variations produced by changes in collector
current occur in three regions. (low injection region, ideal
region, and high injection region Fig. 4)
Data sheets normally give forward current gain information or
normalized current gain information. Using this data, the analyst
can determine the desired value of BF which will yield either a
minimum, typical, or maximum current gain model.
To find BF plot B = IC/IB vs. In IC
" "
4. BR Ideal Maximum Reverse Beta
Determine BR and NR in a manner similar to that used for BF and NF
in the forward region. Data must be usually measured because
manufacturer's data sheets normally do not include reverse
characteristics.
Obtain data of IE and IB vs. VBC over a large range of base
currents. BR can be determined from a point in the ideal region.
(Cir. 1)
***NOTE*** IS is a fundamental parameter that is related directly to
the zero-bias majority-carrier profile in the base. IS is the
extrapolated intercept current of the graph of 10g(IC) vs. VBE in
the forward region, as well as, log(IE) vs. VBC in the reverse
region. Compare the IS values determined from the forward and
reverse characteristics. (Substitute IE for IC, VBC for VBE and NR
for NF in equation #1) If these values are not reasonably close and a
good fit of both forward and reverse characteristics cannot be
obtained with a single value of IS chosen, then some part of the
measured of calculated data is in error. Re-check all data before
proceeding.
5. NR Reverse Current Emission Coefficient
*See Lab Techniques
6. NE B-E Leakage Emmision Coefficient
May be found from previous data acquisition. Looking at the slope
of the non-ideal region of the log(B) vs. 10g(IC) curve, NE may
be determined from the slope of the line in the non-ideal region.
(Fig. 5)
NE = l/(slope - 1) where
Slope = 10g(B1)-10g(B2)/(log(IC1)-10g(IC2
*See Lab Techniques
7. ISE B-E Leakage Saturation Current
ISE may be found from a point on the IB vs. VBE curve.
A. ISE = IB1/(exp(VBE1/NE(VT-1) *See Lab Techniques
or B. ISE =C2(IS) where
C2
=
IL/IS)(l-(l/NE/BF and
IL
=
to the collector current where B
=
BF/2 in the
non-ideal region.
or C. ISE
=
IS/@f where
@f
=
B/(l+B) where B is in the normal active region
" I,
8. NC B-C Leakage Emission Coefficient
*See Lab Techniques
9. ISC B-C Leakage Saturation Current
*See Lab Techniques
10. RB Zero Bias Base Resistance
RB models the resistance between the base region and the base
terminal. There are several ways to calculate RB. each of which
may provide a different answer. RB is a difficult parameter to
measure because it is modeled as a constant resistance although
it is actually a distributed variable resistance. RB's value is
dependent on the operating point of the transistor. The best
test method and value to chose is dependent on your application,
therefore the application should determine the test measurement
technique. Its value can range from 10 ohms (microwave devices)
to several kilohms.
An alternative method which can be derived from a data sheet
"ON" data plot provides an RB value where RE is ignored and the
effects of RE are lumped together with the effects of RB.
Using RB =VBE2-VBE1/IBl
When using a
of collector
IC/IB = 10.
data sheet use VBEsat and IB at the highest value
current shown. This curve is usually shown for
Use the formula;
RB = (VBEsat - .6)/IB where .6 represents a diode
voltage drop and IB is the highest available base current on
the data sheet.
11. RE Emitter Resistance
RE is a constant valued resistor which models the resistance
between the emitter region and the emitter terminal. A typical
value of RE is 1 ohm. RE may also be accounted for by properly
calculating RB.
*See Lab Techniques
12. RC Collector
RC models the resistance between the collector region and the
collector terminal. RC is actually a resistance dependent on
collector current and base-collector voltage, but is usually
modeled as a constant valued resistor. Therefore, the biggest
problem in obtaining a value for RC is not how to m e ~ u r e it but
which value to use. RC decreases the slope of the curves in the
saturation region for low collector-emitter voltages. A typical
value is 10 ohms or less.
RC may also be estimated from the "ON Voltage" figure of the data
sheet. Use VCEsat and IC at the highest collector current shown.
RC = (VCEsat - .2)/IC where
.2V is a typical value of ideal saturation voltage allowing the
ohmic voltage drop to be estimated.
See Lab Techniques
13. IKF Corner for Forward Beta High Current Roll-off
IKF is the value of IC at the transition between the ideal region
and the high injection region. IKF can be determined from a plot
of InBF vs. InIC. and is equal to the value of the collector
current at the point where B is 1/2 its maximum value (BF/2).
Some trial and error is required in selecting BF and IKF to fit
the 10g(IB) and 10g(IC) vs. VBE characteristic. (Fig. 6)
14. IKR Corner For Reverse Beta High Current Roll-off
IKR is the value of IE at the transition region between the ideal
and the high injection reverse regions. It is also the value of
IE at the point where B is equal to BR/2 near the high injection
region. It effects the shape of the BR curve and the reverse
current gain.
15. VAF Forward Early Voltage
VA is a parameter used to model base width modulation effects
(the early effects). A typical value is 100 volts. Where data
sheets do not give a set of collector characteristics the
following may be used to estimate VAF. Using the normalized DC
current gain charaoteristics which yield data at two VCE
voltages, VAF can be found by a plot of IC vs. VCE for different
currents. (Fig. 7) If a set of collector characteristics is
available, extrapolate all of the active region portions of the
curve to the left. The VCE x-axis intercept is then the VAF
parameter ~ l all. Since the extrapolations will usually be
over a wide range of voltages, an average must be taken.
16. VAR Reverse Early Voltage
Measure the set of emitter characteristics IE vs. VBC at several
constant values of IB in the reverse region.
VAR is the negative of the extrapolated intercept, VBC, of IE vs.
VBC on the VBC axis.
17. CJE B-E Zero-Bias Depletion Capacitance
VJE B-E Built-in Potential
MJE B-E Junction Exponential Factor
These next six parameters describe the transition capacitance
associated with the collector-base junction or the base-emitter
junction. The two capacitances, CJE and CJC, are nonlinear and
voltage dependent. They are also necessary if any AC models are
to be affective. The base-emitter junction depletion capacitance
parameters can be obtained from measurements of junction
capacitance vs. reverse base-emitter voltage. (CE vs. VBE).
It may be necessary to subtract out a constant capacitance from
the measured value. This extra capacitance term is usually
around .5PF and is the stray capacitance associated with the
transistor package. Manufacturer's data sheets usually show
capacitance vs. reverse voltage (CE vs. VBE reverse) as the Cib
curve. The VJ parameters are normally .7 for silicon devices and
the MJ parameters are equal to .5 for an abrupt junction and .333
for a linearly graded junction. Since most junctions fit between
these two, MJE or MJC is from .333 to .5. A typical value of CJE
or CJC iB about 20PF.
*See Lab Techniques
1. CJE is the capacitance value at VBE=O or it can be calculated
from one point on the CE VB. VBE curve.
CJE = CE1*1-(VBE1/VJE)**MJE)
\
2. Find the values CE (Junction capacitance) at various reverse
bias voltages. Measurements are made between the base
terminal and the emitter terminal with the collector open.
3. Using the formula:
CE = CJE/(l-(VBE/VJE))**MJE)
assume a value for VJE in the range of .6 to 1 volt.
4. Plot CE vs. (VJE-VBE) on log-log paper
5. If the line is straight, then the assumed value of VJE is
correct.
6. If the line is not straight, then assume another value for VJE
and repeat steps 4 and 5.
7. When a straight line is obtained determine the MJE from two
points by the following equation:
-MJE = (In(CE1)-ln(CE2))/(ln(VJE-VBE1)-ln(VJE-VBE2))
NOTE: Remember that the VBE values are negative since the data
points are from the reverse bias region.
18. CJC B-C Zero-Bias Depletion Capacitance
VJE B-C Built-in Potential
MJE B-C Junction Exponential Factor
The procedures for finding these parameters are exactly the same
as for CJE, VJE, and MJE except the measurements should be of
Junction capacitance vs. reverse base-collector voltage (CE vs.
VBC). The measurements should be made between the base terminal
and the collector terminal with the emitter open. Data sheets
usually show the CC vs. VBC reverse curve as the Cob vs.
Reverse voltage plot or you can use CE vs. VBC data and the
equations:
CC = CJC/l-(VBC/VJC))**MJC)
-MJC =(In(CC1)-ln(CC2))/(ln(VJC-VBC1)-ln(VJC-VBC2))
CJC i8 again the capacitance value at VBC=O or
CJC = CC1*(1-(VBC1/VJC))**MJC)
19. TF Forward Transit Tima
The forward transit time can be determined from the data sheet
TURN-ON TIME figure which shows the 10% to 90% rise time, tr vs.
IC. Use two points ICo which is IC near zero, and ICl which is
IC at some value greater than zero. TF is greatly dependent on
A. IC1, the collector current
B. IB1, the base current at ICl and
C. BF1, the forward current gain at ICl
Data sheets usually show tr vs. ICl with IC1/IBl = 10 However,
the analyst may wish to take a measurement for ICl at the
anticipated value of collector current for his particular
application. Manufacturer's usually show a test circuit for rise
time measurements.
Use the formula: TF = (tr/2.2)(1/(BF+l
20. TR Reverse Transit Time
The reverse transit time can be determined from the data sheet
TURN-OFF TIME figure which shows the storage time, ts vs.
collector current, IC. ts is the time for the collector current to
fall from some value, ICo, to 90% of that value when the base
current is suddenly reversed from its initial value, lBo, to IB1,
where IBl = -lBo. Like TF, TR is dependent on the selected values
of lCo, lBo, IB1, and the reverse current gain, BR, at the chosen
ICo. Manufacturer's data sheets usually show ts vs. ICo at
ICo/ICl = 10. Again the analyst may prefer to take a measurement
for ICo at the anticipated value for the particular application.
Manufacturer's usually show a circuit for storage time
measurements.
Use the formula:
TR = (1/(BR+l[ts/(lnIBo-IB1)/(ICo/(BF-IB1]
Inclusion of Breakdown Characteristics
Breakdown can be simulated by including two current generators,
which are EXTERNAL to the device model.
Needed at the parameters
BVcbo - Collector-to-Base breakdown voltage
BVebo - Emitter-to-Base breakdown voltage
Nc - Collector-Base Multiplication region constant
Ne - Emitter-Base Multiplication region constant
Typical values for BVcbo and BVebo are from less than 5 volts to
greater than 2000 volts. Nc and Ne are typically between 2 and 4
for silicon devices. Manufacturer's data sheets normally list the
minimum breakdown voltages.
Use the formulas: Nc = 10gBF/(log(BVcbo/BVebo
Ne = logBI/(log(BVcbo/BVebo
where
and
yielding
Me = l/[l-Vbe/BVebo)**Ne)]
Me = l/[l-Vbe/BVebo)**Ne)]
IBC = IC(Me - 1)
IBE = IE(Me - 1)

Ie
Vlt
'IG.1 Ideal log(IC) & log(IB) vs. Vbe Ideal .. J3t VS. IC

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Non-ld ... l
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t-IG.2 Actual log(l) VS. Vbe FIG.4 Actual J3t V8. IC

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Non-Ille:.! Kellion Ideal Reeion IIlgh InjHtlon RCl>ion
- - - - - - - - - .... -" RF
y .... - - ---,-
I "
IIF
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T

,
,
,
,
,
,
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.-1----------- '"
II. IH
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FIG.3 IS Curves
FIG.6 & 6
VeE
01 ....'
_a
lOMOI Hue.
OC)O ....
,.
"'Owo, .. _ .. \.
"'Owol" Dl 'I1c..
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Forward
&
Reverse
C,ur.rent
Measurements
"ol.t _1
ror 'lC1 10 "oltl. th. flor- .. l1ud brr: .. 1.1 la the IC r"I' ot 10
to )0 ...
Point _1
'or VCI .. 1 "olt. the no ...... llud "rl .. l.O In til, [C ria,. of 10 to
)0 _.
IC
30 mIo.

--..r- :
-VAF
Iq-ICl
vCIl-vcn
0'
rCl-O
VCI1_(_VVl
o
VCE
10
VAl _ ICl (ver:l-vcE? ,_ VCIl
I r lel-[Cl J
FIG.7 VAF Mea s.
Modeling Transistors From Laboratory Measurements
with 2N2907 PNP Transistor Example
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MODELING and LAB DATA GATHERING:
Problems with data taking will be encountered at every stage in
the modeling process. An analyst must be extremely careful in
every step. Seemingly accurate data may actually be in error,
caused by what may be considered an insignificant detail. A good
indication of accurate data can be found in the fact the when
measurements are repeated, the data is reliable and repeatable.
Some of the problems to watch for are:
1. Temperature variations At the low levels of current and
voltage measurement a change in temperature will greatly
affect the data taken. Also, at high current levels, most
devices will begin to heat up. This will cause inaccurate
data to be measured. If laboratory data is to repeatable and
reliable. Care must be taken to record the temperature and
keep it reasonably steady. At high current levels, it is
recommended that input voltages and currents be pulsed with a
duty cycle of less than 5%. See figure
2. Impedances of measuring equipment
When measuring low currents care must be taken to evaluate
the effects of loading on a test circuit by instruments.
'0'''"'1
-
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....UCi_ .
r
'ONl

"", .. """1 ..
..."".".
'"r r
. ";"r-
-,.
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Telt Circuit For High Current Levell
3. Variations among devices
It is best to evaluate a number of the same devices when
measuring data. Such a sampling and the information it
provides will help to filter out any extremes in the data
patterns that would lead to erroneous conclusions. Also,
if a device is accidently overstressed, its subsequent data
that is yielded should come under additional scrutiny.
4. Circuits in this manual are presented for a guide only.
Various sources of information on modeling may present
circuits that appear to be different, however, the data
that is yielded should be consistent no matter which
topology is used. In practice, however, this is not always
the case. The test circuit that provides the most
consistent (repeatable) and seemingly accurate data is the
best.
5. When testing for parameters, always choose operating
conditions that will resemble the model application's
operating conditions.
6. Because the Bipolar Junction Transistor is very complex
and non-linear, no single set of model parameters will fit all
applications. It is important to know what the model's uses
will be.
7. The ultimate goal of any good model is to reproduce the
same charactersitics as the real device. Thus, after a
parameter is found using a test method, it is perfectly
acceptable to "tweak" that parameter to get the end result.
8. The default values should be used whenever possible. This
will save in computing time.
9. When using the model, always keep in mind the limitations
imposed onto the model. A model is only as good as the
parameters that specify it and every parameter has limits
to its usage.
10. The order in which these parameters are presented should
be the order in which they are sought. In many cases, the
value of a previous parameter is necessary to obtain the one
being found.
11. Use as simple a model as possible. It is redundant to try
and get an exact model when an approximate one will suffice.
12. As each paramter is found it should be added to the SPICE
model and tested to see if it contributes positively (or
negatively) to the overall requirements.
MODELING:
PARAMETER: NF
DEFINITION: forward current emi33ion coefficient
MEASURED VALUE: 1.21
TYPICAL VALUE: 1.0
SPICE DEFAULT: 1.0
METHOD:
NF = [VBE2-VBE1) / [(Vt)LN(IC2/IC1)
CIRCUIT DESIGN:
1
+ \.0"
/
/
/
/
(
forward DC characteristics
,",,1.
NOTE: 1. VBE1,VBE2,IC1,IC2 are found from the straight line
portion of the IC vs. VBE curve.
2. Vt = kT/q =0.026 volts at 300K
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
NF affects IC in the forward DC, ideal region. As NF is
increased, the curve of IC shifts downward.
PARAMETER: IS
DEFINITION: transistor saturation current
IS = ICl / {exp[VBE1/(NF)(Vt)]-1}
MEASURED VALUE:
TYPICAL VALUE:
SPICE DEFAULT:
METHOD:
1. 10
1.0
1.0
E-12
E-16
E-16
amperes
amperes
amperes
(
/
/
/
/
NOTE: 1. IC1 and IB1 are taken from
of IC vs. VBE.
2. NF must be found before IS
the straight line portion
can be calculated.
CIRCUIT: use the FORWARD DC CHARACTERISTIC CIRCUIT SET-UP
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
IS greatly affects the forward and reverse characteristic
curves in the DC operation. The slopes of both IC and IB in
the linear region are changed as IS is increased or decreased.
(
(
PARAMETER: EG
DEFINITION: eneray aap of the semiconductor material
MEASURED VALUE: 1.1 e-volts (since silicon)
TYPICAL VALUE: 1.1 e-volts for silicon
.67 e-volts for aermanium
.69 e-volts for Schottky-barrier devices
SPICE DEFAULT: 1.1 e-volts
PARAMETER: BR
DEFINITION: ideal maximum reverse beta
MEASURED VALUE: 11
TYPICAL VALUE: .5
SPICE DEFAULT: 1
METHOD:
The curve tracer was again used. The measurement of BR is
identical with that of BF, the only difference is the emitter
and collector pins were interchanged. Thus the collector
current i6 actually the emitter current and the collector-emitter
voltage is actually the emitter-collector voltaae.
VERT - collector current lma/div
HORIZ - voltage .5v/div
STEP - base current 5ua/div
BR = reverse DC beta = IE/IB for a constant VEC
NOTE: 1. IE and IC should be measured at the operating point
intended for use in the circuit.
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
BR shifts the IB of the reverse DC ideal region in the same
manner that BF did for the forward DC ideal region.
PARAMETER: SF
DEFINITION: ideal maximum forward beta
MEASURED VALUE:
TYPICAL VALUE:
SPICE DEFAULT:
202
100 - 300
100
1ma/div
.5v/div
5ua/div
METHOD:
A curve tracer was used to find SF. The settings of the
curve tracer were,
VERT - collector current
HORIZ - collector-emitter voltage
STEP - base current
BF = forward DC beta = IC/IB for a constant VCE
NOTE: 1. IC and IB should be measured at the operating point
intended for use in the circuit.
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
BF shifts the forward DC ideal region's curve of lB. IB
shifts with respect ot the location of IC. As BF is increased,
the distance between IC and IB is increased.
/
/
PARAMETER: NR
( DEFINITION: reverse current emission coefficient
MEASURED VALUE: 1.04
TYPICAL VALUE: 1.0
SPICE DEFAULT: 1.0
METHOD:
NR = [VBC2-VBC1] / [(Vt)LN(IE2/IE1)]
CIRCUIT DESIGN:
I O ~ L r
/
/
-
/-.

I.O
:Lr.1.
'I',:.
V

1
C
lEI
-
'It>C1 reverse DC characteristics
NOTE: 1. VBCl, VBC2. lEI. IE2 are found from the straight
line portion of the IE vs. VBC curve.
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
NR affects IE (in the reverse DC ideal region) identically
the same way NF affects IC (in the forward DC ideal region).
(
PARAMETER: NE
DEFINITION: base-emitter leakage emission coefficient
MEASURED VALUE: 1.92
TYPICAL VALUE: 2
SPICE DEFAULT: 1.5
METHOD:
NE = [VBE2-VBE1] / [(Vt)LN(IB2/1B1)]
(
<-<>" (v)
NOTE: 1. VBE1. VBE2. IB1, IB2 are found from the non-linear
region of the IB vs. VBE iraph.
CIRCUIT: use the FORWARD DC CHARACTERISTICS CIRCUIT SET-UP
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
NE and ISE are responsible for forming the non-ideal region
of IB in the forward DC curves. NE affects the curving of IB
in the transition from ideal to non-ideal reiion.
PARAMETER: ISE
DEFINITION: base-emitter leakage saturation current
MEASURED VALUE:
TYPICAL VALUE:
SPICE DEFAULT:
METHOD:
6.67 E-12 amperes
1 E-12 amperes
o amperes
(
ISE = IBI / (exp(VBEl/NE(Vt-I]
161
'I.e. ,
lO"J cv)
NOTE: 1. IBl, VBEl are taken from the non-ideal region
of the IB vs. VBE curve.
2. NE must be found first in order to calculate ISE.
CIRCUIT: use the FORWARD DC CHARACTERISTICS CIRCUIT SET-UP
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
ISE determines the slope of the non-ideal region of IB when
the transistor is forward DC biased.
counterparts of NE and ISE for the reverse
NC determines the curving of IB in the
the transistor is reverse biased.
(
PARAMETER: NC
DEFINITION: base-collector leakage emission coefficient
MEASURED VALUE: 4.48
TYPICAL VALUE: 2.0
SPICE DEFAULT: 2.0
METHOD:
NC = [VBC2-VBC1] / [(Vt)LN(IB2/IB1)]
NOTE: 1. IB1. IB2, VBC1, VBC2 are taken from the non-ideal
region of IB vs. VBE in the reverse bias mode.
CIRCUIT: use the REVERSE DC CHARACTERISTICS CIRCUIT SET-UP
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
NC and ISC are the
DC non-ideal region.
non-ideal region when
PARAMETER: ISC
DEFINITION: base-collector leakage saturation current
MEASURED VALUE:
TYPICAL VALUE:
SPICE DEFAULT:
METHOD:
3.55 E-9 amperes
1 E-16 amperes
o amperes
ISC = IB1 / [exp(VBC1/NC(Vt-l]
(
Tht
NOTE; 1. IBl and VBCl are taken from the non-ideal region
of IB vs. VBC with the transistor in the reverse
DC biased mode.
2. NC is needed to calculate ISC.
CIRCUIT: use the REVERSE DC CHARACTERISTICS CIRCUIT SET-UP
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
ISC determines the slope of the non-ideal region of IB when
the transistor is reverse DC biased.
PARAMETER: RB
DEFINITION: zero biased base resistance
MEASURED VALUE:
TYPICAL VALUE:
SPICE DEFAULT:
40 ohms
100 ohms
o ohms
METHOD:
For DC analyses it is possible to obtain RB from a plot of
In(IC) and In(IB) vs. VBE. However, since this procedure involves
subtracting two large numbers, it is not uncommon to obtain
negative values for RB with this method.
A. Using IS BF RE and IB IE and VBE in the ohmic region
RB = l/IB [VBE - VT*ln(IB/IS)*BF - IE*RE) where
IE =IB+IC
B. Pulse Measurement Method
A current pulse is applied to the base and causes the
device to turn off. The voltage across RB drops to zero
while the base capacitance keeps the junction potential, VBE,
constant. RB is then determined by:
RB = 4VBE/Ipulse generator
When the voltage drop no longer appears vertical on an
oscilloscope trace, the constant-resistance model for RB is
no longer valid. Adjusting the time base of the oscilloscope
until this condition is reached gives some indication of the
switching times at which the simple RB model is not adequate.
Some other techniques not mentioned here are, the noise
measurement technique (for noise performance), Impedance
circle method (for small-signal tests).
NOTE: 1. RB is one of the most difficult parameters to
measure because it is modeled as a lumped constant
resistance although it is actually a distributed
variable resistance.
2. The value of RB obtained is strongly dependent
upon the measurement technique used as well as the
transistor's operating conditions.
3. Thus the application of the model should determine
the test measurement technique to be used. Some
other methods are the pulse measurement method,
noise measurement method and the DC measurement
method (See References)
4. The user may find that it is easier to "play"
with the value of RB until a satisfactory model is
derived rather than try and measure RB from a
test method.
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
RB significantly affects the ohmic region of IB, IC and IE
in both the forward and reverse DC biased modes. IB is
especially susceptible to changes in RB. As RB increases,
the current curves in the ohmic region bend downward.
1<.
--
RB also affects the switching time of the transistor model.
Increasing or decreasing RB changes the delay and storage
times of the transistor. Base resistances greatest impact
is normally its effect on the small-signal and transient
responses.
':11
o. -j- ---:

+

Vee
'l
o.il I.
", :-: .. ..:-=.ll t YIU
lSI . un I t CHAHN(L 1
tI V
_.. .. ::...-_t CHAflNH 2
Setup to Determine r
b
by the Pulse Method
PARAMETER: RE
DEFINITION: emitter parasitic resistance
MEASURED VALUE:
TYPICAL VALUE:
SPICE DEFAULT:
.5 ohms
1 ohm
o ohms
HETHOD:
11. RE Emitter Resistance
A curve tracer can be used:
Curve Tracer Connections
Collector
Base
Emitter
Transistor Connections
Base
Collector
Emitter
Display the IB vs. VCE characteristics. The connection switch is
set to emitter grounded, base terminal open. The horizontal knob is
set to read base volts (VCE) and the proper ranges are selected to
yield an easily readable slope. Choose two points. The straight
line portion of the curve is = liRE. The slope should be determined
as close to the flyback portion at the bottom as possible.
RE =aVCE/LlIB.
/
/
I
/
CIRCUIT DESIGN:
I
/
I
NOTE: 1. RE is the'inverse of the slope of the straight
line portion of the graph.
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
RE mainly affects the ohmic region of IB in the forward DC biased
mode. It has no significant effects on IC in the forward mode and
has no noticable effects in the reverse biased mode. As RE
increases IB's ohmic region concaves increasingly downward.
PARAMETER: RC
DEFINITION: collector parasitic resistance
MEASURED VALUE: 10 ohms
TYPICAL VALUE: 10 ohms
SPICE DEFAULT: 0 ohms
METHOD:
Measure IB vs. VEC, a Curve Trace can be used.
Curve Tracer Connections
Collector
Base
Emitter
Transistor Connections
Base
Emitter
Collector
1ma/div
.2v/div
RC = (VEC1-VEC2)/(IB1-IB2)
Use the same set up as for RE.
RC may be obtained from a curve tracer photograph at
low values of VCE vs. IC. RCsat and RCnormal are the two limiting
values of RC. The curve tracer settings are
VERT - collector current
HORIZ - collector-emitter voltage
STEP - base current
Il,: ...."T
/ S",I't. ---
/ R.L. No............ \.-
/
NOTE: 1. The RCnormal line is drawn through the knees of
the characteristic curves.
2. RCnormal ( RC < RCsat most of the time.
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
RC affects the collector trace
characteristic curves at low VCE.
suppressed the curves become.
curves by suppressing the
The larger RC is, the more
RC also strongly influences the ohmic region of IE in the
reverse DC operating mode. The greater RC is, the more concaved
IE becomes in the ohmic region.
PARAMETER "TWEAKING'
IHTH r
I
I
/.
"E
Effect of r
b
.nd
-- I4lTH ,.' MID'" I
b ,
/ __HITHOOT
I
I
/.
'e
"
Effect of
'\'TlOIT
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YeE
leI
t;_
I II
I
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5
I
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I
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,
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L[Cr.HO:
,

c
o .UIII
NP',IS ...lid ." .p.c\rI.d.
HI and lSI .
II and II .. ddo:d,
IU .. dd.d.
Collective Effect Of Parameters
PARAMETER: IKR
DEF'INITION: corner of reverse beta high current roll-off
MEASURED VALUE: 3 E-3 amperes
TYPICAL VALUE:
SPiCE DEFAULT: infinite
METHOD:
IKR is found the same way IKF is found, only now it is using
reverse DC bias. IKR is the value of IE at the transition between
the ideal and ohmic region for a reverse biased transistor. IKR
is the value of IE where B is equal to BR/2. Again, IKR has to be
found by curve fitting.
CIRCUIT: use the REVERSE DC CHARACTERISTICS CIRCUIT SET-UP
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
IKR affects IE (in the reverse DC biased mode) in the same
way that IKF affects IC (in the forward DC biased mode).
(
PARAMETER: IKF
DEFINITION: corner for forward beta high current roll-otf
MEASURED VALUE: 4 E-3 amps
TYPICAL VALUE:
SPICE DEFAULT: infinite
METHOD:
IKF is not easily determined from measured data. It is the
value of IC at the transition between the ideal and ohmic
region.
The method used to find IKF was to choose a value for IKF and
check the model tit ot IC vs. VBE. It the SPICE model and
actual measurements did not corrolate then another value was
chosen.
/
/
/
/
NOTE: 1. IKF is also equal to the value of the collector
current at the point where BF is 1/2 of its
maximum value (BF/2).
2. "Curve fitting" is the only easy way to find IKF.
CIRCUIT: use the FORWARD DC CHARACTERISTICS CIRCUIT SET-UP
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
IKF affects the ohmic region of IC in the forward biased DC
curves.
IKF also has some effects on the switching time of the transistor.
I
PARAMETER: VAF
DEFINITION: forward early
MEASURED VALUE:
TYPICAL VALUE:
SPICE DEFAULT:
48.2
100
inUni te
METHOD:
A curve tracer photograph used to find VAF. VAf is
'the negetive of the extrapolated intercepts of IC VCE
on the VCE axis. The curve tracer were,
VERT - collector current .5mA/div
HORIZ - collector-emitter voltage .2V/div
STEP - base current 5uA/div
VAF = - VCEl
"" I
- -
o
NOTE: 1. When extrapolations spread over a range of values,
an average or geometric mean of the value for
VAF.
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
VAF the slope of the linear segments of the collector
characteristic curves. The VAF is, the larger the slope,
--
--
--
--

t
PARAMETER: VAR
DEFINITION: reverse early voltage
MEASURED VALUE:
TYPICAL VALUE:
SPICE DEFAULT:
7.3 volts
10 volts
infinite
20uA/div
.2v/div
5uA/div
(
METHOD:
VAR is found the same way as VAF. The only difference is the
collector and emitter pins are exchanged when interfacing the
transistor with the curve tracer. The 'settings are,
VERT - collector current (actually IE)
HORIZ - collector-emitter voltage (actually VEe)
STEP - base current
VAR =lEi/slope - VECl
/ ........
"U-l
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
VAR affects the slope of the linear segments of the emitter
characteristic curves. The smaller VAR is, the larger the
slope.
'.
PARAMETER: CJE
DEFINITION: base-emitter zero-biased depletion capacitance
MEASURED VALUE:
TYPICAL VALUE:
SPICE DEFAULT:
23.0 E-12 farads
10.0 E-12 farads
o farads
(
METHOD:
CJE was obtained using a multifrequency LCR meter. Using
no external biasing, the junction capacitance between the
base and the emitter was measured. The collector terminal was
kept open.
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
CJE mainly affects the frequency response as well as the switching
time of the transistor.
NOTE:
CJE, MJE, VJE are all parameters relating to the emitter
junction capacitance by the equation,
CEdepletion = CJE / [(l-VBE/VJE)**MJE]
where,
CEdepletion = base-emitter junction depletion capacitance
VBE = reverse biased base-emitter voltage
and,
** ="raised to the power of"
PARAMETER: VJK
DEFINITION: base-emitter built-in potential
MEASURED VALUE:
TYPICAL VALUE:
SPICE DEFAULT:
0.85 volts
0.6 volts
0.75 volts
(
METHOD:
VJE can be obtained from measurements of the base to emitter
junction capacitance (CE) vs. the reverse biased base to emitter
voltage (VBE). A multifrequency LCR meter with external biasing
was used to measure CE VB. VBE. During the measurement the
collector terminal is left open .
..
A graphical method is then used.
1. Tabulate CE vs. VBEreverse-biased
2. Assume a value for VJE (usually between 0.6v and 1.Ov)
3. Tabulate [VJE+VBEreverse]
4. Plot CE vs.[VJE+VBEreverse] on log-log graph paper
5. IF the line is straight then the assumed VJE is correct
6. IF the line is not straight. go back to step 2 and
assume another value for VJE
"'"
.......
"..
'-
'"
_
"..
'."Lk:{
'.
'.
\..0"1 .. < ,11.. 1
...,..."
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
VJE affects the frequency response and switching time of the
transistor.
\
(
PARAMETER: HJE
DEFINITION: base-emitter junction exponentioal factor
MEASURED VALUE: 0.4
TYPICAL VALUE: 0.5
SPICE DEFAULT: 0.33
METHOD:
-MJE = [LN(CE1)-LN(CE2)] I [LN(VJE+VBE1)-LN(VJE+VBE2)]
I
I
I
-------
I
I
I
I
NOTE: 1. The straight line of CE vs. (VJE+VBE) must
first be found in order to obtain MJE.
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
MJE affects the frequency response and switching time of
the transistor model.
PARAMETER: CJC
DEFINITION: base-collector zero-bias depletion capacitance
MEASURED VALUE:
TYPICAL VALUE:
SPICE DEFAULT:
19.4 E-12 farads
10 E-12 farads
o farads
METHOD:
CJC was obtained with a multifrequency LCR meter.
no external biasing, the junction capacitance between
base and the collector was measured. The emitter was
open.
Usina
the
left
t
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
CJC affects the frequency response and switching times of the
transistor model.
NOTE:
CJC, MJC. VJC are all parameters relatina to the base-collector
junction capacitance by the equation,
CCdepletion = CJC / [(1-VBC/VJCl**MJC]
where.
CCdepletion = base-collector junction depletion capacitance
VBE = reverse biased base-collector voltage
and,
** "raised to the power of"
PARAMETER: VJC
DEFINITION: built-in potential
MEASURED VALUE:
TYPICAL VALUE:
SPICE DEFAULT:
0.5 volts
0.6 volts
0.75 volts
METHOD:
VJC can be obtained in the same manner as VJE. a
multifrequency LCR meter with external biasing, the base-
collector junction capacitance (CC) vs. the reverse base-
collector voltage (VaC) was measured.
Again, the graphical method was used to find VJC.
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
VJC affects the frequency response and switching time of the
transistor model.
PARAMETER: HJC
DEFINITION: base-collector junction exponential factor
MEASURED VALUE: 0."
TYPICAL VALUE: 0.5
SPICE DEFAULT: 0.33
METHOD:
-MJC = [LN(CC1)-LN(CC2)] / [LN(VJC+VBC1)-LN(VJC+VBC2)]
O!..
(
I
I
I
--1-----
I
I
NOTE: 1. A straight line of CC VS. (VJC+VBC) must first be
found in order to obtain MJC.
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
MJC affects the frequency response and switching time of the
transistor model.
5.2 E-I0 seconds
10 E-I0 seconds
o seconds
(
PARAMETER: TF
DEFINITION: ideal forward transit time
MEASURED VALUE:
TYPICAL VALUE:
SPICE DEFAULT:
METHOD:
TF = 1/[2(pi)(Ft)] - (CC)(RC)
Ft = 1 / [(I/Fmeas)-2(pi)(CC)(Rcollector)] for Rcollector 0
Fmeas = (Fbeta)(Bo)
where,
Fbeta = frequency at which the magnitude of beta is l/sqrt[Bo]
Bo = low frequency beta
Ft =unity gain frequency
NOTE: 1. CC is the base-collector junction depletion capacitance
biased at the same VCB as the circuit operating point.
2. Rcollector is the resistor on the collector lead of
the circuit.
This method determines Ft from the frequency response of the
transistor in order to obtain TF. Using the following circuit
set-up, a frequency response is plotted (AC beta vs. frequency).
-
-. I
rv
'.
1
l:
""
From the frequency response, Fmeas ill found ..
B.
8, - -- --
/!>, :
(
And finally TF is found.
NOTE: 1. Beta is the AC gain of the transistor and not the DC
gain.
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
TF affects the frequency response and switching time of the
transistor model.
PARAMETER: TR
DEFINITION: ideal reverse transit time
MEASURED VALUE:
TYPICAL VALUE:
SPICE DEFAULT:
34.4 E-9 seconds
10 E-9 seconds
o seconds
(
METHOD:
TR was found in the same way as TF. The only difference
was the collector and emitter leads were interchanged when
finding the frequency response.
TR = 1/[2(pi)(Ft)] - (CE)(RE)
Ft = 1 / [(1/Fmeas)-2(pi)(CE)(Remitter)] for Remitter 0
Fmeas = (Fbeta)(Bo)
where,
Fbeta = frequency at which the magnitude of beta is 1/sqrt(2) of Bo
Bo = low frequency beta
Ft = unity gain frequency
NOTE: 1. CE is the base-emitter junction depletion capacitance
biased at the same VCE as the circuit operating point.
2. Remitter is the resistor on the emitter lead of the
circuit.
The test circuit used to find Ft is,
_ ~ o
I.oeJ"F
.--------.-1f---'-----J\-"\,r----j
\\.I"..n..
EFFECT OF PARAMETER:
TR affects the frequency response and switching time of the
transistor model.
SUMMARY:
SUMMARY OF SPICE PARAMETER VALUES
FOR THE
2N2907A PNP BJT TRANSISTOR
[parameter] [value] [default] (note]
NF 1. 21 1.0
IS 1.10 B:-12 amps 1 E-16 amps
BF 202 100
EG 1.1 e-volts 1.1 'e-volts use default,
BR 11 1
NR 1.04 1 use default
NE 1. 92 1.5
ISE 6.67 E-12 amps o amps
NC 4.48 2
ISC 3.55 E-9 amps 0 amps
RB 40 ohms 0 ohms
RE 0.5 ohms 0 ohms
RC 10 ohms o ohms
IKF 4 E-3 amps infinite
IKR 3 E-3 amps infinite
VAF 48.2 volts infinite
VAR 7.3 volts infinite
CJE 23.0 E-12 farads o farads
VJE 0.85 volts 0.75 Yolts
(
MJE 0.4 0.33
CJC 19.4 E-12 farads o farads
VJC 0.5 volts 0.75 Yolts
MJC
0.4 0.33
TF 5.2 E-I0 seconds o seconds
TR 34.4 ~ seconds o seconds
t
(
EXAMPLE:
ACTUAL TEST OF 2N2907 PNP TRANSISTOR
I
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SPICE RUN OF 2N2907 TRANSISTOR MODEL
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SPICE ANALYSIS OF OUT. OUT on 1-03-B6 pige 1
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CH 1 IOB(VICI V5 VBE CURSOR LEFT RIGHT DIFFERENCE
YSCALE 20DBA/DIV
VlERO -96.0 DBA VER -52.B DBA -31. 4 DBA 21. 4 DBA
XSCALE 100MV/DIV
XlERO 700MV HOR b90MV 900MV 210MV
CH 2 IOBIVIBl V5 VBE CURSOR LEFT RIGHT DIFFERENCE
YSCALE 20DBA/OIV
VlERO -96.0 DBA VER -134 DBA -93. 1 DBA 40.9 DBA
XSCALE 100MV/DIV
XlERO 700MV HOR 500MV 700MV 200MV
.MODEL PARAM PNP (lS=1.10E-12 BF=202 BR=b NF=1.21 RB=700.0
+ RC=IO.O RE=0.74 IKF=750E-3 IKR=3.0E-3 VAF=4B.2 VAR=7.3
+ NC=4.483 ISC=3.55E-9 NR=I.22 NE=1.92 ISE=b.b7E-12
+ TF=5.2E-IO CJE=23.0E-12 VJE=0.85 MJE=1.254 CJC=19.4E-12
VJC=O.5 MJC=O.20 TR=34.3E-9)
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SPICE ANALYSIS OF OUT.OUT on 1-03-S6 p.ge I

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CH 1 IDBlVIE) vs VBC CURSOR LEFT RIGHT DIFFERENCE
YSCALE 20DBA/DIV
VZERO -100.0 DBA VER -55.3 DBA -21. 8 DBA 33.5 DBA.
XSCALE 100MV/DIV
XlERO 600MV HOR 670MV 900MV 230MV
CH 2 IDB(VIB) vs VBC CURSOR LEFT RIGHT DIFFERENCE
YSCALE 20DBA/DIV
VZERO -100.0 DBA VER -117 DBA -60.B DBA S6.1 DBA
XSCALE IOOMV/DIV
Xl ERD 600MV HOR 495MV 710MV 215MV
.MODEL PARAM PNP (IS=I.IOE-12 BF=202 BR=6 NF1.21 RB=1.5
+ RC=.5 RE
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O.74 IKF=750E-3 IKR=IOOE-3 VAF=48.2 VAR=7.3
NC=4.483 ISC=3.55E-9 NR=I.22 NE=1.92 ISE=6.67E-12
TF=5.2E-IO CJE=23.0E-12 VJE=0.85 MJE=1.254 CJC=19.4E-12
+ VJC=0.5 MJC=0.20 TR=34.3E-9)
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SPICE ANALVSIS OF TRACE, OUT on 1-03-86 page I
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CH I I (VIC) vs VCE
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XSCALE 50MV/DIV
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CURSOR
VER
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397MV
DIFFERENCE
8.35MA
397MV
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RC=l RE=O,74 IKF=750E-3 IKR=3E-3 VAF=48.2 VAR=7. 3
NC=4.483 15C=3,55E-9 NR=1.72 NE=I.92 ISE=6.67E-12
TF=5.2E-lO CJE=23,OE-12 VJE=O.B5 MJE=I.254 CJC=19.4E-12
VJC=O.5 MJC=O.20 TR=34.3E-9\
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SPICE ANALYSIS OF RT-2907.0UT on 1-03-86 1
----
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CH 1 V(I) vs TIME CURSOR LEFT RIGHT DIFFERENCE
VSCALE 5V/OIV
YIERO -23.0 V VER 0.00 V -16.0 V -16.0 V
XSCALE 10NSEC/DIV
HERO 50.0NSEC HOR 2.00FSEC 99.5NSEC 99.5NSEC
CH 2 VI3J vs TI ME CURSOR LEFT RIGHT DIFFERENCE
VSCALE 5V/DIV
YlERO -10.4 V VER -30.0 V -28.0 V 2.05 V
XSCALE 10NSEC/DIV
HERO 50.0NSEC HOR 10.0NSEC 16.5NSEC b.50NSEC
1100EL PARMI PNP (IS=1.10E-12 BF=202 BR=b NF=1.21 R8=350
RC=10 RE=0.74 IKF=4.0E-3 lKR=3.0E-3 VAF=48.2
T NC=4.483 ISC=3.55E-9 NR=I.22 NE=1.92 ISE=b.b7E-12
+ TF=5.2E-I0 CJE=23.0E-12 VJE=O.85 MJE=1.254 CJC=19.4E-12
+ VJC=O.5 MJC=O.20 TR=34.3E-Q)
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SPICE ANALYSIS OF FT-2907.0UT on 1-03-Bo pige I
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CH I V( II Vi TI ME CURSOR LEFT RIGHT DIFFERENCE
YSCALE 10V/DIV
YlERO -35.0 V VER -30.0 V 0.00 V 30.0 V
XSCALE 10NSEC/DIV
XlERO 50.0NSEC HOR 2.00FSEC 99.5NSEC 99.5N5EC
CH 2 V(31 vs TIME CURSOR LEFT RIGHT DIFFERENCE
YSCALE 500MV/DIV
YlERO V VER -4.31 V -4.4B V -170MV
X5CAlE ION5EC/DIV
XlERO 50.0N5EC HOR IO.ON5EC 12.5N5EC 2.50N5EC
.MODEl PARAM PNF' 115=1.IOE-12 BF=202 BR=6 NF=1.21 RB=1.5K
+ RC=!O RE=O.74 IKF=4.0E-3 VAF=4B.2 VAR=7.3
+ NC=4.483 15C=3.55E-9 NE=I.92 15E=6.67E-12
+ TF=5.2E-l0 CJE
a
23.0E-12 VJE=O.85 MJE=I.254 CJC-19.4E-12
+ VJC=O.5 MJC=O.20 TR=34.3E-91
.
.
INTRODUCTION:
SPICE contains "built-in" equations for the Gummel-Poon model
of a PNP Bipolar Junction Transistor. The model diagram and
defining equations are listed in the following section. Of the
40 parameters used to characterize the transistor, 25 of them have
have been calculated to customize the Gummel-Poon model to simulate
the 2N2907A PNP BJT.
BACKGROUND:
JA = non-ideal forward region base current
JB = ideal forward region base current
JC = non-ideal inverse region base current
JD = ideal inverse region base current
JF = forward region dependent current
JR = inverse region dependent current
CC = collector junction capacitance
CE = emitter junction capacitance
RC = collector bulk resistance
RB = base bulk resistance
RE = emitter bulk resistance
Rl = collector-base junction leakage resistance*
R2 = emitter-base junction leakage resistance*
* not included in SPICE model
.'
************ USER'S GUIDE TO USING THE 'BUILD' COMMAND ************
BUILD.BAT is a batch command file run on an IBM PC's Disk Operating'
System and used in conjunction with Intusoft's SPICE program. BUILD
allows an operator the freedom to run a specific model card in any
particular circuit layout without having to edit the circuit. After
the circuit is completed, BUILD automatically runs SPICE on the circuit.
The format to execute BUILD. BAT is
BUILD <circuit> <model name> <output file name>
where,
<circuit> =circuit files ending with the filename extension
of .TST
<model name> = model card files ending with the filename
extension of .MOD
<output file name> = the name of the completed circuit
NOTES: 1. The filename extensions are omitted in the command.
2. If the batch command needs to be terminated at any
time, type <CTL> <BREAK>.
3. Do not use any output file name identical with either
the circuit file name or the model card name. If this
happens, BUILD may delete a current file in the process.
4. The circuit files which are named with simply the type of
device (i.e. -PNP,-NPN) are generic in nature. They can
be used to test the model card of any specific device. These
tests will help in the tweaking and altering of device
parameters in the model card.
FWD-PNP.TST
FWD-NPN.TST
REV-PNP.TST
REV-NPN.TST
TRC-PNP.TST
TRC-NPN.TST
RT-2907.TST
RT-2222.TST
FT-2907.TST
FT-2222.TST
The current list of circuit files include:
- forward DC characteristics test
forward DC characteristics test
reverse DC characteristics test
reverse DC characteristics test
- collector trace curves of a PNP
collector trace curves of a NPN
- rise time test of a 2N2907A PNP
rise time test of a 2N2222A NPN
- fall time test of a 2N2907A PNP
fall time test of a 2N2222A NPN
The current list of model cards include:
2907.MOD - 2N2907A bipolar PNP transistor
2222.MOD - 2N2222A bipolar NPN transistor
of a PNP transistor
of a NPN transistor
of a PNP transistor
of a NPN transistor
transistor
transistor
transistor
transistor
transistor
transistor
Example:
If an operator wants to run the collector trace curves of the
2N2907A transistor, the command would be
BUILD TRC-PNP 2907 CURVES
where the built card would be called CURVES.CIR and the SPICE
output would be called CURVES. OUT. Remember that the filename
extensions are omitted in the command.
, .
,
'>DIR
Vol UfllE:! in cJr i C hi."s no 1
Dlrecto,'Y uf C:\SPICE\CIRCUITS\KH\CALLAHAN
<DIR>
<DIR>
11-11-85 11:55a
11-1. 1-85 1 I. : 55a
T1
I) 12-:15-85 8: 17a
BUILD BAT 48
lO:42a
END OAT 9 12-13-85 4: 40p
SPICE DOC 52642
1(1-1 ::'j -85 8: ll4a
HJD-F'NP TST 166 12--13-85 4: 47p
FWD--NF'N TST 167 12-1 :::-8::; 4: 49p
REV-PNF' TST 166 12-15-85 8:09a
REV-NPN TST 166 12-14-85 2:33p
TRC-PNP TST 190 12-14-85 lO:26a
TRC-NPN TST 190 12-14-85 10:27a
RT-2907 TST 243 12-14-85 1 j : 08a
RT-2222 TST 247 12-14-8;j 11: 12a
FT-2907 TST 403 12-14-85 1.1 : 16a
FT--2222 TST :576 1.2-14-85 11:21a
2907 MOD 283 12-14-8:3 1 1 : 19",

110D 205 12--14-'85 1 I.: .' .L . .t.
USER MAhl TXT 12-1 8: 48a
19 Fi.le(s) 15278(18 f,. E.\(-?
)SUILD.BAT
COPY Xl.TST + X2.MOD + END.DAl X3.CIR
IS X3.CIR
)ENUJI
'"

.,
/
)2907.MOD
.MODEL PARAM PNP BF=202 BR=6 NF=I".21 RB=350.0
+ RC=10.0 RE=O.74 IKF=4.0E-3 IKR=3.0E-3 VAF=48.2 VAR=7.3
+ ISC=3.55E-9 NR=I.22 NE=I.92 ISE=6.67E-12
+ TF=5.2E-lC) MJE=1.254
+ VJC-O.S MJC=O.20 TR=34.3E-91
)?222.MOD
.MODEL PARAM NPNIIS=I.9E-14 BF=IS0 VAF=100 IKF=.17S ISE=5E-II NE=2.5
+ BR=7.5 VAR=6.38 IKR-.035 ISC-S.7E-12 NC-I.S RE=.41 RC=.4
+ CJE=26PF TF=. 15[-9 CJC=(IPF TR=2E-9 NR=.8 KF=3.2E-171
"
)FWO-PNP. TST
FORWARD DC CHARACTERISTICS OF A PNP TRANSISTOR
..
G'PNP
:3,
I
VI8 1
-,
..
VBE
(I
2
VIC 3 4
VCE 0 4
..
DC 1.0V
. DC VSE .4V IV .05V
.PRINT DC I (VIB) I (VIC)
..
)FWO- NPN . TST
FORWARD DC CHARACTERISTICS OF A NPN TRANSISTOR
..
QNPN
::;;
1
VIS 2 1
V8E 2
(>
VIC 4 3
VCE 4
I)
..
o PARAM
DC 1. OV
. DC VRE .4V IV .05V
. ~ J I ~ l DC' I (V '[ 8) I (VI C)
..
'.
)REV-PNP. TST
REVERSE DC CHARACTERISTICS OF A PNP TRANSISTOR
*
QPNP 0 3 PARAM
VIS I 2
VSC 0

"-
VIE 3 4
VEC
(l
4 DC I . OV
*
.DC VSC .2V IV .05V
.PRINT DC leVIS) IeVIE)'
*
)REV-NPN .TST
REVERSE DC CHARACTERISTICS OF A NPN TRANSISTOR
*.
L1NF'N
(l j
VIS 2 1
VSC 2 0
VIE 4 3
VEC 4
I)
*
DC I.OV
.DC VSC .2V IV .05V
.PRINT DC I eVIS) I eVIE)
*.
\
)TRC - PNP. TST
COLLECTOR TRACE CURVES OF A PNP TRANSISTOR
*
QPNF' 2 1
(I
P I ~ R A M
IE< 4
(>
VIC 2 3
VCE (I
3
VIE< 1 4
*
.DC VCE OV .4V .02V IE< 10UA 50UA 10UA
.PRINT DC I(VIC)
.OPTIONS LIMPTS=1000
*
)TRC -NPI\j .TST
COLLECTOR TRACE CURVES OF A NPN TRANSISTOR
*
QNF'N 2 1
(I
PARAM
IE< a 4
VIC 3
...,
..
veE ~ 0
VIR 4 1
*
.ne veE 01,.' .4V .02V 18 lOlIA :::;OUA 10UA
F'RINT DC '[ (VIC)
,OPTIONS LIMPTS=1000
'.
"
11
r-
8.:
I,
-,
T "
1'"
-
.
I 0 PULSE 1-30V OV IONS INS INS 200NS IOOONS)
I 2 lfWHMS
.;, 2 0 PARAM
4 3 370HMS
4 0 -6V
2 5 If<OHMS
2
(I
DIODE
5 0 I :;v
, t
I"
>FT -2907. TST
FALL TIME TEST OF 2N2907 PNP TRANSISTOR

VIN
RI
QPNP
R37
vee
R2
01
VI5
*
.MODEL DIODE DIRS-.464 eJO-l.37PF IS=I.29E-9 N=I.78 VJ-.6
+ TT=I.15E-8 M=.OI81 BV=125V I8V=IOOUA)
*
.TRAN INS lOONS
.PRINT TRAN VIII V(2) V(3)
.OPTIONS LIMPTS-500
*
___0"
_30,,---'
\
>FT - 2222. TST
FALL TIME TEST FOR 2N2222A NPN TRAMSISTOR
..

Rlf<
QNPN
R20n
vee
OJ
I
(I
PULSE ( 16. 2V
_J-'.. 8V
I 2 lKOHMS
3 "
t)
F'ARr\t'1 .
'I 3
4
t)
30V
0
'2.
DIODE
1'.>NS J "S 1 t,IS 700NS 212NS)
"
DJllDF DIRS .'If,4 1:":71-< TSc).;"-IE'-9 N"'!.78 \/,1-.6\1
,. T I - J .. j (>.\ 81 l<V .. J :.. :N l8V' I (Ii)!JI'I'

. 1 NS
.PRINT TRAN VIII Vl21 V(3)
TIONS L. I MF'TS<:.iOO
.'
)RT-2907.TST
RISE TIME TEST FOR 2N2907A TRANSISTOR
*
VIN I 0 PULSE IOV -16V IONS INS INS 200NS luOONS)
RIK 1 2 IKOHMS
l1PNP 3 2 0 PARAM
R200 4 3 2000HMS
vee 4 0 -30V
*
.TRAN .5NS lOONS
.PRINT TRAN VIII V(2) VI31
.OPTIONS
*
\J Cc.
O'-L

>RT - 2222. TST
RISE TIME lEST FOR 2N2222n NPN TRANSISTOR
*
""
VIN I 0
R619 I 2
QNPN 3 2 (I
4 ..:'
vee 4 0
..
PULSE lOV
6190HMS
F'ARAM
200DHI1S
30V
9.9V IONS INS INS 200NS 1000NSI
. . I (lONS
. TRAN V( J 1 V(7) v n 1
.OPll0NS
..


1
lOOA
1
I>
r
REFERENCES:
1. HOOVER, J.W. "HANDBOOK OF SEMICONDUCTOR MODELING FOR SPICE2",
MCDONNELL DOUGLAS CORP. AUGUST 1983
3. GETREU, IAN "MODELING THE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR", TEKTRONIX INC.,
BEAVERTON OR, 1976
4. YOUNG P.A. ALEXANDER D.R. ANTINONE R.T., SIMON, ROBERT G.
"HANDBOOK OF MODLEING FOR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS-INCLUDING RADIATION
EFFECTS", BDM CORPORATION, ALBUQUERQUE, NH
AFWL-TR-79-86, AIR FORCE WEAPONS LABORATORY, KIRTLAND AIRFORCE
BASE, ALBUQUERQUE NM available from DEFENSE TECHNICAL
INFORMATION CENTER as AD A071857
5. NAGEL, LAURENCE W., "SPICE2: A COMPUTER PROGRAM TO SIMULATE
SEMICONDUCTOR CIRCUITS", MEMORANDUM No. ERL-M520, ELECTRONICS
RESEARCH LABORATORY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY,
BERKELEY, CA.
6. BOWER, J.C., ENGLISH, N., NIENHAUS. E.A., "PARAMETER
DETERMINATION TECHNIQUES FOR THE GUMMEL-PooN TRANSISTOR MODEL"
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA, TAMPA, FL. '
and yet another
DEFINITIVE HANDBOOK OF MODELING SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
subtitled "Modeling can be fun!"
Contains Procedures for
MODELING DIODES & TRANSISTORS
Contributions By
Charles E. Hymowitz
Kenneth Horita
Jeff T. Robson
Kirk T. Ober
January, 14 1986
CONTENTS
I. Introduction
II. Diode Modeling Methodology
III. Conclusion
APPENDICES
A. Sample SPICE Listings
B. Calculation Summary
C. Manufacturers' Data Sheets

I. INTRODUCTION
The behavior of a diode model relies heavily on a set of prescribed
parameters. These parameters govern the overall electrical habits of the
device. Some parameters are readily available from a manufacturers data
sheet for a given device. Other parameters are not as evident or must be
calculated from bias data. In some cases parameters are not given in the
data sheets so circuits must be developed to measure them.
An understanding of diode modeling is fundamental to the task of modeling
any semiconductor device.
r-:-
VD

1---.
0
CD
Spice diode model
The following pages contain procedures on how to derive the parameters
necessary for SPICE to model a semiconductor diode. In particular, the
lN5811 rectifier and lN4148 switching diodes are modeled here but the
procedure may be applied to other diodes. Sample calculations for several
parameters appear at the end of the procedures.
A comparison is made between the model and the actual device for the
transient time experiment. SPICE was run on an IBM-PC with graphics by
INTUSOFT.
II. DIODE MODELING METHODOLOGY
The foundation of all diode models is the diode equation which relates the
forward diode current to the forward diode voltage. Forward bias data on
a diode is both easily obtained and yield three important SPICE parameters.
These parameters are the emission coefficient (N), the saturation current
(Is) and the parasitic (ohmic) resistance (Rs). The basic diode equation
(SEE equation 2) gives the gross first order I/V characteristic. In
circuits where the details of the diode response are important to proper
operation, additional model parameters must be included to simulate second
order effects. The variation of the default Spice diode curve as each
parameter is added, can be seen on the next page. For example, the emission
coefficient, N, shifts the curve up and down, particularly in the non-ideal
region. Whereas, the bulk resistance affects the curve in the high ohmic
region by bending the curve. In addition to the methods of laboratory data
measurement and data sheet parameter extraction, one of the quickest ways
to obtain a fairly accurate model for a particular application is to
parameter "tweak". This is done by inserting "Ball Park" numbers into the
model and "tweaking" the parameters until simulated curves look like
some known data curves such as those from a data sheet. This procedure is
discussed in greater detail in the Transistor Modeling procedures.

Obtaining the desired data is done through use of a log ID vs VD graphs in

the forward region. Most data sheets supply these graphs from which data
may be extracted. A more accurate way is to obtain the data
experimentally and plot the graph manually or through the use of a
computer graphics package such as SOFT_SCOPE (by INTUSOFT).
-"
c
lOCAL (IlARACT(RIST!C
/'
/'
/'
/'
/'
/ '.o:n ['l[,l,l 0:
/'
/'
/'
/'
/'

H/(,H iIlJCTIOfI RCCoIO'J
KOOIO(Al R(GION
c
HIGtl R[GIOrl
c
tlONIOAl R[GIOu
'0
Inclusion of H\qh InjectIon
0'11 Ie R(G ION
- -qVollKT - - - HIr.H IIlJ(CT lOr. R(OIO"
I"
----------
ttl,}1110[:'l j)[G!Crl
'0
Inclusion of Bulk Res;st4nce
lOW IHJtC' 1011
'0
The following circuit will yield the data necessary for a forward current
versus voltage plot for a 1N4148 diode.
The following data.
collected.
ID (mA)
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
10.0
20.0
50.0
100.0
200.0
500.0
1000.0
an average of readings for several diodes, was
VD (volts)
0.4877
0.5232
0.5689
0.6037
0.6402
0.6902
0.7328
0.7784
0.8621
0.9495
1. 073
1. 277
1.780
Similar data was compiled for the IN5811 diode using the same test circuit
with different voltage supply and resistance values:
ID (A) VD (volts)
.01 0.5341
.02 0.5635
.05 0.6032
0.1 0.6344
0.2 0.6657
0.5 0.7068
1.0 0.7277
2.0 0.7402
5.0 0.8366
8.0 0.8514
Applying this data results in the following plots.
I, ' , .,-1/, : . ./ I..
( ,.
. '
,
,
, ,
i
,
i-
"
I
I
I
1
'1--':' .------ii---'--t-'-I=----'-'-j----'-H -+-:.........--+----'......:..1----/-.....:.-T!+-----1
'1 I
" .
-'t:o ..-'-'l_ -l 1-''':3-'33''-- ' ; '-'==8-' "1'1' _:" .. ... . ...., .
-l.---t-
l
-,- _ 'I::j-- . I- -,-.-._- - L-t=" -_'..:_.:.=:=:=,===' ..:_::::_==-1=:
2 -.' .-.0_.- _1_ 1_ - _1 __ 1_ _' 1-" ._._ .. _ _. '_l 1_ I
I.
3 ----+---+--:---+---I'/----!----+----I----!---I-/----'1
)", -f-f::El=:i:;:
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1----11----1----+--/--+----1---- .-'----------
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I
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. - . - I .: c'I ---1':"-'-- -,-:-1- -: -.-.
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I 7
Iii /
/ __ =.=:=-=-'1=+_-t Ii!-_r--__ -t- .. -_-:-==
,----j ----.- - ;----=.---1=---
-J----j----!---t-------- ----1-- -
, -----,----1-------'- I __.__---1 ---.-,---- _. --- -.-
I------t- ---- l... _. -- j -. -1--..-----'--- -L----J-- -J_
i I!'!
I
I I
0./ -----1--' - !--
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,
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,
A. Determination of N
The analyst who wishes to simulate diode performance over several decades
of current will realize that the ideal diode equation is not sufficient
because most diodes do not have an ideal characteristic. The non-ideal
region of the diode can be modeled as an emission constant (N) in the
diode equation. N is determined by choosing two points from the straightest
portion of the forward bias graph. These data points are then applied
to the following equation:
N = VD2-VD1/(VT*ln(ID2/ID1 Eq. #1
where Vt (thermal voltage) = KT = .025875 (at 300K).
K (Boltzman's Constant) = 8.62 x 10-5 ev/K
T (junction temperature in Kelvin)
The value of N typically lies between 1 and 2.
B. Determination of Is
The reverse saturation current, Is, is the amount of current a diode
would conduct over a large range of reverse bias voltage. Ideally,
this is the flat (constant current) region between initial reverse
bias and breakdown. Practically, this region is not very flat so
graphically obtaining this value could lead to erroneous results.
Is is however obtained using the following equation which is based on
a chosen operating point in the forward bias region (Pick a point on
the linear portion of the forward characteristic). Typical values
are on the order of 10-12 amperes, however, a variation in the range of
several orders of magnitude is not uncommon. The Is parameter affects
the shape of the forward characteristic, especially in the non-ideal
region.
IS = ID/(exp(VD/(n*VT-l)
C. Determination of Rs
Eq. #2
The parasitic or ohmic resistance Rs of a diode may be determined from
the plot of forward current versus voltage. Two points are chosen
from the high ohmic region of the graph. This is the curved region of
the forward bias graph. One point is chosen directly on the curve. The
second point is located at the intersection of the first points'
current level and an extrapolation of the straight line region of the
curve to a different voltage level. Both points should have the same
current level in common but different voltage values. Rs can then be
calculated as follows (refer to figure 1).
RS = ~ V I Eq. #3
Typical values for Rs are around or under 1 Ohm. In Spice. RS is
modeled as a linear resistance and will greatly affect the forward
characteristic of ID vs. VD in the high ohmic region.
Reverse Characteristics
Reverse bias data for a diode is necessary to obtain two more SPICE
parameters. These parameters are reverse breakdown voltage (BV) and
reverse current at breakdown voltage (IBV). In general, fairly good
values for BV and IBV may be obtained from device data sheets. These
values may also be obtained experimentally. The following circuit may
be used to measure reverse voltage versus current values:
L-__......L -l ""'II-.e----l
The following data is an average of several measurements for the 1N4148
and 1N5811 diodes.
VD ID(uA)
15 .14
30 .19
45 .227
60 .260
75 .290
90 .320
105 .352
120 .393
135 .440
150 .570
165 1.24
180 3.13
195 8.64
200 24.60
VD
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
ID(uA)
.01
.01
.01
.015
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02
.025
.03
.05
.10
3.27
Figures 3 and 4 are the plots representing the collected data.
I
j-'
I

11." l ~ - ~ -'r- '0

i
-- ---r-
I
I
I
- ... -
I
_ . . __J
i
.. j..
I
- - ~
1-/----+------._-. ---
-- ._.J--,--+_.- I
D.I .-----.,,.--.-. - - - - - - ~ - I ~ ~ - - - j ~ - - - - - - I-C=1-----'-J
I
-
I. ~ -
.J
I
I
,
I
i
.-t .... - -- -
, I
.... -- -- -- -1------ ----
I ----, ---.. f
""." __ .".. ,..L,..,..."_,,,..,._.."j'..._. ., ...1.. ...
_.. J
A. Determination of BV and IBV
From the BV may be obtained by extrapolating the straight line
portion of the breakdown curve. IBV cannot accurately be obtained
from the curve. However, knowledge of the maximum power dissipation
rating and BV is enough to yield IBV.
As an example from the data sheets for the lN5811:
Minimum Breakdown Voltage @ 100mA = 160V
Graphically the BV for the lN5811 is 135V (see figure 3).
Depletion Region Capacitance
An analysis of the capacitance in this region usually referred to as
junction capacitance yields not only the SPICE parameter CJO but also
aids in the determination of junction potential (VJ) and grading
coefficient (M).
By including the parameters CJO and M the accuracy of transient
analysis is greatly improved.
Determination of CJO
Some data sheets specifically state CJO. When CJO is not available
from the data sheets, an experimental approach must be used.
Through the use of an HP4271 LCR meter junction capacitance as a
function of bias voltage data can be collected; specifically, the
capacitance at zero bias. These values are typically in the pico-
farad range. The default value for CJO is zero. Experience with Spice
has shown failure in DC convergence and excessive iterations in
transient analysis with CJO=O. It is recommended that a CJO value of at
least 2 picofarads be used in all diode models.
Determination of VJ and M
With the same test set up used to find CJO, obtain more
capacitance values in the reverse bias range.
Once this data is collected, determination of VJ and calculation of M
can be accomplished through graphical techniques.
The technique involves first guessing a value for VJ (typically about
O.6V) and then plotting the resultant value of CJ as a function of
(VJ-VD) on log-log paper. If the resulting curve is a straight line,
the guess for VJ is correct. Should a concave down curve be obtained,
decrease the value of the VJ guess and replot the graph.
'!: ;
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i: . ,: I ' . : : : ': ::, I:: ;:: .
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I
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J
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j i !
, -eli- I ! I ________! __.-1 _
I! I
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.. L---.l.I_-'L..--.L.!0+--'1_.!-L'--,--..L".,L_, ._L.. _!..
J I '1 !J B 9 10 I 1 J

-1---1--1---1-- - _. -,---1-- --_.- -- --I-'-..-1-'- - -- _.
I I I
t2'
,., :f:Li iji il1i8W !Ilijlll; IT; j!ii ii'" "I'U I,'j' Hij',' H"j i pi j ;' :;i Ii iii j I: :il:,il'l; i!i::H '1'".; 'It: : ,'iii :j.;:+; "i: ;::: ,i:: ::,:
__ .1r." ..1.T... !!.', ..... ..j .... r:": 11.1 III It .... 1. .. , .. " ......, .j H:,.1. .. 1.. , .. 1.1 : .
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--'-----,--- ]--'t '
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" .
,.,
o
"

" .
,
"
" ,
V:r-VD (llol-b)
FI,"\.AR.E b
,
.. ,;' -
Once a straight line is obtained, M is.calculated as follows:
M= -[(log(Ctl)-log(Ct2!(log(VD1)-log(VD2)
Eq. #4
Mis typically 0.333 (graded Junction) and 0.5 (step junction) but may
be much less for gold doped junctions.
the 1N5811 and 1N4148 diodes, the following data was
compiled for the reduced C-V plot (see figures 5 and 6).
corresponding grading coefficient for each diode is also
collected and
The
calculated.
As can be seen by the graphs, both diodes exhibit junction potentials
of 0.6V.
Transient Time
When a forward biased diode is abruptly reverse biased, there is a
discrete amount of time which elapses before the diode is no longer
conducting. This amount of time is called the reverse recovery time
(trr) .
Some data sheets indicate trr and the test values used to obtain it.
When this data is not available, the following test set up may be
employed.
OUT
r
10
SCOPf
\00
o v
U

1 '0
I
.41 ..J
t STORAG( r/1.(
I

1N5811 Reverse Recovery Time Test Circuit
Figures 7 and 8 are the results of tests performed on the 1N5811 and
1N4148 using this circuit. Spice analysis of these circuits follow
verifying the model against the laboratory data.
Determination of TT
""- VO-O
,
(:
(
I I
I
tsd I
- I
r
IO
From the data sheets for the 1N4148, a reverse recovery time trr is
given as 5 ns at IF = IR = 10 rnA and RL = 100 ohms. The reverse recovery
time is best explained graphically as follows:
If
where t = -(RL+RS)*CJO*ln[.lIR/IF].
and tsd is the storage delay time.
therefore trr = tsd + t
Applying the equations to the lN4148 data we find:
t = -(100+.78)(4pf)ln(.01) = .928uS
Eg. #5
Eq. #6
Eq. #7
therefore, tsd = trr -t
= 4.07ns
The SPICE parameter transient time (TT) is obtained through the
following equation:
TT = tsd/(ln[l+ IF/IR]) Eq. #8
Experimentally, TT
discussed earlier.
40 ns. Therefore:
is found by extracting trr from the circuit
For the lN5811 (see figure 6) trr is approximately
t = -(100+.0052)(117pf)ln(.01) = 26.94ns
tsd = trr - t =13.06ns
TT = 13.06/1n(2) = 18.84ns
The transit time parameter, TT, may be left at the Spice default value
of zero where reverse recovery time is not important in the particular
circuit application.
Miscellaneous
SPICE models reverse breakdown with the parameters BV & IBV. If BV is
not included in the model, the diode will not break down at any value
of reverse voltage.
The Spice diode does not contain a leakage resistance. Incorporation of
a fixed resistor in parallel with the diode has been found to improve
the running time, and sometimes required to prevent termination of a
run, where the diode is switching and especially where the diode is
used as a ZENER diode. An arbitrary value of 100 MEG ohms may be used
for many circuit applications. Otherwise, a value may be calculated
from a data sheet reverse current vs. reverse voltage graph. Use the
equation;
RC = VD/ID Eq. #9
The data points used should be at least several volts away from the
reverse breakdown point.
The SPICE parameters XTI &EG are used.for temperature analysis the
following values are typical for these parameters:
XTI = Saturation Current temperature exponent
3.0 for Junction diodes *
2.0 for Schottky-Barrier diodes
EG = Activation Energy in electron volts
1.11 for Si *
0.69 for Schottky-Barrier diodes
0.67 for Ge
* SPICE defaults to these values.
SPICE parameters flicker noise coefficient (KF), flicker noise
exponent (AF) and coefficient for forward bias depletion capacitance
are not covered in this study.
Conclusions
When finding TT experimentally, great care must be taken when
assembling a test set up. Using a copper clad breadboard is strongly
recommended. Also needed is a pulse generator which has both a fast
transition time and an output amplitude around lOY. The faster and
cleaner that your input pulse is, the better the accuracy of your
final results.
When at all possible, extraction of data from the manufacturers data
sheets is recommended since this data is a mean over a large number of
components and will be able to yield either a MIN, MAX, or TYPICAL
model depending on the data used.

1N4148 CALCULATIONS
from non-Ideal regIon
101 ; .1 rnA @.4877V
102; 2 rnA @.6402
N ; (V02-V01)/(Vt(ln(I02/I01)))
; (.6402-.4877)/( .026(ln(2/.1))) ; 1.9674
IS ; I01/[exp(V01/(N(Vt)) - 1)
; .001/[exp( .60371( .026(1.9674)) - 1) ; 7.0746E-9 A
from Ohm'c RegIon
RS ; dV/I03 103 ; lA @ 1. 78V
StraIght Extrapolated V ; IV
; (1.78 - 1)/1; .78 ohms
t ; -RC(ln(.I)) ; -(100)(4Pf)(ln(.1)) ; 9.21E-l0 Sec
tsd ; trr - t ; 7.079 NSec
trr ; 8 NSec
TT ; tsd/1n(2) ; 1.0213E-8 Sec
.. , ...
'I
lN5811 CalculatIons
from Non-Ideal RegIon
101 .05 rnA @ .6032V
102 =.1 mA @ .6344V
N = (V02-V01)/(Vt(ln(I02lI01) = 1.7396
IS = I01/[exp(V01/N(Vt - 1] = 75.695 pA
RS = dV/I03
= .0052 ohms
8A @ .8514V
t = -RC (In(.l)) = -(100j(117pf)(ln(.1
= 3.108E-6 Sec
trr = 40 NSec from PIcture
tsd = trr - t = 40 - 31.08 = 8.915 NSec
TT = tsd/ln(2) = 12.86 Nsec
,

. ' .
.'

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,
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..
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'.
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\
C>TYPE IN4148.CIR
'N4148 REVERSE RECOVERY TIME ANALYSIS
MODEL DIODE DlRS=.78 CJO=4PF IS=7.0746E-09 N=I.9674 VJ=.6V
TT=5.8847E-09 M=.448 BV=100VI
01 3 6 DIODE
VR 5 0 PWLlO 0 5N 0 5.5N -0.5 6N -1.25 6.5N -2 7N -2.75 7,5N -3.5
.8N -4.25 8.5N -5 9N -5.75 9.5N -6.5 ION -7.25 10.5N -8.0 liN -8.75
.11.5N -9.5 12N -10.25 12.5N -11 13.5N -11.75 14.5N -12,5 15.5N -13.25
.16.5N -14 24N -13.5 25N -13 26N -12.5 27N -12 2SN -11.5 29N -II 34N -11
.35N -11.25 37N -11.75 39N -12 42N -12.25 45N -12.5 4SN -12.75 65N -13
.70N -13.25 SON -13.5 90N -13.75 lOON -141
VS I 0 DC 17.5
R1 I 2 100
Cl 2 (I .47UF
R2 2 3 100
C2 3 5 .47UF
VMD 6 7
R6 7 0 100
.TRAN .5NS 200NS
.PRINT TRAN !lVMDI V(5)
.OPTIONS LIMPTS = 500
.END
C>
SPICE ANALYSIS OF IN4148.0UT on 8-26-85 page
.--'-r- ---,-'--.,---r'--,---,----,----',----,-----

<, '\
--.--
..;r:"
t---'I,,--.::--..--- -------- ----- ,-----1------ ----,------ ----.. ----
f--'-...... .... ..... ............-... -+-+-+--..: .....- - .............. - -+-+ -............
,--_.. --,---
-
-=-- ---. ---

,-_._,- -,_._---- _.._---,- ----------

'--__ .. , .'-__..L.. c-, , .. _
.0\ 1" .........
CH 1 I(VMDl vs TIME
YSCALE 20MA/DIV
YlERO 36.0MA
XSCALE 2NSEC/DIV
XZERO 12.6NSEC
CH 2 V(SI vs TIME
YSCALE 5V/DIV
YlERO -23.0 V
XSCALE SNSEC/DIV
XZERO 26.5NSEC
CURSOR
VER
HOR
CURSOR
VER
HDR
LEFT
B3.3UA
B.90NSEC
LEFT
0.00 V
1. SONSEC
RIGHT DIFFERENCE
-5.31MA -5.40MA
13.9NSEC 5.00NSEC
RIGHT DIFFERENCE
-12.8 V -12.8 V
SI.5NSEC 50.0NSEC
C>TYPE IN5BIl.CIR
'N5BII REVERSE RECOVERY TIME ANALYSIS
I 3 b DIODE
,MODEL DIODE DIN;1,739b RS;.0052 CJO;135PF IS;75.b95E-12 VJ;,bV
M;.37b BV=lbOV IBV=IOOUA TT=12.BbNSI
VR 5 0 PWLID 0 5N 0 5.5N -.5 bN -I b.5N -1.5 7N -2 7.5N -2.5
.BN -3 B.5N -3.5 9N -4 9.5N -4.5 ION -5 10.5N -5.5 liN -b 11.5N
'-b.5 12N -7 12.5N -7.5 13N -B 20N -7.9 21N -7.B 22N -7.7 23N -7.b 24N -7.5
.25N -7.4 2bN -7.3 27N -7.2 2BN -7.1 29N -7.0 30N -b.9 31N -b.B 32N -b.7
'33N -b.b 34N -b.5 3bN -b.b 3BN -b.7 40N -b.B 42N -b.9 44N -7 4bN -7.1
t4BN -7.2 50N -7.3 52N -7.4 bON -7.5 bBN -7.b 74N -7.7 B2N -7.B 90N -7.9
HBN -BI
VS 1 0 DC 13
Rll2l00
Cl 2 0 .47UF
R2 2 3 100
C2 3 5 .47UF
VMD b 7
Rb 7 0 100
. TRAN .5NS 200NS
.PRINT TRAN !IVt1DI Vl51
.OPTIONS LIMPTS ; 500
.END
C>
'.
,
.... .11_
SPICE ANALYSIS OF IN5811.0UT on 8-26-85 page 1
r---,.----,.---- ----,.---- - -.-.-------.-----.-- ---._-

-
------- p'... __ ... ----;;;;: b-------. 1-------... ------
:L___ .. ....-__:
-_.-. '-"---""-'- __..__.- ,,_.._._-_.- ---_ __ .._--_ _._ _.._-_ _- ._-- - '--'-"-' .._.. _. '-' -- _-
-.-.-..-.. .-- -..--.--..--- .....--.._.--- -------r---"--- ---'--'-- -----.--..,,----.-- -,,---.--.-- --.----.-

", .i; .
. -,,- ---I --------. --- -7 ---,,---- ----- --_ .-- --..--. ---'--- .... ,,-- ...-- ------- ,,-----

CH 1 V(51 vs TIME CURSOR LEFT RiGHT DIFFERENCE
YSCALE 2V/DIV
VZERO -9.40 V VER -509NV -8.00 V -8.00 V
XSCALE 10NSEC/DIV
XlERO 51.0NSEC HOR 1.00NSEC lOlNSEC 100.ONSEC
CH 2 I IVMDI '5 TIME CURSOR LEFT RIGHT DIFFERENCE
YSCALE 20MA/DIV
VZ ERO 50.0MA VER 396UA -c.. 94MA -4.33MA
XSCALE IONSEC/DIV
Xl ERO 51.0NSEC HOR 9.00NSEC 49.0NSEC 40.0NSEC
r---......._
RtyttM
R"en<
-...
R".... rorw'fd
Ro<o<"" Cuntnl Junclion Forwlfd
T,po
Vollrt Volt,.t Tome @2S'C c"paCII,nce Currenl
lN4S6 30V 1.0@40mA
2SnA 90mA
IN4S7' 70V
1.0@20mA
25nA
75mA
lN4SS'
lSOV 1.0@7mA
25nA
55mA
IN459'
200V 1.0@3mA
2SnA
40mA
IN483B" 80V
1.0@ 100mA
2SnA 200mA
IN485B
200V 1.0@ loomA
25nA
200mA
IN64S
270V 1.0@4oomA
25nA 20pF 400mA
lN9l4
looV 1.0@ 10mA
5nS' 2SnA 4pF
7SmA
IN3064
7SV 1.0@ 10mA
4nS loonA 2pF 7SmA
lN3070 200V 1.0@ loomA
SOnS 100nA SpF lOOmA
lN3S9S
ISOV
.831.0@200mA
3"S
InA 8pF ISOmA
1N3600
7SV .54.62 @ ImA 4nS IOOnA 2.SpF 200mA
IN4148'" 100V 1.0@IOmA 4nS 2SnA 4pF 200mA
IN4149 7SV 1.0@ 10mA 4nS 25nA 2pF 200mA
IN4150
7SV .S4-.62@ ImA 4nS lOOnA 2.SpF 200mA
IN4lSI 7SV 1.0@SOmA 2nS SOnA 2pF 1SOmA
IN41S2 40V [email protected] 2nS SOnA 2pF 1SOmA
lN4153 7SV [email protected] 2nS SOnA 2pF I SOmA
IN4154 3SV 1.0@3OmA 2nS IDOnA 4pF l50mA
IN430S 7SV [email protected] 2nS IOOnA 2pF ISOmA
lN4444 70V [email protected] SOnA 2pf 200mA
IN4446 7SV 1.0@20mA 4nS 2SnA 4pF ISOmA
IN4447 7SV 1.0@20mA 4nS 2SnA 2pF 1SOmA
IN4448 7SV .62.72 @SmA 4nS 2SnA 4pF I SOmA
IN4449 7SV .63.73 @SmA 4nS 2SnA 2pF ISOmA
IN44S0 40V [email protected] 4nS SOnA 4pF 200mA
IN44S1 40V [email protected] 4nS SOnA 6pF 200mA
I N44S2 40V [email protected] SOnS SOnA 30pF 200mA
IN44S3 30Y [email protected] SOnA 30pF 200mA
IN4454 7SV 1.0@IOmA 2nS 100nA 2pF 200mA
lN4500 80V .64.72 @ IOmA 6nS lOOnA 4pF 300mA
lN4607 8SV 1.I @4oomA IOnS 100nA 4pf 400mA
SWITCHING AND GENERAL
PURPOSE DIODES
n JAN
AWlII.bl, n JAN, JANIK
".... I.bl' f\ JAN, JANIJ(, jANfJ('i
'.
UNITROO[ COflPOItATtON 'ORIES ItOAD
LUtNeTON, MA ClUJ f[l, I'm Ml-4S040
TWX enOl m,,!IOt T(LEX tHo&o4
619
PRODUCT SELECTION GUIDE
!
I
,.,... UD I0Il v,.
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. .

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_ .....
u
'.
J
,
o
11
's 100 12S ISO
I.SV lOOpl
1 SV 4Spf
"
T, _ltAO TtMP(A4tUA( I'CI
Output CUH.nt n, lud Temp.
l\. ...., II"U I
I
\.1
l l!"""
,...., "0"'1 '00,
\
"
'.'" \
"1.-
"'-
, ....
I'-. 1\
"-
t\.\
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004
..
ISns
lin.
".
INSII21NSlII
..,
3Sns., 1.01.00.IA
248
... w.
'" ,
)Ons, 1.0 \.0 O.IA
...
CASt T(MPtlIIAtUAt ,'CI
Output Current s. Cue Temp,
1\
II ..., U_III
,
1\
\
1\
\

"
"

,
u

a
<ll
I
"

n
"
u

>

......m.. m
Lell'l.
',p.t '0...... 11
'O...... d
CUH, .. ,
M..,mu"" A'''''Ui t,p.e.' 'o.....'d A.co...... , t,II,UI , .. t><t .....
VOII
@PlV
A.co....., t,me lI.cOw .., T,...e YolI'.e ...c.
0<00' n'c 100'C
'.. '.. '.,
f' \'" Iteto", 10 IV
@ ." II =t".
-lOY
.815@ IA I,A 5O,A lSns. O.SAO.SA O.OSA lin, 1.5V ISpl
.875@4A !l"A
.900 @ lOA IO... A
.. '" - .., -
.,. "".1
,:.::....
.,.1.1
....".
50V
I'V
100V
12SV
150V
50V
15V
100V

150V
50V
15V
1<XlV
12SV
150V

n 100 12S 1)0 I'S

" "
1.1 ..., u n
I I
l l,u. l'"""
"0"'1 800,
'R-

,
:'-.: I
"-
, .............
I--
.....
"
\ ...'
"'
"
"'
"
"'l
INS801
INS808
IN5809
INS810
INS811
lNS812
lNS813
INS814
INS8IS
INS816
INS801
INS803
IN_
INS80S
INS806
UNtTlIIOOt COlllPOA_TION ' S 'OABtS AO"'O
l(IUNGTON, MAo 011'1. tel. 16"1"'65"0
tWX alDI )HtSO' t(LU nI06"
ELECTRICAL SPECIFICATIONS ,.. tWe unless notedl
t,IM PlY
MECHANICAL SPECIFICATIONS
Output Current n. lud Temp.
", .1I .... hl.c:.It."t 'fiJI! numb" PI''''!fG on m.I,' CI"
, iI,: '''''00' '0 .1...11 eno
"' W';'''l: 1.0 Cit ... ,
, .. ".-II.lion '"e...ll,nll MI.l ......... " .. I.. b,,(,'ed 11,,<1 10'Q..I'
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