AS Biology Unit F212 Molecules, Biodiversity, Food and Health

2.1.1 Biological Molecules

(a) describe how hydrogen bonding occurs between water molecules, and relate this, and
other properties of water, to the roles of water in living organisms








Water is attracted to ions and polar substances so it is a good solvent.
Water is reactive so can be used during hydrolysis.

(b) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the structure of an amino acid

Structure of Amino acid








Example- Glycine







(c) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the formation and breakage of peptide bonds in the
synthesis and hydrolysis of dipeptides and polypeptides

Amino acids have the same general
structure, a carboxyl group and a
amino group (-NH
2
). The R group is
variable.
Condensation reaction where 2
amino acids form a peptide bond
between each other. Water is
produced as a result.
Hydrolysis reaction where peptide
bond is broken. Water is used as a
result of this.
Reversible reaction
(d) explain, with the aid of diagrams, the term
primary structure

(e) explain, with the aid of diagrams, the term
secondary structure with reference to hydrogen
bonding

(f) explain, with the aid of diagrams, the term
tertiary structure, with reference to hydrophobic
and hydrophilic interactions, disulfide bonds and
ionic interactions

Ionic interactions- weak attractions
between oppositely charged parts
of the molecule.
Disulphide bonds- 2 molecules of
animo acids close together, sulphur
atoms in them bond together.
(Cysteine).
Hydrophobic- water repelling groups near together in a protein clump.
Hydrophilic- water attracting groups are likely to be pushed outside, affecting
proteins final structure.


(g) explain, with the aid of diagrams, the term quaternary structure, with reference to the
structure of haemoglobin
Quaternary structure tends to be determined by the tertiary, when it involved multiple
polypeptides. Haemoglobin is a quaternary protein as it involves 4 polypeptide chains.

(h) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the structure of a
collagen molecule
Collagen is a strong protein that is fibrous. It is used as a
supportive tissue in animals. It consists of 3 polypeptide chains
that are bound tightly together in a triple helix held by
covalent bonds. Minerals can bind to increase rigidity.
Tendons are made mostly fro collagen.
Walls of the artery contain collagen to prevent it from
bursting ender high pressure.
Cosmetic use- on lips for fuller appearance.







(i) compare the structure and function of haemoglobin (as an example of a globular
protein) and collagen (as an example of a fibrous protein)

Haemoglobin Collagen
Globular protein Fibrous Protein
Large variety of amino acids in its
primary structure
35% of primary structure is glycine
Has a prosthetic group- haem group Doesnt contain a prosthetic group
Mostly wound into alpha helix structures Mostly left handed helix structures


(j) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the molecular structure of alpha-glucose as an example of a
monosaccharide carbohydrate













Monosaccharide carbohydrate, known as a
hexose (6 carbons) sugar in every molecule.
Solubility is dependant on structure so it can be
transported in water. Its the source of energy in
plants and animals, the chemical bonds contain a
lot of energy within them.
(k) state the structural difference between alpha- and beta-glucose













(l) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the formation and breakage of glycosidic bonds in the
synthesis and hydrolysis of a disaccharide (maltose) and a polysaccharide (amylose)



(m) compare and contrast the structure and functions of starch (amylose) and cellulose;









Structural difference- OH group is in
opposite ends.
Condensation- H
2
O removed!

Hydrolysis- H
2
O breaks
glycosidic bond.
Starch- is made up of many
glucose molecules. Starch acts as a
energy storage.

Cellulose- is made up of many
glucose molecules. Cellulose acts as
support, inside a plant cell wall it
helps strengthen it. Most animals
and plants do not have the enzyme
to break down cellulose.

(n) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the structure of glycogen

(o) explain how the structures of glucose, starch (amylose), glycogen and cellulose molecules
relate to their functions in living organisms
Carbohydrate Example Characteristics Function in
Organisms
Monosaccharide
monomers
Glucose (6 Carbon
sugar)
Small, soluble,
sweet, crystalline
Energy via
respiration
Deoxyribose (5
Carbon sugar)
Part of DNA
information molecule
Disaccharide dimers Maltose (2 glucoses) Small, soluble, sweet
& crystalline
Sugar obtained
when starch is
broken down in
hydrolysis, can be
split to glucose for
more respiration
Polysaccharide
polymers
Starch & glycogen Large molecules,
many alpha glucose
molecules joined by
condensation.
Insoluble in H
2
O and
form granules
Energy store in
plants as cellulose
and glycogen in
animals and fungi
Cellulose Large molecules of
many beta glucose
molecules joined by
condensation.
Insoluble in H
2
O and
are strong.
Structural in plants
for cell walls.


Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in animals.
It is made by 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds
making the molecule branched. This allows lots
of glucose to be released at a time of need.


(p) compare, with the aid of diagrams, the structure of a triglyceride and a phospholipid






















(q) explain how the structures of triglyceride, phospholipid and cholesterol molecules relate to
their functions in living organisms
Triglyceride molecules act as a energy storage. The hydrocarbon tails contain a lot of chemical
energy when broken down is released. Lipids release contains twice as much energy compared with
carbohydrates.
Triglycerides are hydrophobic so they repel water and do not affect water potential as it is not
soluble.
Phospholipids have a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail, the head faces outwards and the tail
faces inwards in the bilayer. This makes it difficult for Na+ ions and glucose molecules to pass
through.
Cholesterol is a lipid found in the cell membrane and provides mechanical stability to it, it is also
used to make steroids. It is made up of a hydrocarbon ring bonded with a hydrocarbon tail, the
hydrocarbon head has a hydroxyl group attached to it making it soluble.

Phospholipids are similar to
triglyceride, the exception being
that one fatty acid chain has
been replaced by a hydrophilic
phosphate head. The fat tail is
hydrophobic.
Phospholipids form the cell
membrane; this prevents water
soluble molecules from passing
through.


(r) describe how to carry out chemical tests to identify the presence of the following molecules:
protein (biuret test), reducing and non-reducing sugars (Benedicts test), starch (iodine solution)
and lipids (emulsion test)

Benedicts Test- Test For Reducing and Non-reducing Sugars


Reducing Sugars
Add Benedicts solution to the substance.
Heat to 80 degrees.
Reducing sugar= blue to brick red.
Non-reducing sugar= no colour change, stays blue.

Non-reducing sugars
Add HCl, and boil, hydrolysis will split the bonds.
e.g Sucrose= Glucose + Fructose.
Add Alkali to neutralize pH (NaCO
3
).
Add Benedicts solution to the substance.
Heat to 80 degrees.
Colour change= blue to brick red.

Iodine Test- Test for Starch
Add iodine to a potassium iodide solution to the sample.
Positive result= yellow/brown to dark blue/black (colour change).
Negative result= no visible change (colour stays the same).

Emulsion Test
Mix sample with ethanol. (Dissolves lipids).
Pour solution into water.
Positive result= milky white emulsion near top of water.

Biuret Test
Add Biuret Reagent to sample. (Reagent contains sodium hydroxide and copper sulphate).
Reacts with peptide bonds in protein.
Positive result= Solution turning purple means
there is protein.
Negative result= No change, stays blue.



(s) describe how the concentration of glucose in a solution may be determined using colorimeter

Colorimeter measures the absorbance of light in a solution, the more concentrated the solution is
the more the absorbance of light.
Make up several glucose solutions of known, different solutions
Do a Benedicts test on each solution, same amount in each case make sure
there is excess reagent
Remove precipitate (Centrifuge/ leave for a day)
Use colourimeter to measure absorbance of Benedicts solution remaining in
each tube
Record your results in a calibration curve (absorbance against glucose
concentration)
Test the unknown solution by using the colourimeter and reading its
absorbance value across on the calibration graph, it will tell you the
concentration.
Module 2.1.2 Nucleic Acid

(a) state that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a polynucleotide, usually double
stranded, made up of nucleotides containing the bases adenine (A), thymine
(T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G);














Nucleotide
Phosphate Group
Adenine and Thymine bond
together via 2 hydrogen
bond.
Cytosine and Guanine bond
together via 3 hydrogen
bonds.
Deoxyribose
Join together via covalent
bonding between
phosphate group and
pentose sugar.

(b) state that ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polynucleotide, usually single stranded, made
up of nucleotides containing the bases adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C) and
guanine (G);

RNA is a polynucleotide, as it is
made up more many nucleotide
monomers.


(c) describe, with the aid of diagrams, how hydrogen bonding between
complementary base pairs (A to T, G to C) on two antiparallel DNA polynucleotides
leads to the formation of a DNA molecule, and how the twisting of DNA produces its
double-helix shape (HSW1);


(d) outline, with the aid of diagrams, how DNA replicates semi-conservatively, with
reference to the role of DNA polymerase;
Enzyme DNA Helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between the two polynucleotide
strands, exposing bases.
Each original strand is a template for a new strand, free-floating DNA nucleotides
join the exposed bases on each of the original templates by complementary base
pairing (A-T, C-G).
Nucleotides on new strand are joined by DNA Polymerase, and new hydrogen
bonds are formed between bases of new and old strand.
Each DNA molecule contains one strand from the original and one new strand.


(e) state that a gene is a sequence of DNA nucleotides that codes for a polypeptide
(HSW3);
Gene- is a length of DNA that carries the code for the synthesis of one or more specific
polypeptides.


(f) outline the roles of DNA and RNA in living organisms (the concept of protein
synthesis must be considered in outline only).
The sequence of bases on DNA are code for the instructions for proteins, they code for the
amino acid sequence present in the protein. This is a gene.
There are 3 forms of RNA:
Messenger RNA- is a strand complementary to a strand of a DNA molecule.
Ribosomal RNA- in ribosomes.
Transfer RNA- carries amino acids to the ribosomes and they are bonded together to
form a polypeptide.


(a) state that enzymes are globular proteins, with a specific tertiary structure,
which catalyse metabolic reactions in living organisms;
Enzymes are:
Globular proteins (soluble)- like haemoglobin
Able to break down/build up molecules
Enzyme=Biological Catalyst
Specific- can only catalyse a reaction with only one type of substrate
Globular structure has pockets called active site
Activity effected by- Temperature and pH
Large molecule- made up of hundreds of amino acid (help keep its specific tertiary
shape).
All primary/secondary and tertiary is involved in maintaining shape of active site.

(b) state that enzyme action may be intracellular or extracellular;
Extracellular- enzymes that catalyse reactions outside of the cell.
Eg. Mould produces extracellular enzymes to break down bread.
Intracellular- enzymes that catalyse reactions inside of the cell.
Eg. Phagocytes use lytic enzymes to break down pathogens inside the cell.


(c) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the mechanism of action of enzyme
molecules, with reference to specificity, active site, lock and key hypothesis,
induced-fit hypothesis, enzyme-substrate complex, enzyme-product complex
and lowering of activation energy;


Enzymes:
Lowers activation energy- reactions can take place in lower temperatures with the
presence of enzymes.
Active site is complementary to the shape of the substrate (specific).



(d) describe and explain the effects of pH, temperature, enzyme concentration and
substrate concentration on enzyme activity;
pH (measure of H
+
ions)-
H
+
Ions are positive so are attracted to negative charged ions/parts of a molecule and are
repel positive ions/parts of a molecule. Hydrogen and ionic bonds hold the tertiary structure
of the enzyme in place so the active site maintains its specific shape. The bonds are there
due to electrostatic attractions between opposite charges of the amino acids making up the
enzyme.
Hydrogen ions can interfere with these bonds and can alter the specific tertiary shape.
Enzymes have their own optimum pH, the H
+
ion concentration gives the enzyme its best
overall shape. Enzymes work in a narrow pH range, and their pH normally changes with their
location. Eg. Pepsin, works best in pH2, convenient in stomach.

Temperature

Increasing heat gives more kinetic
energy to molecules, so they move
more and vibrate.
Vibrations strain the bonds holding the
molecule together.
In a large molecule (enzymes) the
vibrations can break the weaker bonds
such as hydrogen and ionic bonding.
The weaker bonds are in abundance in
a enzyme to hold its specific tertiary shape.
Increasing temperature=increasing bonds broken.
Tertiary structure has less support holding its shape needed for the shape of the
active site.
Rate of reaction decreases as substrates cannot fit active site.
If enough bonds are broken, the entire tertiary structure unravels and the enzyme
stops working. Denaturing.






Concentration
Increasing enzyme concentration increases the rate of reaction up to a certain point. This is
because the concentration of substrates becomes a limiting factor.
Increasing substrate concentration increases the rate reaction up to a certain point. This is
because the number of active sites available is used up. So the concentration of enzymes
becomes a limiting factor.
(e) describe how the effects of pH, temperature, enzyme concentration and substrate
concentration on enzyme activity can be investigated experimentally;
Variable Method of Keeping
Constant
Reasons
Temperature Carrying out the enzyme
controlled reaction in a
water bath with thermostat
Room temperature
changes and fluctuations
in the temperature alters
the enzyme controlled
reaction so results will not
reflect the true action of
the independent variable
that is being found
Enzyme Concentration Use an accurate
measured volume of
enzyme-solution
Rate of reaction depends
on concentration of
enzyme molecules
present; using accurate
volumes of enzyme
solution gives a true
constant conc. Of enzyme
molecules
Living tissue Mass of
tissue has to be accurate
Assume that the pieces of
tissue have the same
number of enzyme
molecules
Whole pieces of tissue
same surface area and
mass
The number of enzymes
that have contact with
substrate affects rate of
reaction, e.g. surface area
Substrate Concentration Accurately measured
substrate volume/mass
Rate of reaction depends
on substrate molecule
concentration
pH value Use pH buffers by keeping
H+ concentration constant
Rate of reaction depends
on pH because it alters the
shape of the active site of
the enzyme



(f) explain the effects of competitive and non-competitive inhibitors on the rate of
enzyme-controlled reactions, with reference to both reversible and non-
reversible inhibitors;

Competitive Inhibitors:
Have similar shape to substrate.
Occupy active site forming enzyme-inhibitor complex but no products are formed.
Enzyme cannot catalyze the reaction so rate of reaction slows down. (Depends on
inhibitor and substrate concentration).
Non-competitive Inhibitors:
Dont occupy active site but attaches somewhere else, changes the tertiary structure
of the enzyme.
Shape of active site changes, substrate cannot fit no more.
Enzyme cannot catalyse the reaction so rate of reaction slows down. (Increasing
concentration has no effect).

Reversible Inhibitors- when the inhibitor is not there permanently so afterwards the
enzyme is not affected.
Non-reversible Inhibitors- usually non-competitive, the enzyme is denatured.

(g) explain the importance of cofactors and coenzymes in enzyme-controlled
reactions;
Coenzymes take part in a reaction and are changed, but are recycled back to take place in
the next reaction.
Cofactors are there to ensure an enzyme controlled reaction takes place at an appropriate
rate, and some enzymes can only catalyse a reaction if a cofactor is there.

(h) state that metabolic poisons may be enzyme inhibitors, and describe the action
of one named poison;
Lots of poisonous substances have their effects due to inhibiting or over-activating enzymes.
Potassium Cyanide inhibits respiration cells; it is a non-competitive inhibitor that binds to a
vital respiratory enzyme, cytochrome oxidase, in the mitochondria. When cytochrome
oxidase is inhibited, O
2
cannot be used to produce ATP. The organism has to respire
anaerobically producing lactic acid which increases the acidity of the blood.

(i) state that some medicinal drugs work by inhibiting the activity of enzymes;

Viral infections are treated by using chemicals that act as protease inhibitors; this stops
viruses from creating proteins which is vital for their protein coats. These inhibitors are
usually competitive.
Biology Unit 2- Module 2.2.1 Food and Health

(a) define the term balanced diet
A diet which includes all needed nutrients for health in appropriate portions.

(b) explain how consumption of an unbalanced diet can lead to malnutrition, with
reference to obesity
Malnutrition is caused by an unbalanced diet; diseases caused by this can be anorexia and
obesity.
Obesity- having a BMI of 30+ you are classed as obese having 20% more weight than is
recommended for your height. This happens when you consume too much or too little of a
certain food group. Other factors add to this.
BMI= Mass in kg/(Height in m)
2


(c) discuss the possible links between diet and coronary heart disease (CHD)
There are many links between diet contributing to CHD.
CHD is the result of fatty deposits in the coronary artery wall. (Atherosclerosis)
Salt- decreases blood water potential so more water moves into the blood causing blood
pressure to increase, causing hypertension. This is high blood pressure continuously even
during diastole when the heart muscle is relaxing (blood pressure is meant to be low). High
blood pressure can damage the inner lining of the arteries and contribute to causing
atherosclerosis.
Lipids- animal fats are usually saturated while plant fats are usually unsaturated. Saturated
fats are bad for the human body, part of LDL, while unsaturated fats are healthy, part of
HDL.
Cholesterol- this has similar properties to triglycerides, can be found in meat, eggs and
dairy products. Concentration of cholesterol in blood should not exceed 5.2 mmol dm
-3
.

(d) discuss the possible effects of a high blood cholesterol level on the heart and
circulatory system, with reference to high-density lipoproteins (HDL) and low-density
lipoprotein (LDL)
HDLs are made up of unsaturated fats, proteins and cholesterol; they carry fats from body
tissues to the liver. Cells in the liver have receptor sites that let HDLs bind to the cell
surface. In the liver the cholesterol is used in cell metabolism to make bile or it can be
broken down. High levels of HDL are linked with reducing cholesterol levels of blood.
HDLs decrease the amount of fats deposited in the artery walls caused by atherosclerosis
and even helps to remove the deposits of it.
LDLs are made up of saturated fats, cholesterol and proteins; they carry cholesterol from
the liver to the tissues.
Tissue cells contain receptor sites on the cell surface membrane in which LDLs can bind
with. If there is a lot of saturated fats and cholesterol then the concentration of LDLs in the
blood increases.
Different fats affect the LDL receptor sites:
Saturated fats decrease LDL receptor activity, less LDL is removed from the blood
causing it to be deposited in the artery walls. Concentration in the blood increases as
well.
Polyunsaturated fats increase LDL receptor activity allows more LDLs to be removed
from the blood decreasing its concentration.
Monounsaturated fats appear to help remove LDLs from the blood.




(e) explain that humans depend on plants for food as they are the basis of all food
chains. (No details of food chains are required)
Plants are autotrophs and photosynthesise to convert light energy to glucose. They change
energy from the sun to energy in a chemical form that animals can use. So we depend on
plants for food.
(f) outline how selective breeding is used to produce crop plants with high yields,
disease resistance and pest resistance
Isolation- choosing a pair of animals/plants that have a desired characteristic and
allow them to reproduce.
Artificial Selection- offspring with the best characteristics are carefully selected and
allowed to reproduce.
In breeding/line breeding- over the generations certain characteristics are
exaggerated and breeding programmes are carefully monitored.

(g) outline how selective breeding is used to produce domestic animals with high
productivity
Farmers breed cattle for high milk yield as well as high meat yield, e.g dairy cows are able to
produce a massive 40L of milk per day.
Chickens are bred to produce high numbers of eggs and high yield of meat. e.g egg layers
can lay 300+ eggs per year while normal chickens only 20+.


(h) describe how the use of fertilisers and pesticides with plants and the use of
antibiotics with animals can increase food production
Fertilizers replace used mineral, such as nitrates, potassium and phosphates, these minerals
were used by previous crops. They increase growth rate and the size of crops produced.
Pesticides kill organisms that cause disease in crops which reduce yield or kills the plant.
Fungicides are used to kill fungi growing on leaves/roots.
Animals are treated with pesticide to kill ticks living on them.
Infected animals can be treated with antibiotics to prevent the disease from spreading or the
disease can reduce growth and population.

(i) describe the advantages and disadvantages of using microorganisms to make food
for human consumption
Advantages Disadvantages
Production of protein can be faster than
plant/animal protein
People dont want to eat fungal protein or
food grown on waste
Production can be increased/decreased
easily with demand
Isolation of the protein is hard
considering the microorganisms are
grown in big fermenters and need to be
isolated from the material on which they
grow
No animal welfare issues The protein must be purified to ensure it
isnt contaminated
Good protein source for vegetarians e.g.
Quorn
The conditions needed to grow these
microorganisms are ideal for pathogens,
which can cause infection
No animal fat or cholesterol in protein The protein will not have the same
taste/texture as traditional protein
sources
SCP production can be combined with
waste removal



(j) outline how salting, adding sugar, pickling, freezing, heat treatment and irradiation
can be used to prevent food spoilage by microorganisms.
Cooking Heat denatures enzymes and proteins
and kills microorganisms
Pasteurising Heating at 72 degrees Celsius for 15
seconds and cooling rapidly to 4 degrees
Celsius to kill harmful microorganisms
Drying/salting/sugar coating Dehydrates microorganisms so water
leaves them by osmosis
Smoking Food has a hardened and dry outer
surface and the smoke has antibacterial
chemicals
Pickling An acid pH kills microorganisms by
denaturing enzymes and proteins
Irradiation Ionising radiation kills microorganisms by
distorting their DNA structure
Cooling/freezing Slows metabolic processes and growth,
reproduction by slowing down enzyme
activity. Does not kill them.
Canning Food is heated and sealed in airtight
cans
Vacuum packing No air so microbes cant respire
aerobically


(a) discuss what is meant by the terms health and disease;
Health- the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and the absence of
disease and infirmities.
Disease- a departure of full health caused by malfunction of the body or mind.

(b) define and discuss the meanings of the terms parasite and pathogen;
Parasite- an organism that lives in or lives on another living thing causing harm to the host.
Pathogen- a disease causing organism.
Bacteria, fungi, viruses and protoctista.

(c) describe the causes and means of transmission of malaria, AIDS/HIV and TB
Malaria is spread by means of a vector. The female anopheles mosquito carries the
plasmodium from an infected person to a non-infected person, as they feed on blood with
adapted mouth parts to penetrate vessels and withdraw blood. Malaria parasite lives in the
erythrocytes of humans and feeds on Hb.

HIV/AIDS is a virus that enters the body un-active, once active it kills T-helper cells in the
immune system and the ability to resist infection in greatly decreased. This eventually kills a
person as they a prone to many different illnesses.
This is spread by:
exchange of bodily fluids
unscreened blood transfusion
Mother to baby- (from placenta or breast feeding).

TB is caused by bacterium, it is usually in the lungs and is common but remains un-active or
the immune system controls it. It is spread by droplet infection.
It can be spread by:
Overcrowding
Poor ventilation
Poor health (especially with AIDS/HIV)
Poor diet
Homelessness
Contact with people from countries where TB is common.


(d) discuss the global impact of malaria, AIDS/HIV and TB (HSW4, 6a, 7c);
WHO says that good health is a human right, LEDC are more prone to disease due to:
poverty
lack of shelter and clean water
poor nutrition and hygiene
insufficient health services and insufficient education on disease
Malaria- kills 3 million people a year, but is limited to where the anopheles can survive (in
tropic countries). Global warming is a worry for this.
HIV/AIDS- Pandemic, 45 million people living with HIV/AIDS, almost half living in sub-
Saharan Africa.
TB- worldwide disease, common in Africa and Asia, new strains are appearing resistant to
drugs in Eastern Europe.

(e) define the terms immune response, antigen and antibody;
Immune response- is the specific response to a antigen by means of lymphocytes and the
releasing of antibodies.
Antigen- are molecules that stimulate an immune response.
Antibodies- are protein molecules that identify and neutralise antigens.

(f) describe the primary defences against pathogens and parasites (including skin
and mucus membranes) and outline their importance. (No details of skin
structure are required);
Primary defences are methods to prevent pathogens from entering the body-
The epidermis, outer layer, which is the skin is a protective barrier of dead cells.
Mucous membranes- in airways lungs and digestive systems.
Goblet cells secrete mucus which trap pathogens. Ciliated epithelial waft the mucus
up the throat or down to the stomach to be killed in the stomachs acid.
Eyes are protected by tear fluid (has antibodies and enzymes).
Ear canals are lined with wax to trap pathogens.


(g) describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the structure and mode of
action of phagocytes;

(h) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the structure of antibodies;

(i) outline the mode of action of antibodies, with reference
to the neutralisation and agglutination of pathogens;

Agglutination- Large antibodies can
bind to more than one pathogen
making a group preventing them
from binding or entering a host.

















Neutralisation- Antibodies covers
the pathogens binding site to
prevent it from binding and
entering a host and entering the
cell.
(j) describe the structure and mode of action of T lymphocytes and B lymphocytes,
including the significance of cell signalling and the role of memory cells;

Cell signalling- is important as immune response depends on the communication between
cells.
Identification- Pathogen has foreign antigens.
Distress signals- Lysosomes in host cell may damage pathogen, antigen can then
bind to host. This causes a distress signal to be sent, and also acts as a indicator to
what cell is infected.
Antigen presentation- Macrophages partially break down the pathogen and use its
antigens to find the particular lymphocyte that can neutralise the antigen.

Pathogen engulfed by cells from the immune
system
Removal of antigens from pathogen
Antigens presented on surface of engulfing
cells
Selection of correct T killer and T helper cells.
Reproduction of T helper cells. (clonal
expansion).
Reproduction of T killer cells. (clonal
expansion).
Reproduction of B cells
Activation of B cells
Release of interleukins
Same B cell clones
differentiate to make
plasma cells.
Some B cell clones
differentiate to make
B memory cells.
T killer cells search for infected cells.
T killer cells attach to infected cells.
T killer cells secrete toxic substances
(hydrogen peroxide) into infected cells to
kill cell and pathogen.
Plasma cells
manufacture
antibodies.
Memory cells
circulate in body
providing
immunology memory.


(j) compare and contrast the primary and secondary immune responses;

(l) compare and contrast active, passive, natural and artificial immunity;
Active Immunity Artificial Immunity
Exposure to antigen No exposure to antigen
Protection development takes a longer
period
Protection is instant
Protection lasts a long while Protection lasts a short period
Memory cells made No memory cells made

Active Immunity Passive Immunity
Natural Catch the disease Antibodies from mother to
baby across placenta
Artificial Vaccination Injected with antibodies

(m) explain how vaccination can control disease;
Provides immunity to all people who are at risk of a disease, there are 2 ways to use
vaccination:
Herd vaccination- provide immunity to all/most of the population at risk. Once enough
people are vaccinated the disease can no longer spread.
Ring vaccination- used when a new case of disease is reported. All people within the
vicinity of the disease are vaccinated.

(n) discuss the responses of governments and other organisations to the threat of
new strains of influenza each year;
Pathogenic organisms can form a new strain by mutation. Diseases caused by viruses are a
particular threat.
Influenza- causes many deaths, vaccines provide little immunity as the virus can mutate to
form a new strain. This affects the respiratory system so old people are more at risk, so they
are vaccinated against it.

(o) outline possible new sources of medicines, with reference to microorganisms and
plants and the need to maintain biodiversity;

New drugs are needed because:
New diseases emerge
Many diseases with no effective treatment
Some antibiotics are less effective as pathogen evolves
New medicines discovered-
By accident- discovery of penicillin.
Traditional medicines- use of plants.
Anaesthetics- unripe poppies can make opium which reduces activity in the central
nervous system, prevents pain.
Observation of wildlife- many animals self-medicate, e.g some animals rub citrus oils
on their coat as it acts as a insecticide.

(p) describe the effects of smoking on the mammalian gas exchange system, with
reference to the symptoms of chronic bronchitis, emphysema (chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease) and lung cancer;

Tar:
Short-term effects:
Increases diffusion distance for O
2
and CO
2
.
Paralyses or destroys cilia, mucus remains in the airways.
Stimulates goblet cells, which produce more mucus, which remains in the airway
including the bacteria caught in it.
Long-term effects:
Smokers cough- an attempt to move the mucus stuck in the airway.
Constant cough- damages delicate lining of airways which is replaced by thick, scar
tissue.
Lung cancer-
Cancer is when the gene for cell division mutates and the cells controls
uncontrollably.
Often forms are fork of bronchi where smoke hits.
Often takes 20-30yrs to develop.

Chronic bronchitis:
Inflammation of the lining of the airways.
Damage to cilia and overproduction of mucus.
Constant coughing.

Emphysema:
Loss of elasticity of the alveoli.
Lungs have reduced SA.
Shortness of breath.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD):
Combination of the above diseases.

(q) describe the effects of nicotine and carbon monoxide in tobacco smoke on the
cardiovascular system with reference to the course of events that lead to
atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease and stroke;

Nicotine is an addictive chemical that does many things:
Makes nervous system more sensitive, makes the smoker fell more alert.
Causes release of hormone adrenaline, which increases heart rate, breathing rate
ect.
Causes constriction of arterioles, reduces blood flow and oxygen delivery.
Affects platelets making them sticky. Increases the risk of blood clot and thrombosis.

Carbon Monoxide:
Enters red blood cells and binds with haemoglobin. Combines more readily than O
2.
Reduces the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood, body detects low levels of O
2
so
heart rate increases.
CO damages lining of arteries.

Atherosclerosis- builds up of white blood cells, fats and platelets under the lining of
the inner endothelium. This hardens and becomes a plaque which bulges out
narrowing the lumen of the artery. This can eventually burst or block the artery.
Thrombosis- Blood clot=thrombus

CHD (Coronary Heart Disease) - 3 forms:
Angina- severe pain in chest.
Myocardial Infarction- death of a part of a heart muscle.
Heart failure when heart cannot sustain pumping action.
Stroke- death of part of the brain- caused when there is insufficient blood flow to the brain.

(r) evaluate the epidemiological and experimental evidence linking cigarette smoking
to disease and early death;

Facts and figures between cigarette smoking and lung cancer is evident. Comparison data is
called epidemiology.
Links to lung disease:
Smoker is 18 times more likely to get lung cancer than a non-smoker.
25% of smokers die of lung cancer.
Heavy smokers are 25 times more likely to die of lung cancer.
Chances of developing lung cancer are reduced once a person stops smoking.
Links to other lung diseases:
COPD is rare in non-smokers.
98% with emphysema are smokers.
20% of smokers have emphysema
Experimental evidence-
Dogs were made to inhale unfiltered cigarette smoke and began to show signs of
COPD and lung cancer.
Dogs were made to inhale filtered smoke and began to show slight signs of COPD
and early stages of lung cancer.
Tar was placed on the skin of mice and they developed skin cancer.



Module 3 Biodiversity and Evolution

(a) define the terms species, habitat and biodiversity;
Species- A group of similar individual organisms that are similar in
appearance, anatomy, physiology, biochemistry and genetics.
Habitat- the place where an organism lives.
Biodiversity- the range of organisms that can be found in a habitat.
(b) explain how biodiversity may be considered at different levels; habitat, species
and genetic;
Biodiversity is about the structural and functional variety in the living world. It can be
considered in:
Habitat- the range of habitats in which different species lives. (Ponds, fields,
lawn are all different habitats).
Species- the differences between species found in a habitat. (Can be
structural differences e.g. ant and tree but can be functional differences e.g.
bacteria that cause decay and bacteria that help us decay food).
Genetics- genetic variation between individuals belonging to the same
species. (variation within species that ensure we do not look alike).
(c) explain the importance of sampling in measuring the biodiversity of a habitat;
Human activities affect the environment in many different ways.
We study the effects in order to assess the impact that we have on the environment.
Environmental impact assessments are vital parts of planning processes.
(d) describe how random samples can be taken when measuring biodiversity;
Random samples- selecting portions of the habitat at random and studying them in detail.
Random samples= more representative, less bias.
Method: Take samples regularly distances across the habitat.
Plants
Use of random quadrat- quadrat is placed at random on the habitat; the plants with the
quadrat are identified.
Abundance is measured in ACFOR scale.
A Abundant
C Common
F Frequent
O Obvious
R Rare
Transects- stretching a long tape measure along a habitat and taking record of the species
along it.
Animals
Sweep netting- sweep net through vegetation, release organisms onto white sheet to be
counted.
Collecting from trees- a white sheet is held underneath a branch, the branch is knocked so
small organisms fall onto it to be counted.
Light trap- UV light attracts insects, which eventually fall into a vessel of alcohol below to be
counted.
Pitfall trap- animals fall into a container buried in the soil.

(e) describe how to measure species richness and species evenness in a habitat;

Species Richness- the number of species in a habitat. The more species present the richer
the habitat.
Species evenness- the relative abundance of individuals in each species.
Smaller animals: Mark and recapture technique.
(C1xC2)/C3
C1= capturing a sample of animals and marking them in a non-harmful way. Release them
then leave more traps.
C2= the number of organisms recaptured.
C3= the number of marked organisms recaptured.
(f) use Simpsons Index of Diversity (D) to calculate the biodiversity of a habitat,
using the formula D = 1- n/N)
2
) (HSW3);
D = (n/N)
2
.
There are three species of flower in a field, red, white and blue.
There are eleven organisms all together, so N = 11
There are three of the red species, five of the white and three of the blue
D = 1 ((3/11)
2
+ (5/11)
2
+ (3/11)
2
= 1 0.36 = 0.64 Quite high!

(g) outline the significance of both high and low values of Simpsons Index of Diversity (D);
The closer to one the index is, the more diverse the habitat is. A high value indicates
high biodiversity in a habit which is beneficial, a low one indicates low biodiversity in
a habitat which isnt so good, and may suggest that conservation methods might
have to be put in place.

(h) discuss current estimates of global biodiversity.

We are not sure how accurate they are because:
They do not include marine species
New species are being found
Evolution and speciation in continuing
Many species are continuing
Some species are becoming extinct
Module 2.3.2 Classification
a) define the terms classification, phylogeny and taxonomy;
Classification- process of placing living tings into groups according to their
similarities.
Phylogeny- the study of the evolutionary history of groups of organisms.
Taxonomy- is the study of classification.


(b) explain the relationship between classification and phylogeny;
Relationship-
(c) describe the classification of species into the taxonomic hierarchy of domain,
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species;

(d) outline the characteristic features of the following five kingdoms: Prokaryotae
(Monera), Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia;
Kingdom Example Features
Prokaryote Bacteria Single cell, no nucleus,
smaller than 5 micrometers,
no chromosomes.
Protoctista Algae Eukaryotic, single celled or
simple multicellular, mostly
free living.
Fungi Mould, yeast, mushroom Chitin cell wall, eukaryotic,
saprotrophic
Plantae Moss, fern, roses Eukaryotic, multicellular,
cellulose cell wall, autotrophic
nutrition.
Animalia Mammals, reptiles, birds,
fish, insects
Heterotrophic nutrition,
eukaryotic, no cell wall,
multicellular

(e) outline the binomial system of nomenclature and the use of scientific
(Latin) names for species;

(f) use a dichotomous key to identify a group of at least six plants, animals or
microorganisms;
(g) discuss the fact that classification systems were based originally on observable features
but more recent approaches draw on a wider range of evidence to clarify relationships
between organisms, including molecular evidence;
(h) compare and contrast the five kingdom and three domain classification


Module 2.3.3 Evolution

(a) define the term variation;
Variation- the presence of variety, the differences between individual organisms of
the same species.

(b) discuss the fact that variation occurs within as well as between species;
Variation occurs:
Within a species- eye/hair colour
Between species- birds can fly but cats cannot

(c) describe the differences between continuous and discontinuous variation,
using examples of a range of characteristics found in plants, animals and
microorganisms;
Discontinuous Variation-
This is where individuals fall into a number of distinct categories
There are no intermediate values/ values measured across a complete range
Either you have the characteristic or you dont
Eg.
Sex: Male/Female (Mammals), Female/ Hermaphrodite (Plants)

Continuous Variation-
Occurs when there is a complete range of values
Eg. Height (154cm, 167cm, 176cm ect)

Continuous Discontinuous
Height Dangling/attached ear lobes
Handspan Gender
Weight Blood groups
Shoe Size Bacteria with absence/presence of
flagella

Continuous Discontinuous
Affected by environment & genes Unaffected by environment, just genes
Quantitative overlaps Qualitative no overlaps
Controlled by a large number of genes
(polygenic)
Controlled by few/one gene
(monogenic)
No distinct categories Distinct categories
Like heart rate, muscle efficiency, IQ,
growth rate, rate of photosynthesis
This type of variation is rare in animals
but abundant in plants, like seed colour,
petal colour, etc.


Genetics:
Organisms inherit a unique combination of alleles from their parents.
Differences occur during (crossing over) meiosis
Unless you are an identical twin, the chances of having the same alleles are slim.
Hence, we have unique characteristics.

Environmental:
Linked with genetics
Over eating= obesity
Plants- lack of water and minerals stunts growth
Over exposure to sun= more melanin in skin (tan)


(d) outline the behavioural, physiological and anatomical (structural) adaptations
of organisms to their environments;
Behavioural:
An aspect of behaviour of an organism that helps it to survive (reptiles sunbathing to
increase body heat).
Physiological/Biochemical:
An adaptation that ensures the cell processes are functioning (yeast produces
enzymes that respire sugars that are present.
Anatomical:
A structure that enhances the chances of survival of an organism (bacteria have
flagella to help them move by themselves)

Bell-shaped curve
(e) explain the consequences of the four observations made by Darwin in
proposing his theory of natural selection; (HSW1)
Darwin observed that:
Offspring appear genetically similar to their parents.
No two individuals are identical.
Organisms have the ability to produce large number of offspring.
This led to the conclusion that:
There is a struggle to survive
More offspring are produced than the habitat can sustain= more competition for food
and resources
All individuals are different= some are more adapted than others
Better adapted= get more food and resources= pass on their characteristics to their
offspring
Less adapted= more likely to die before they reproduce
Over time the number of changes will give rise to a new species

(f) define the term speciation;
The formation of a new species.

(g) discuss the evidence supporting the theory of evolution, with reference to
fossil, DNA and molecular evidence;
Fossils:
Found to show similar organisms over a period of time.
Slow changes and different environmental changes are shown.
They have been compared to modern species, shows similarities.
DNA:
Comparing genes by sequencing DNA bases.
Most distantly related species show differences in DNA (evolution?)

Molecules:
2 closely related species will have similar biological molecules

(h) outline how variation, adaptation and selection are major components of
evolution;

(j) discuss why the evolution of pesticide resistance in insects and drug resistance in
microorganisms has implications for humans (HSW6a, 7c).
Insecticides applies a strong selective pressure
Insects affected by this die
Those who resist survive
The resistant insects:
Pass on resistance to next generation
Therefore, whole population is resistant
Insecticide is no longer effective
(Applies to antibiotics and bacteria too)


Module 2.3.4 Maintaining Biodiversity

(a) outline the reasons for the conservation of animal and plant species, with
reference to economic, ecological, ethical and aesthetic reasons;
Economic reasons:
Evolution= provides answers to technological questions (eg. best
aerodynamic shape in water).
Ecological reasons:
Natural ecosystems provide processes valuable to humans:
Without soil= no crops= no food
Purification and retention of water (makes it safe to drink)
Regulation of the atmosphere and climate
Plants photosynthesise to remove CO
2
and release O
2

Ethical reasons:
All living organisms have the right to survive and live in the way they have become
adapted on earth.
Loss of habitat and biodiversity= organisms not living in natural habitat.
Can lead to endangered species/extinction
Aesthetic reasons:
Studies show that patients recover quicker from stress and injury when exposed to
pleasing natural environment conditions.

(b) discuss the consequences of global climate change on the biodiversity of
plants and animals, with reference to changing patterns of agriculture and
spread of disease;
Domesticated plants have been bred to produce the best yield in specified conditions:
Change in climate (temperature)- plant unable to adapt
Higher temperature= longer growth and breeding for pests
Milder temperature= not cold enough to kill pests
Plant produces less yield= not enough food produced
Human diseases migrate= tropical diseases can become a problem
Species who have lost their habitat will be unable to evolve and adapt to changes in
temperature and rain fall.
Migration could lead to obstructions such as; humans, large amounts of water,
human development ect.

(c) explain the benefits for agriculture of maintaining the biodiversity of animal
and plant species;
Agricultural crops have little diversity.
As the climate changes they may longer be able to grow in their current location.
Farmers could breed their agricultural plants with wild species that can grow in a new
climate.
The offspring will have a high yield and be able to grow in warmer conditions.
Specific resistant to disease could be bred to prevent extinction.

(d) describe the conservation of endangered plant and animal species, both in situ
and ex situ, with reference to the advantages and disadvantages of these two
approaches;
Conservation in situ- attempting to minimise human impact and to protect on the natural.

Types of conservation in situ- Conservation parks (natural parks), nature reserves ect.

Advantages:
Cheap- as we only provide a supportive role
Plants and animals conserved in natural environment
Permanently protects biodiversity
Permanently protects significant elements of natural and cultural heritage
Facilitates scientific research

Disadvantages:
Protected animals can come out to raid crops
People continuing to hunt protected animals for food
Illegal harvesting of timber and other plant products
Tourists feeding protected animals or leaving litter

Conservation ex situ- conserving an endangered species outside its natural habitat

Types of conservation ex situ- Zoos, seed banks ect.

Advantages:
Can enable repopulation of endangered species.
Can enable repopulation in the wild.
Animals are protected from predators

Disadvantages:
Expensive
Animals are not in natural habitat so fail to breed successfully.
Space is limited so restricts genetic diversity.
Low genetic diversity= lack of variation.

(e) discuss the role of botanic gardens in the ex situ conservation of rare plant
species or plant species extinct in the wild, with reference to seed banks;

Botanical gardens are involved in the conservation of endangered species.

Seeds banks hold a collective sample of seeds from different species of plants.
They contain seeds that remain viable for years.
There are many advantages that the seeds have to benefit humanity:
food
builinding material
disease-resistant crops (agricultural purposes)
for habitat repopulation


(f) discuss the importance of international co-operation in species conservation
with reference to The Convention in International Trade in Endangered Species
(CITES) and the Rio Convention on Biodiversity;

Loss of habitat and number of endangered species is a worldwide problem. International
cooperation in conservation is essential for the benefits of both.
CITES:
Overall Aim- ensures that international trade in specimens of wildlife does not threaten their
survival.
CITES aims to:
Monitor and regulate international trade of specific plants and animals.
Ensure international trade does not endanger the survival of a species.
Ensure trade in wild plants is prohibited for commercial use.
Convention on biological diversity:
Overall aim- Promoting sustainable development.
Recognises that biological diversity is more than plants, animals, microorganisms and their
ecosystem. Also about people and their secure need for food, medicines, fresh air and
water.
The aims of the convention are:
Conservation of biological diversity
Sustainable use of its components
Appropriate shared access to genetic recourses

Each member state must make ex situ conservations. So wildlife parks, zoos and seed bank
facilities are found in the agreed governments.

(g) discuss the significance of environmental impact assessments (including
biodiversity estimates) for local authority planning decisions;

Taking a EIA is to assess the likely significant effects that a proposed development may
have on an area.
Reasons to carry this out:
Avoid/minimise any significant effects on the biological diversity of an area.
Any environmental consequences of development are taken to account.



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