LOG ABBREVIATIONS USKD IN TEXT

a
BHT
BVW
C
CNL
c
p
Arj
At
At,
At
ma
d
h
d
di
F
FDC
GR|
0
g
GRmax
GRmin
"mc
K
a
K
e
K
r g
K
r0
K
r w
111
ML
MLL
MOS
PL
<P
PSP
Pb
Pi
Ph
Pma
RFL
K
R|LM
RlLD
R|_Ld
RLLS
Rm
r
*mc
Rmf
RMSF
Ro*
ROS
- tortuosity factor
- bottom hole temperature
- bulk volume water
- conductivity
- compensated neutron log
- compaction factor for sonic porosity
- radius of invaded zone
- interval transit time of formation
- interval transit time of fluid in borehole
- interval transit time of formation matrix
- diameter of borehole
- diameter of invaded zone (flushed zone)
- diameter of invaded zone
- formation factor
- formation density compensated log
- gamma ray reading from formation
- gamma ray reading from shale
- gamma ray reading from clean sand
- thickness of mudcake
- absolute permeability
- effective permeability
- relative permeability to gas
- relative permeability to oil
- relative permeability to water
- cementation exponent
- Microlog
- Microlaterolog
- moveable oil saturation (S
x0
- S
w
)
- Proximity Log
- porosity
- pseudostatic spontaneous potential
- bulk density of the formation
- density of fluid in the borehole
- hydrocarbon density
- density of the formation matrix
- resistivity of shallow focused log
- resistivity of invaded zone
- resistivity induction log medium
- resistivity induction log deep
- resistivity of Laterolog* deep
- resistivity of Laterolog* shallow
- resistivity of drilling mud
- resistivity of mudcake
- resistivity of mud filtrate
- resistivity of Microspherically Focused Log*
- resistivity of the formation 100% water saturated
(i.e. wet resistivity)
- residual oil saturation (1.0 - S
xo
)
R
s
RsFL
Rt
R
w
Rxo
s
h
S.N.
SNP
SP
SPI
SSP
k' wi rr
\ a
\ r
- resistivity of adjacent shale
- resistivity of Spherically Focused Log
- resistivity of uninvaded zone
- resistivity of formation water
- apparent formation water resistivity
- resistivity of flushed zone
- hydrocarbon saturation (1.0 - S
w
)
- short normal log
- sidevvall neutron porosity
- spontaneous potential
- secondary porosity index
- static spontaneous potential SSP = -K log (R
mf
/R
w
)
- irreducible water saturation
- water saturation of uninvaded zone (Archie method)
- water saturation of uninvaded zone (Ratio Method)
- moveable hydrocarbon index
- water saturation of flushed zone
- formation temperature
- volume of shale
LOG NAMES USED IN TEXT
bulk density log
caliper log
Compensated Density Log
Combination Gamma Ray Neutron-Density Log
Combi nati on Neutron-Density Log
Compensated Neutron Log
density log
Dual Induction Log
Dual Induction Focused Log
Dual Laterolog*
electrode logs
gamma ray log
Induction Electric Log
induction log
Lateral Log
Laterolog*
Laterolog-8*
microcaliper
Microlaterolog* (MLL)*
Microlog* (ML)*
Microspherically Focused Log* or (MSFL)*
neutron log
normal logs
nuclear logs
porosity log
Proximity Log* or (PL)*
resistivity logs
Resistivity Spherically Focused Log* or (RSFL)*
short normal log
Sidewall Neutron Log
sonic log
Spectralog**
Spherically Focused Log* (SFL)*
spontaneous potential log (SP)
Basic
Well Log Analysis
For Geologists
~ y
George Asquith
With:
Charles Gibson
The American Association
of Petroleum Geologists
Basic Well Log Analysis for Geologists
By
George B. Asquith
Pioneer Production Corporation
with
Charles R. Gibson
Alpar Resources Inc.
Methods in Exploration Series
Published by
The American Association of Petroleum Geologists
Tulsa, Oklahoma USA
Published try
The American Association of Petroleum Geologists
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74\0L USA '--'
Copyright 1982 by
The American Association of Petroleum Geologists
All Rights Reserved
Published October 1982
Second Printing: (revised), August 1983
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 82-73052
lSBN: 0-89181-652-6
For AAPG:
Editor: M. K. Horn
Science Director: E. A. Beaumont
Project Editors: A. L. Asquith, R. L. Hart
ll
Table of Contents:
1. Basic Relationships of Well Log Interpretation . . ......... .. . . ................. .. ....... . ........ .
Introducti on . . .. ..... .. .. ... ....... . .. ... . .. . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . .. . . .... . . . .. . . . .. . .. . . . . . . .
Borehole Environme nt .. ............ . .... . .. .... . . . . .. . . .... . . . .. .. . ... . . . .
In vasion and Resistivit y Profiles .... . . . .... . . .
Fonnati on Temperature ........... . ..... . . . .
2
4
5
2. The Spontaneous Potential Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Fonnati on Water Resistivity (Rw) Determined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Volume of Shale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3. Resistivity Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
[nductio n Electric Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Dual Inducti on Foc used Log
Late ro log* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . .
Dual Laterolog-Microsphericall y Focused Log*
Mic ru log* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . .. .
Mic ro laterolog* and Proximity Log* .... .. .
Resisti vity Derived Porosity . ..... ..... .. . . . . . .
4. Porosity Logs
Soni c Log
Density Log
Neutron Log . ... .. ... . . ..... .. ... . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . .. . .. .. .
Combination Ne utron- Density Log .. . ... . . . .
42
43
43
43
44
44
66
66
66
67
68
5. Gamma Ray Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
\ b lume of Shale Calc ul ation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6. Log Interpretation
Archie Equation
Rati o Method
Bul k Volume Water .. . . ... ... . . .. ... . .... . . . .. .... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . ..... . .. .
Quick Look Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .... . ... . .. .
Picke tt Crosspl ot Method .. . ..... . .. . . . . . .. .. . . .
Hingl e Crosspl ot ........ . .. . .. . .. . .. . .
Permeability from Logs ........ . ... . . . ... . ... ... . .. . . . .. . . ... ... .. .. . . . . .... . .... .
Shaly Sand Analys is . . . .. . ......... ...... . .
7. Lithology Logging and Mapping Techniques . . . ........................................ . ........ .
Combination Gamma Ray Neutron Density Log . . . ...... .......... .. . ... .. .
M-N* Litho logy Pl ot .. .. .. . . .. ... .. .. . .. . .. . . .... . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. .. . .. . . .
MID* Lithology Pl ot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . .. ... . . . ... . . . .
Alpha Mapping from SP Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .
Clean Sand or Carbonate Maps from Gamma Ray Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... .. .
Rock Typing and Facies Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . .. .
96
96
96
98
98
100
101
102
103
118
118
118
118
ll9
120
120
8. Log Interpretation Case Studies ............... . ... .. . . ........................................ 140
Pennsylvani an Atoka Sandstone. Permian Basin
Mi ss issippian Mi ssion Canyon Formation, Williston Basin
Eocene Wilcox Sandstone . Gulf Coast
Pennsylvanian Upper Morrow Sandstone. Anadarko Basin
Cretaceo us Pictu red Cliffs Sandstone. San Juan Bas in
Devoni an Hunton Formation, Anadarko Basin
Appendices of Charts Used in Plotting ... . .. . .... . .......... . .. . .......... . ....... . ............... 209
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Index ...... . ........................................... . ... .... .. ... . ....... ... .............. 215
iii
Acknowledgements:
The construct of this book would have been entirely different had it not been for the creative contributions of Edward A.
Beaumont and Ronald L. Hart. As Science Director of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Mr. Beaumont early-on
recognized the need for a logging course designed especially for geologists. His efforts and encouragement led to the development
of the AAPG school on basic logging from which the text was derived. The considerable editorial talents of Ronald L. Hart,
Manager of the AAPG Projects Department and his assistance with formating and writing figure captions, helped ensure the book
would meet its goal of introducing the reader to fundamental concepts of well logging.
Perhaps the most significant contribution of all, however, was by Ann L. Asquith. She helped her husband with both the writing
and editing of the manuscript. Her unflagging efforts to improve readability, her assistance with writing, and her suggestions
concerning content were an incalculable asset. She was assisted in her editing tasks by Robert V. Brown, who critically read the
manuscript and offered many useful suggestions; the text's introduction owes much to his insight. Robert J. Mitchell also lent his
technical expertise to a review of the manuscript, as did Edith C. Campbell and Leon Williams. Their assistance is recognized and
gratefully acknowledged.
Many charts and figures used in the text were provided by Dresser Industries and by Schlumberger Well Services. Their
cooperation in allowing reproduction of these items, and their unwavering courtesy eased the task of authorship.
By assisting her husband with some of the drafting and graphic layout work, Pearl Gibson helped ensure that the text's complex
figures would be legible and easily understood. The quality of the graphics work was also enhanced by Rick Blackburn's efforts on
behalf of the photographic reproduction of various charts and figures. Bette Haimes typed the finished manuscript copy; her
commitment to accuracy, with a difficult and often tedious task, does not pass unnoticed.
IV
Preface:
This book is a basic introduction to open hole logging.
Study of the properties of rocks by petrophysical techniques using electric, nuclear, and acoustical sources is as important to a
geologist as the study of rock properties by more conventional means using optical, x-ray, and chemical methods. Nevertheless,
despite the importance of petrophysics, it is frequently underutilized by many geologists who are either intimidated by logging
terminology and mathematics, or who accept the premise that an in-depth knowledge of logging is only marginally useful to their
science because, they feel, it more properly belongs in the province of the log analyst or engineer.
The enormous importance of logging dictates that as geologists, we put aside old notions and apply ourselves diligently to
learning log interpretation. The rewards are obvious; in fact, no less than achieving an understanding of the ancient record hangs in
the balance. And, it is likely that the success or failure of an exploration program may hinge on a geologist's logging expertise.
In the interest of conciseness, and so that logs used most often in petroleum exploration are thoroughly discussed, the text is
restricted to open hole logs. I hope that the reader initiates his or her own study of other log types which are beyond the scope of this
book.
Unfortunately, learning about open hole logging requires more of the reader than a light skimming of the text's material. The plain
truth is that a great deal of hard work, including memorizing log terminology, awaits the serious student; and even then, a facility
with logs develops only after plenty of real-life experience. The intent here is simply to provide a foundation of knowledge which
can be built upon later. Consequently, many exceptions to rules are left to more advanced books.
It is quite possible that some colleagues will raise objections about the lack of time devoted to tool theory; they may also comment
on the paucity of qualifying statements in the text. These objections are understood and indeed there may be disagreements about
what constitutes over-simplification. In defense of brevity, it should be pointed out that the surfeit of information available on
petrophysics often discourages all but the most ardent beginner. Certainly, many of the difficult decisions which had to be faced in
preparing the manuscript dealt with selecting information judged indispensable at an elementary level.
Many in the audience will note frequent references to a book by Douglas Hilchie, Golden, Colorado entitled Applied Open Hole
Log Interpretation (1978). For those who are interested in expanding their knowledged of logs, his book will be a great help.
Another helpful book is The Glossary of Terms and Expressions Used in Well Logging, The Society of Professional Well Log
Analysts (1975), which explains the meaning of logging terms by extended definitions.
Finally, a last word - a substantial effort was expended to ensure that a minimum number of errors would appear in the text.
However, given the nature of the subject and the almost infinite possibility for mistakes, there may be slip-ups, regardless; hopefully
they will not be too serious.
George B. Asquith
Pioneer Production Corporation
Amarillo, Texas
October, 1982
v
Biographical Sketches:
George B. Asquith: George B. Asquith received his Ph.D. degree in geology from the University of Wisconsin/Madison and has
some 15 years experience throughout North America involving geological consulting, prospect development and evaluation,
research, and teaching. In addition to independent consulting work, he has held various positions with Humble Oil and Refining
Co.; Atlantic Richfield Co.; Alpar Resources Inc., Search Drilling Company, and with the University of Wisconsin, West Texas
State University, and Killgore Research Center. He is presently Exploration Coordinator, for the Pioneer Production Corporation,
Amarillo, Texas.
Dr. Asquith has authored two books, Subsurface Carbonate Depositional Models, and Log Analysis by Microcomputer. He has
also written numerous articles and abstracts in the fields of carbonate petrology, sandstone petrology, and computer geology, and has
served as a reviewer for the AAPG Bulletin, Texas Journal of Science, and Journal of Sedimentary Petrology.
His areas of specialization in petroleum exploration include: subsurface carbonate and clastic depositional models, identification
of lithologies from logs, and computer applications to log interpretation. He has applied his areas of specialization to a number of
different basins including the Anadarko, San Juan, Permian, and Williston basins, and also in the Gulf Coast (onshore and offshore),
Central Texas, the Rocky Mountains, and Canada.
During 1979-1981, Dr. Asquith presented short course lectures for the American Association of Petroleum Geologists throughout
the United States and in Canada and Brazil. He is currently a lecturer and Science Advisor with the American Association of
Petroleum Geologists' Continuing Education Program and serves as an AAPG Visiting Petroleum Geologist.
Charles R. Gibson: Charles Richard Gibson is exploration manager and vice-president for Alpar Resources, Inc., Perryton,
Texas. As a geologic undergraduate in 1965, he was employed by the Colorado Fuel and Iron Corporation in their Arizona project
for geologic field mapping of iron ore deposits and base metal geochemistry exploration, collecting soil samples and running wet
chemical analyses. Education was postponed for military duty where, at the termination of his advanced military training, he was
selected and qualified to serve with the 3rd Infantry (The Old Guard), Fort Myer, Virginia. Returning to the University of Southern
Colorado, Gibson received his B.S. degree in geology in 1970, and was granted a Graduate Teaching Assistantship to continue
advanced studies at West Texas State University.
Since joining Alpar Resources, Inc., in 1972, Gibson has been involved in a diverse range of subsurface clastic and carbonate
exploration and development studies from the Gulf Coast to the Williston basin and has co-authored several published technical
'papers.
He has a special interest in applying computerized log analyses to solve complex lithologic and production problems. Gibson
obtained his M.S. degree from West Texas State University in 1977. He is certified by the A.I.P.G, A.A.P.G., and is a member of
the Society of Professional Well Log Analysts.
vi
Publisher's Note:
Because most new geologists come out of college with little understanding of the industry's primary tool, and because many
experienced geologists use logs only as a means to correlate productive zones (unaware of the many other applications of logging),
we have published this book.
As with the other titles in the AAPG Methods in Geology Series, we intend for this book to become a training standard in both
industry and academia. The book is oriented toward geologists rather than engineers, and can be used in a class environment or as a
self-help program. A set of six case histories in Chapter 8 provides the reader with diverse, yet typical, log-based decisions founded
in both geology and economics.
As a special note of thanks, AAPG acknowledges the logging companies and engineers who cooperated with their advice and
examples. Because it is important to offer examples in a book of this nature, specific Schlumberger and Dresser log types are
mentioned by name; this is in no way an endorsement of these two companies, nor does it reflect on the fine logging service
companies whose examples were not used. In the text and examples, the single asterisk (*) indicates a mark of Schlumberger; a
double asterisk (**) indicates a trademark of Dresser Industries, Inc.
Note also, that many service company charts are overprinted with colored ink to highlight an example. This selection is the
author's and the associated service company is not responsible for its accuracy.
AAPG Publications
Tulsa, Oklahoma
CHAPTERI
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
Introduction
As logging tools and interpretive methods are developing
in accuracy and sophistication, they are playing an
expanded role in the geological decision-making process.
Today, petrophysical log interpretation is one of the most
useful and important tools available to a petroleum
geologist.
Besides their traditional use in exploration to correlate
zones and to assist with structure and isopach mapping, logs
help define physical rock characteristics such as lithology,
porosity, pore geometry, and permeability. Logging data is
used to identify productive zones, to determine depth and
thickness of zones, to distinguish between oil, gas, or water
in a reservoir, and to estimate hydrocarbon reserves. Also,
geologic maps developed from log interpretation help with
determining facies relationships and drilling locations.
Of the various types of logs, the ones used most
frequently in hydrocarbon exploration are called open hole
logs. The name open hole is applied because these logs are
recorded in the uncased portion of the well bore. All the
different types of logs and their curves discussed in the text
are this type.
A geologist's first exposure to log interpretation can be a
frustrating experience. This is not only because of its
lengthy and unfamiliar terminology, but also because
knowledge of many parameters, concepts, and
measurements is needed before an understanding of the
logging process is possible.
Perhaps the best way to begin a study of logging is by
introducing the reader to some of the basic concepts of well
log analysis. Remember that a borehole represents a
dynamic system; that fluid used in the drilling of a well
affects the rock surrounding the borehole, and therefore,
also log measurements. In addition, the rock surrounding
the borehole has certain properties which affect the
movement of fluids into and out of it.
The two primary parameters determined from well log
measurements are porosity, and the fraction of pore space
filled with hydrocarbons. The parameters of log
interpretation are determined both directly or inferred
indirectly, and are measured by one of three general types of
logs: (1) electrical, (2) nuclear, and (3) acoustic or sonic.
The names refer to the sources used to obtain the
measurements. The different sources create records (logs)
which contain one or more curves related to some property
in the rock surrounding the well bore (see Society of
Professional Well Log Analysts, 1975). For the reader
unfamiliar with petrophysical logging, some confusion may
develop over the use of the word log. In common usage, the
word log may refer to a particular curve, a suite or group of
curves, a logging tool (sonde), or the process of logging.
Rock properties or characteristics which affect logging
measurements are:porosity, permeability, water saturation,
and resistivity. It is essential that the reader understand these
properties and the concepts they represent before
proceeding with a study of log interpretation.
Porositycan be defined as the percentage of voids to
the total volume of rock. It is measured as a percent and has
the symbol <f>.
Porosity (4>)
_ volume of pores
total volume of rock
The amount of internal space or voids in a given volume of
rock is a measure of the amount of fluids a rock will hold.
The amount of void space that is interconnected, and so able
to transmit fluids, is called effective porosity. Isolated pores
and pore volume occupied by adsorbed water are excluded
from a definition of effective porosity.
Permeabilityis the property a rock has to transmit
fluids. It is related to porosity but is not always dependent
upon it. Permeability is controlled by the size of the
connecting passages (pore throats or capillaries) between
pores. It is measured in darcies or millidarcies and is
represented by the symbol K
a
. The ability of a rock to
transmit a single fluid when it is 100% saturated with that
fluid is called absolute permeability. Effective permeability
refers to the presence of two fluids in a rock, and is the
ability of the rock to transmit a fluid in the presence of
another fluid when the two fluids are immiscible.
Formation water (connate water in the formation) held by
capillary pressure in the pores of a rock serves to inhibit the
transmission of hydrocarbons. Stated differently, formation
water takes up space both in pores and in the connecting
passages between pores. As a consequence, it may block or
otherwise reduce the ability of other fluids to move through
the rock.
Relative permeability is the ratio between effective
permeability of a fluid at partial saturation, and the
permeability at 100% saturation (absolute permeability).
When relative permeability of a formation's water is zero,
then the formation will produce water-free hydrocarbons
(i.e. the relative permeability to hydrocarbons is 100%).
With increasing relative permeabilities to water, the
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
formation will produce increasing amounts of water relative
to hydrocarbons.
Water saturationis the percentage of pore volume in a
rock which is occupied by formation water. Water saturation
is measured in percent and has the symbol S
w
.
water saturation (S
w
) =
formation water occupying pores
total pore space in the rock
Water saturation represents an important log interpretation
concept because you can determine the hydrocarbon
saturation of a reservoir by subtracting water saturation
from the value, one (where 1.0 = 100% water saturation).
Irreducible water saturation or S
w jrr
is the term used to
describe the water saturation at which all the water is
adsorbed on the grains in a rock, or is held in the capillaries
by capillary pressure. At irreducible water saturation, water
will not move, and the relative permeability to water equals
zero.
Resistivityis the rock property on which the entire
science of logging first developed. Resistance is the
inherent property of all materials, regardless of their shape
and size, to resist the flow of an electric current. Different
materials have different abilities to resist the flow of
electricity.
Resistivity is the measurement of resistance; the
reciprocal of resistivity is conductivity. In log interpretation,
hydrocarbons, the rock, and freshwater all act as insulators
and are, therefore, non-conductive and highly resistive to
electric flow. Saltwater, however, is a conductor and has a
low resistivity. The unit of measure used for the conductor
is a cube of the formation one meter on each edge. The
measured units are ohm-meter
2
/meter, and are called
ohm-meters.
R =
r x A
Where:
R = resistivity (ohm-meters)
r = resistance (ohms)
A = cross sectional area of substance being measured
(meters
2
)
L = length of substance being measured (meters)
Resistivity is a basic measurement of a reservoir's fluid
saturation and is a function of porosity, type of fluid (i.e.
hydrocarbons, salt or fresh water), and type of rock.
Because both the rock and hydrocarbons act as insulators
but saltwater is conductive, resistivity measurements made
by logging tools can be used to detect hydrocarbons and
estimate the porosity of a reservoir. Because during the
drilling of a well fluids move into porous and permeable
formations surrounding a borehole, resistivity
measurements recorded at different depths into a formation
often have different values. Resistivity is measured by
electric logs.
Conrad Schlumberger in 1912 began the first experiments
which led, eventually, to the development of modern day
petrophysical logs. The first electric log was run September
5, 1927 by H. G. Doll in Alsace-Lorraine, France. In 1941,
G. E. Archie with Shell Oil Company presented a paper to
the AIME in Dallas, Texas, which set forth the concepts
used as a basis for modern quantitative log interpretation
(Archie, 1942).
Archie's experiments showed that the resistivity of a
water-filled formation ( RJ, filled with water having a
resistivity of R
w
can be related by means of a formation
resistivity factor (F):
R
0
= F X R
w
where the formation resistivity factor (F) is equal to the
resistivity of the formation 100% water saturated (R)
divided by the resistivity of the formation water (R
w
).
Archie's experiments also revealed that formation factors
can be related to porosity by the following formula:
., 1.0
where m is a cementation exponent whose value varies with
grain size, grain size distribution, and the complexity of the
paths between pores (tortuosity). The higher the value for
tortuosity the higher the m value.
Water saturation (S
w
) is determined from the water filled
resistivity ( RJ and the formation resistivity (R,) by the
following relationship:
R.
Rt
where n is the saturation exponent whose value varies from
1.8 to 2.5 but is most commonly 2.
By combining the formulas: R, = F x R
w
and S
w
= (R
0
/R
t
)
l/n
the water saturation formula can be
rewritten in the following form:
^ w
F x R ,
R,
This is the formula which is most commonly referred to as
the Archie equation for water saturation (S
w
). And, all
present methods of interpretation involving resistivity
curves are derived from this equation.
Now that the reader is introduced to some of the basic
concepts of well log interpretation, our discussion can be
continued in more detail about the factors which affect
logging measurements.
Borehole Environment
Where a hole is drilled into a formation, the rock plus the
2
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
fluids in it (rock-fluid system) are altered in the vicinity of
the borehole. A well's borehole and the rock surrounding it
are contaminated by the drilling mud, which affects logging
measurements. Figure 1 is a schematic illustration of a
porous and permeable formation which is penetrated by a
borehole filled with drilling mud.
The definitions of each of the symbols used in Figure 1
are listed as follows:
d
h
- hole diameter
dj - diameter of invaded zone (inner boundary; flushed
zone)
dj - diameter of invaded zone (outer boundary; invaded
zone)
A
r
j - radius of invaded zone (outer boundary)
h^ -thicknessofmudcake
R
m
- resistivity? of the drilling mud
R
mc
- resistivity of the mudcake
R
raf
- resistivity of mud filtrate
R
s
- resistivity of shale
R, - resistivity of uninvaded zone (true resistivity)
R
w
- resistivity of formation water
R
xo
- resistivity of flushed zone
S
w
- water saturation of uninvaded zone
S
xo
- water saturation flushed zone
Some of the more important symbols shown in Figure 1 are:
Hole Diameter (d
h
)A well's borehole size is described
by the outside diameter of the drill bit. But, the diameter of
the borehole may be larger or smaller than the bit diameter
because of (1) wash out and/or collapse of shale and poorly
cemented porous rocks, or (2) build-up of mudcake on
porous and permeable formations (Fig. 1). Borehole sizes
normally vary from 7 7/8 inches to 12 inches, and modern
logging tools are designed to operate within these size
ranges. The size of the borehole is measured by a caliper
log.
Drilling Mud (R
m
)Today, most wells are drilled with
rotary bits and use special mud as a circulating fluid. The
mud helps remove cuttings from the well bore, lubricate and
cool the drill bit, and maintain an excess of borehole
pressure over formation pressure. The excess of borehole
pressure over formation pressure prevents blow-outs.
The density of the mud is kept high enough so that
hydrostatic pressure in the mud column is always greater
than formation pressure. This pressure difference forces
some of the drilling fluid to invade porous and permeable
formations. As invasion occurs, many of the solid particles
^Resistivity (R) =
r x A
R - resistivity in ohm-meters
2
/meters (ohm-meter)
r - resistance (ohms)
A -cross sectional area (meters
2
)
L - length (meter)
(i.e. clay minerals from the drilling mud) are trapped on the
side of the borehole and form mudcake (R
mc
; Fig. 1). Fluid
that filters into the formation during invasion is called mud
filtrate (R
mf
; Fig. 1). The resistivity values for drilling mud,
mudcake, and mud filtrate are recorded on a log's header
(Fig. 2).
Invaded Zone-The zone which is invaded by mud filtrate
is called the invaded zone. It consists of a flushed zone (R
xo
)
and a transition oxannulus (R;) zone. The flushed zone
(R
xo
) occurs close to the borehole (Fig. 1) where the mud
filtrate has almost completely flushed out a formation's
hydrocarbons and/or water (R
w
). The transition or annulus
(Ri) zone, where a formation's fluids and mud filtrate are
mixed, occurs between the flushed (R
xo
) zone and the
uninvaded (R,) zone. The uninvaded zone is defined as the
area beyond the invaded zone where a formation's fluids are
uncontaminated by mud filtrate.
The depth of mud filtrate invasion into the invaded zone
is referred to as the diameter of invasion (d
(
and dj; Fig. 1).
The diameter of invasion is measured in inches or expressed
as a ratio: dj/d
h
(where d
h
represents the borehole diameter).
The amount of invasion which takes place is dependent
upon the permeability of the mudcake and not upon the
porosity of the rock. In general, an equal volume of mud
filtrate can invade low porosity and high porosity rocks if
the drilling muds have equal amounts of solid particles. The
solid particles in the drilling muds coalesce and form an
impermeable mudcake. The mudcake then acts as a barrier
to further invasion. Because an equal volume of fluid can be
invaded before an impermeable mudcake barrier forms, the
diameter of invasion will be greatest in low porosity rocks.
This occurs because low porosity rocks have less storage
capacity or pore volume to fill with the invading fluid, and,
as a result, pores throughout a greater volume of rock will
be affected. General invasion diameters are:
dj/d
h
= 2 for high porosity rocks;
dj/d
h
= 5 for intermediate porosity rocks;
and dj/d
h
= 10 for low porosity rocks.
Flushed Zone (R
xo
)The flushed zone extends only a
few inches from the well bore and is part of the invaded
zone. If invasion is deep or moderate, most often the
flushed zone is completely cleared of its formation water
(R
w
) by mud filtrate (R
mf
). When oil is present in the
flushed zone, you can determine the degree of flushing by
mud filtrate from the difference between water saturations
in the flushed (S
xo
) zone and the uninvaded (S
w
) zone (Fig.
1). Usually, about 70 to 95% of the oil is flushed out; the
remaining oil is called residual oil (S
ro
= [ 1. 0- S
xo
] where
S
ro
equals residual oil saturation [ROS]).
Uninvaded Zone (R,)The uninvaded zone is located
beyond the invaded zone (Fig. 1). Pores in the uninvaded
3
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
zone are uncontaminated by mud filtrate; instead, they are
saturated with formation water (R
w
), oil, or gas.
Even in hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs, there is always a
layer of formation water on grain surfaces. Water saturation
(S
w
; Fig. 1) of the uninvaded zone is an important factor in
reservoir evaluation because, by using water saturation
data, a geologist can determine a reservoir's hydrocarbon
saturation. The formula for calculating hydrocarbon
saturation is:
s
h
= 1 . 0 - s
w
S
h
= hydrocarbon saturation (i.e. the fraction of pore
volume filled with hydrocarbons).
S
w
= water saturation uninvaded zone (i.e. fraction of
pore volume filled with water)
The ratio between the uninvaded zone's water saturation
(S
w
) and the flushed zone's water saturation (S
xo
) is an
index of hydrocarbon moveability.
Invasion and Resistivity Profiles
Invasion and resistivity profiles are diagrammatic,
theoretical, cross sectional views moving away from the
borehole and into a formation. They illustrate the horizontal
distributions of the invaded and uninvaded zones and their
corresponding relative resistivities. There are three
commonly recognized invasion profiles: (1) step, (2)
transition, and (3) annulus. These three invasion profiles are
illustrated in Figure 3.
The step profile has a cylindrical geometry with an
invasion diameter equal to dj. Shallow reading, resistivity
logging tools read the resistivity of the invaded zone (R,),
while deeper reading, resistivity logging tools read true
resistivity of the uninvaded zone (R
t
).
The transition profile also has a cylindrical geometry with
two invasion diameters: d
;
(flushed zone) and dj (transition
zone). It is probably a more realistic model for true borehole
conditions than the step profile. Three resistivity devices are
needed to measure a transitional profile; these three devices
measure resistivities of the flushed, transition, and
uninvaded zones R
xo
, Rj, and R
t
; (see Fig. 3). By using
these three resistivity measurements, the deep reading
resistivity tool can be corrected to a more accurate value of
true resistivity (R
t
), and the depth of invasion can be
determined. Two modern resistivity devices which use these
three resistivity curves are: the Dual Induction Log with a
Laterolog-8* or Spherically Focused Log (SFL)* and the
Dual Laterolog* with a Microspherically Focused Log
(MSFL)*.
An annulus profile is only sometimes recorded on a log
because it rapidly dissipates in a well. The annulus profile is
detected only by an induction log run soon after a well is
drilled. However, it is very important to a geologist because
the profile can only occur in zones which bear
hydrocarbons. As the mud filtrate invades the
hydrocarbon-bearing zone, hydrocarbons move out first.
Next, formation water is pushed out in front of the mud
filtrate forming an annular (circular) ring at the edge of the
invaded zone (Fig. 3). The annulus effect is detected by a
higher resistivity reading on a deep induction log than by
one on a medium induction log.
Log resistivity profiles illustrate the resistivity values of
the invaded and uninvaded zones in the formation being
investigated. They are of particular interest because, by
using them, a geologist can quickly scan a log and look for
potential zones of interest such as hydrocarbon zones.
Because of their importance, resistivity profiles for both
water-bearing and hydrocarbon-bearing zones are discussed
here. These profiles vary, depending on the relative
resistivity values of R
w
and R
mf
. All the variations and their
associated profiles are illustrated in Figures 4 and 5.
Water-Bearing ZonesFigure 4 illustrates the borehole
and resistivity profiles for water-bearing zones where the
resistivity of the mud filtrate (R
mf
) is much greater than the
resistivity of the formation water (R
w
) in freshwater muds,
and where resistivity of the mud filtrate (R^) is
approximately equal to the resistivity of the formation water
(R
w
) in saltwater muds. A freshwater mud (i.e. R
m
f > 3 R
w
)
results in a "wet" log profile where the shallow (R
xo
),
medium (Rj), and deep (R
t
) resistivity tools separate and
record high (R
xo
), intermediate (Rj), and low (R
t
)
resistivities (Fig. 4). A saltwater mud (i.e. R
w
= R
mf
)
results in a wet profile where the shallow (R
xo
), medium
(R
;
), and deep (R
t
) resistivity tools all read low resistivity
(Fig. 4). Figures 6a and 6b illustrate the resistivity curves
for wet zones invaded with both freshwater and saltwater
muds.
Hydrocarbon-Bearing ZonesFigure 5 illustrates the
borehole and resistivity profiles for hydrocarbon-bearing
zones where the resistivity of the mud filtrate (R
m
f) is much
greater than the resistivity of the formation water (R,) for
freshwater muds, and where R
mf
is approximately equal to
R
w
for saltwater muds. A hydrocarbon zone invaded with
freshwater mud results in a resistivity profile where the
shallow (R
xo
), medium (Rj), and deep (R
t
) resistivity tools
all record high resistivities (Fig. 5). In some instances, the
deep resistivity will be higher than the medium resistivity.
When this happens, it is called the annulus effect. A
hydrocarbon zone invaded with saltwater mud results in a
resistivity profile where the shallow (R
xo
), medium (Rj),
and deep (R
t
) resistivity tools separate and record low (R
xo
),
intermediate (Rj) and high (R,) resistivities (Fig. 5). Figures
7a and 7b illustrate the resistivity curves for hydrocarbon
zones invaded with both freshwater and saltwater muds.
Basic Information Needed in Log Interpretation
LithologyIn quantitative log analysis, there are several
reasons why it is important to know the lithology of a zone
4
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
(i.e. sandstone, limestone, or dolomite). Porosity logs
require a lithology or a matrix constant before a zone's
porosity (0) can be calculated. And the formation factor
(F), a variable used in the Archie water saturation equation
(S
w
= VF x R
w
/R
t
), varies with lithology. As a
consequence, water saturations change as F changes. Table
1 is a list of the different methods for calculating formation
factor, and illustrates how lithology affects the formation
factor.
Temperature of FormationFormation temperature (T
f
)
is also important in log analysis because the resistivities of
the drilling mud (R
m
), the mud filtrate (R
m
f), and the
formation water (R
w
) vary with temperature. The
temperature of a formation is determined by knowing: (1)
formation depth; (2) bottom hole temperature (BHT); (3)
total depth of the well (TD); and (4) surface temperature.
You can determine a reasonable value for the formation
temperature by using these data and by assuming a linear
geothermal gradient (Fig, 8).
Table 1. Different Coefficients and Exponents Used to
Calculate Formation Factor (F). (Modified after
Asquith, 1980).
F = a/0
m
ttF = 1/02
ttF = 0.81/</)2
t t F = 0.62/02-15
F = 1.45/01-54
F = 1. 65/ 01"
F = 1.45/0'-
F = 0.85/02'*
F = 2. 45/ 0
108
F = 1.97/01-29
F = l.O/0<
2
-O5-<M
general relationship
Where:
a = tortuosity factor
1
'
m = cementation exponent
0 = porosity
for carbonates
for consolidated sandstones
Humble formula for unconsolidated
sands
for average sands (after Carothers,
1958)
for shaly sands (after Carothers,
1958)
for calcareous sands (after Carothers,
1958)
for carbonates (after Carothers,
1958)
for Pliocene sands, Southern
California (after Carothers and
Porter, 1970)
for Miocene sands, Texas-Louisiana
Gulf Coast (after Carothers and
Porter, 1970)
for clean granular formations (after
Sethi, 1979)
tTortuosity is a function
must travel through the
+t
Most commonly used.
of the complexity of the path the fluid
rock.
The formation temperature is also calculated (Asquith,
1980) by using the linear regression equation:
y = mx + c
Where:
x = depth
y = temperature
m = slopein this example it is the geothermal gradient
c = a constantin this example it is the surface
temperature
An example of how to calculate formation temperature is
illustrated here:
Temperature Gradient Calculation
Assume:
y = bottom hole temperature (BHT) = 250F
x = total depth (TD) = 15,000 ft
c = surface temperature = 70F
Solve for m (i.e. slope or temperature gradient)
m =
y - c
Therefore:
250 - 70
m =
15,000 ft
m = 0.0127ft or 1.27100 ft
Formation Temperature Calculation
Assume:
m = temperature gradient = 0.0127ft
x = formation depth = 8,000 ft
c = surface temperature = 70
Remember:
y = mx + c
Therefore:
y = (0.012) x (8,000) + 70
y = 166 formation temperature at 8,000 ft
After a formation's temperature is determined either by
chart (Fig. 8) or by calculation, the resistivities of the
different fluids (R
m
, R
mf
, or R
w
) can be corrected to
formation temperature. Figure 9 is a chart that is used for
correcting fluid resistivities to formation temperature. This
chart is closely approximated by the Arp's formula:
R-rf =
R
tem
P
x (Temp + 6.77)/(T
f
+ 6.77)
Where:
R
Tf
= resistivity at formation temperature
Rtemp
=
resistivity at a temperature other than formation
temperature
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
Temp = temperature at which resistivity was measured
T
f
= formation temperature
Using a formation temperature of 166 and assuming an
R
w
of 0.04 measured at 70, the R
w
at 166 will be:
R,
w!66
0.04 x (70+ 6.77)/(166 + 6.77)
R
w l 6 6
= 0.018
Resistivity values of the drilling mud (R
m
), mud filtrate
(R
raf
), mudcake (R
mc
), and the temperatures at which they
are measured, are recorded on a log's header (Fig. 2). The
resistivity of a formation's water (R
w
) is obtained by
analysis of water samples from a drill stem test, a water
producing well, or from a catalog of water resistivity
values. Formation water resistivity (R
w
) is also determined
from the spontaneous potential log (discussed in Chapter II)
or can be calculated in water zones (i.e., S
w
= 100%) by
the apparent water resistivity (R
wa
) method (see Chapter
VI).
Fundamental Equations
Table 2 is a list of fundamental equations that are used for
the log evaluation of potential hydrocarbon reservoirs.
These formulas are discussed in detail in subsequent
chapters.
Table 2. Fundamental Equations of Well Log
Interpretation.
Porosity:
Sonic Log
Density Log
Neutron-Density Log
0SONIC
=
<f>DEN
=
4>N-D =
At
Atf
J-
- AW
- Au
Pma ~ Pb
Pma - Pf
4>N
2
+ 4>D
2
2
Formation Factor:
F = a/</>
m
General
F = 1.0/^2 Carbonates
F = 0.81/$
2
Consolidated Sandstones
F = 0.62/<p2 is Unconsolidated Sands
Formation Water Resistivity:
SSP=-Kxl og(R
m)
/ R
w
)
F
R*
Water Saturations:
S
w
t= F x (R
w
/R,)
S
X0
"=Fx(R
mf
/ R
X0
)
Sw =
f iWRt \ -
625
\R
mf
/R
w
/
water saturation uninvaded
zone
water saturation flushed zone
water saturation ratio method
Bulk Volume Water:
BVW = 0 X S
w
Permeability
K
e
= [25Ox(03/ S
wi r r
)Poi l
K
e
= permeability in millidarcies
K
e
= [ 79x( 03/ s
wi r r
) ] 2
g
as
S
w irr
= irreducible water saturation
+n = saturation exponent which varies from 1.8 to 2.5 but most
often equals 2.0
Review - Chapter I
1. The four most fundamental rock properties used in
petrophysical logging are (1) porosity; (2) permeability; (3)
water saturation; and (4) resistivity.
2. The Archie equation for water saturation is:
^\u
Fxj O
/ n
R,
Where:
S
w
= water saturation of uninvaded zone
F = formation factor
R
w
= formation water resistivity
R, = formation resistivity (uninvaded zone)
3. Where a porous and permeable formation is
penetrated by the drill bit, the drilling mud invades the
formation as mud filtrate (R
ra
f).
4. The invasion of the porous and permeable formation
by mud filtrate creates invasion zones (R
xo
and Rj) and an
uninvaded zone (R
t
). Shallow, medium, and deep reading
resistivity logging tools provide information about the
invaded and uninvaded zones and about the depth of
invasion.
5. The lithology of a formation must be known because:
(1) porosity logs require a matrix valuesandstone,
limestone, or dolomitein order to determine porosity; (2)
the formation factor varies with lithology; (3) the variation
in formation factor causes changes in water saturation
values.
6. The four fluids that affect logging measurements are:
(1) drilling mud, R
m
; (2) mud filtrate, R
mf
; (3) formation
water, R
w
; and (4) hydrocarbons.
7. The resistivities of the drilling mud (R
m
), mudcake
(R
mc
), mud filtrate (R
m
f) and formation water (R
w
) all vary
with changes in temperature. Consequently, a formation's
temperature (T
f
) must be determined and all resistivities
corrected to T
f
.
6
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION

o
A
Resistivity of the zone
Resistivity of the
Water in the zone
Water Saturation
in the zone.
MUD
0
ADJACENT BED
0
3 1 0 H DIAMETERS)
ADJAC
ENT BED
h-^
r
l
HOLE
DIAMETER
* Kor a step-contact invasion profile
(i.e. no transition zone or annulus
zone), d, d,.
Figure 1. The borehole environment and symbols used in log interpretation. This schematic diagram illustrates an idealized
version of what happens when fluids from the borehole invade the surrounding rock. Dotted lines indicate the cylindrical
nature of the invasion.
Courtesy, Schlumberger Well Services.
Copyright 1977, Schlumberger.
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
Schlumberger
DUAL INDUCTION SF L
W I TH LINEAR CORRELATION LOG
t
|
Q
<
2 * u
8 " 2 *
COMPANY-
WELL.
F IELD.
COUNTY. .STATE.
API SERIAL NO SEC
Other Services:
F DC/ CNL/ GR
HDT
Permanent nn. . , m. GRQLJND L E V E L
Log Measured From.
w
UK
Elev, 3731
Above Perm. Datum
Drilling Measured F rom_ KB
Elev.: K.B.
D.F.
G.L.
37^ 2
T73T
Date
6- 11- 79
Run No.
Dept h-Dri l l er
DepthLogger
Btm. Log Interval
Top Log Interval
CasingDriller
Casi ng-Logger
Bit Size
Type Fluid in Hole
Dens. Vise.
pH Fluid Loss
Source of Sample
Rm @ Meas. Temp.
Rmf @ Meas. Temp
Rmc @ Meas. Temp
Source: Rntf | Rmc
Rm (SBHT
"J Circulation Stopped
p Logger on Bottom
Max. Rec. Temp.
Equip. Location
Recorded By
Witnessed By MR.
*BHT = Bottom Hole Temperature
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
Figure 2. Reproduction of a typical log heading. Information on the header about the resistivity values for drilling mud (R
m
) and
mud filtrate (R
mf
) are especially useful in log interpretation and are used in calculations.
NOTE: Sometimes, as in this example, a value for the resistivity of mudcake (R
mc
) is not recorded on the heading.
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
STEP PROF ILE
Borehole
Wall
'xo
Ro
1
Distance-
TRANSITION PROF ILE ANNULUS PROF ILE
A
Borehol e
^ W a l l
Rxo
" ^ ^ R i
|Rpn
1
1
Rt
Ro
a
J
Distance Distance'
R
0
resistivity of the zone with pores 100% fil l ed with
formation water ( Rw) Also cal l ed wet resistivity.
o
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
Figure 3. Typical invasion profiles for three idealized versions of fluid distributions in the vicinity of the borehole.
As mud filtrate (R
m
f) moves into a porous and permeable formation, it can invade the formation in several different ways.
Various fluid distributions are represented by the step, transition, or annulus profiles.
A. Step ProfileMud filtrate is distributed with a cylindrical shape around the borehole and creates an invaded zone. The
cylindrically shaped invaded zone is characterized by its abrupt contact with the uninvaded zone. The diameter of
the cylinder is represented as dj. In the invaded zone, pores are filled with mud filtrate (R
m
f); pores in the
uninvaded zone are filled with formation water (R
w
) or hydrocarbons. In this example the uninvaded zone is wet
(100% water and no hydrocarbons), thus the resistivity beyond the invaded zone is low. The resistivity of the
invaded zone is R
xo
, and the resistivity of the uninvaded zone is either R,, if a formation is water-bearing, or R, if a
formation is hydrocarbon-bearing.
B. Transition ProfileThis is the most realistic model of true borehole conditions. Here again invasion is cylindrical, but
in this profile, the invasion of the mud filtrate (R
mf
) diminishes gradually, rather than abruptly, through a transition
zone toward the outer boundary of the invaded zone (see dj on diagram for location of outer boundary).
In the flushed part (R
xo
) of the invaded zone, pores are filled with mud filtrate (R
m
f), giving a high resistivity
reading. In the transition part of the invaded zone, pores are filled with mud filtrate (R
m
f), formation water (R
w
),
and, if present, residual hydrocarbons (RH). Beyond the outer boundary of the invaded zone (dj on diagram),
pores are filled with either formation water, or (if present) hydrocarbons. In this diagram, hydrocarbons are not
present, so resistivity of the uninvaded zone is low. The resistivity of the invaded zone's flushed part is R
xo
, and
the resistivity of the transition part is R;. Resistivity of the uninvaded zone is R
t
if hydrocarbon-bearing or R,, if
water-bearing.
C. Annulus ProfileThis reflects a temporary fluid distribution, and is a condition which should disappear with time (if
the logging operation is delayed, it may not be recorded on the logs at all). The annulus profile represents a fluid
distribution which occurs between the invaded zone and the uninvaded zone and denotes the presence of
hydrocarbons.
In the flushed part (R
xo
) of the invaded zone, pores are filled with both mud filtrate (R
mf
) and residual
hydrocarbons (RH). Thus the resistivity reads high. Pores beyond the flushed part of the invaded zone (R;) are
filled with a mixture of mud filtrate (R
mf
), formation water (R
w
), and residual hydrocarbons (RH).
Beyond the outer boundary of the invaded zone is the annulus zone where pores are filled with residual
hydrocarbons (RH) and formation water (R
w
). When an annulus profile is present, there is an abrupt drop in
measured resistivity at the outer boundary of the invaded zone. The abrupt resistivity drop is due to the high
concentration of formation water (R
w
) in the annulus zone. Formation water has been pushed ahead by the
invading mud filtrate into the annulus zone. This causes a temporary absence of hydrocarbons which, in their turn,
have been pushed ahead of formation water.
Beyond the annulus is the uninvaded zone where pores are filled with formation water (R
w
) and hydrocarbons.
Remember that true resitivity of a formation can be measured in the uninvaded zone because of its virgin nature.
True resistivity (R
(
) will be higher than the wet resistivity (R
0
) because hydrocarbons have a higher resistivity than
saltwater.
II
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
RADIAL DISTRIBUTION
OF RESISTIVITIES
R
mf >
> R
w
F RESH MUDS
R
mf
R
w
SALT MUDS
RESI STI VI TY P ROF I LE - W ATER ZONE
INVADED N.
ZONE X
/ FLUSHEDN. \
/ ZONE X \
/ / H O L E A \ 1
\ V
R
m / J 1
\ ^ "xo
"i
1
\
/
I
T
Y

R
E
S
I
S
T
I

i
R
xo
R
" 0
MUD CAKE- '
i
R
E
S
I
S
T
I
V
I
T
Y

1
R
X 0 "
R
0
1- \ l
k i INVADED ZON Ei
L-FLUSHEDZONE ]
1 INVADED ZONE
'-FLUSHED ZONE
HORIZONTAL SECTION
THROUGH A PERMEABLE
WATER-BEARING BED
UNINVADED
ZONE
Rt
S
w
> > 6 0 %
R
0
UNINVADED ZONE
o
UNINVADED ZONE
12
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
Figure 4. Horizontal section through a permeable water-bearing formation and the concomitant resistivity profiles which occur
when there is invasion by either freshwater- or saltwater-based drilling muds (see Fig. 5 for resistivity profiles in a
hydrocarbon-bearing formation).
Note: These examples are shown because freshwater muds and saltwater muds are used in different geographic regions,
usually exclusively. The geologist needs to be aware that a difference exists. To find out which mud is used in your area, ask
your drilling engineer. The type of mud used affects the log package selected, as we will see later.
Freshwater MudsThe resistivity of the mud filtrate (R
m
f) is greater than the resistivity of the formation water (R
w
)
because of the varying salt content (remember, saltwater is conductive). A general rule when freshwater muds are
used is: R
mf
> 3R
W
. The flushed zone (R
xo
), which has a greater amount of mud filtrate, will have higher
resistivities. Away from the borehole, the resistivity of the invaded zone (R[) will decrease due to the decreasing
amount of mud filtrate (R
m
f) and the increasing amount of formation water (R
w
).
With a water-bearing formation, the resistivity of the uninvaded zone will be low because the pores are filled with
formation water (R
w
). In the uninvaded zone, true resistivity (R
t
) will be equal to wet resistivity (RJ because the
formation is 100% saturated with formation water (R
t
= R where the formation is 100% saturation with formation
water).
lb summarize: in a water-bearing zone, the resistivity of the flushed zone (R
xo
) is greater than the resistivity of the
invaded zone (Rj) which in turn has a greater resistivity than the uninvaded zone (R
t
). Therefore: R
xo
> Rj R
t
in water-bearing zones.
Saltwater MudsBecause the resistivity of mud filtrate (R
m
f) is approximately equal to the resistivity of formation water
(R
m
f = R
w
), there is no appreciable difference in the resistivity from the flushed (R
xo
) to the invaded zone (Rj) to
the uninvaded zone (R
xo
= R; = R
t
); all have low resistivities.
Both the above examples assume that the water saturation of the uninvaded zone is much greater than 60%.
13
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
RESI STI VI TY P ROF I LE - HY DROCARBON ZONE
RADIAL DISTRIBUTION
OF RESISTIVITIES
R
mf
> > R
w
F RESH MUDS
"mf Rw
SALT MUDS
HORIZONTAL SECTION
THROUGH A PERMEABLE
OIL-BEARING BED
:J MUD CAKE-
7
! \
!
L |
to
CO
UJ
INVADED ZONE
F LUSHED ZONE
UNINVADED
ZONE
Rt
\
UNINVADED ZONE
ANNULUS
k INVADED ZONE K UNINVADED ZONE
^-F LUSHED ZONE - ANNULUS
14
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
Figure 5. Horizontal section through a permeable hydrocarbon-bearing formation and the concomitant resistivity profiles which
occur when there is invasion by either freshwater- or saltwater-based drilling muds (see Fig. 4 for resistivity profiles in a
water-bearing formation).
Freshwater MudsBecause the resistivity of both the mud filtrate (R
mf
) and residual hydrocarbons (RH) is much greater
than formation water (R
w
), the resistivity of the flushed zone (R
xo
) is comparatively high (remember that the
flushed zone has mud filtrate and some residual hydrocarbons).
Beyond its flushed part (R
xo
), the invaded zone (Rj) has a mixture of mud filtrate (R
mf
), formation water (R
w
), and
some residual hydrocarbons (RH). Such a mixture causes high resistivities. In some cases, resistivity of the
invaded zone (Rj) almost equals that of the flushed zone (R
xo
).
The presence of hydrocarbons in the uninvaded zone causes higher resistivity than if the zone had only formation
water (R
w
), because hydrocarbons are more resistant than formation water. So, R
t
> R. The resistivity of the
uninvaded zone (R,) is normally somewhat less than the resistivity of the flushed and invaded zones (R
xo
and Rj).
However, sometimes when an annulus profile is present, the invaded zone's resistivity (Rj) may be slightly lower
than the uninvaded zone's resistivity (R
t
).
To summarize: therefore, R
I0
> Rj R
t
in hydrocarbon-bearing zones.
Saltwater MudsBecause the resistivity of the mud filtrate (R
mf
) is approximately equal to the resistivity of formation
water (R
mf
= R
w
), and the amount of residual hydrocarbons (RH) is low, the resistivity of the flushed zone (R
xo
) is
low.
Away from the borehole as more hydrocarbons mix with mud filtrate in the invaded zone, the resistivity of the
invaded zone (Rj) begins to increase.
Resistivity of the uninvaded zone (R
t
) is much greater than if the formation was at 100% water saturation (R)
because hydrocarbons are more resistant than saltwater. Resistivity of the uninvaded zone is greater than the
resistivity of the invaded (Rj) zone. So, R
t
> R; > R
xo
.
Both the above examples assume that the water saturation of the uninvaded zone is much less than 60%.
15
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
QL.RA..L..J
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16
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
Figure 6A. Example of Dual Induction Focused Log curves through a water-bearing zone. Given: the drilling mud is
freshwater-based (R
mf
> 3R
W
).
We've seen that where freshwater drilling muds invade a water-bearing formation (S
w
60%), there is high resistivity in
the flushed zone (R
M
), a lesser resistivity in the invaded zone (Rj), and a low resistivity in the uninvaded zone (R,). See
Figure 4 for review.
Ignore the left side of the log on the opposite page, and compare the three curves on the right side of the log (tracks #2 and
#3). Resistivity values are higher as distance increases from the left side of the log.
Log Curve RILDDeep induction log resistivity curves measure true resistivity (R
t
) or the resistivity of the formation,
deep beyond the outer boundary of the invaded zone. This is a measure of the uninvaded zone. In water-bearing
zones (in this case from 5,870 to 5,970 ft), the curve will read a low resistivity because the resistivity of the
formation water (R
w
) is less than the resistivity of the mud filtrate (R
mf
).
Log Curve RILMMedium induction log resistivity curves measure the resistivity of the invaded zone (R
;
). In a
water-bearing formation, the curve will read intermediate resistivity because of the mixture of formation water
(R
w
) and mud filtrate (R
mf
).
Log Curve R
SFL
Spherically Focused Log* resistivity curves measure the resistivity of the flushed zone (R
xo
). In a
water-bearing zone, the curve will read high resistivity because freshwater mud filtrate (R
mf
) has a high resistivity.
The SFL* pictured here records a greater resistivity than either the deep (Ri u)
or
medium (RiL
m
) induction curves.
17
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
CAL1JJN.)
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18
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
Figure 6B. Example of Dual Laterolog* - Microspherically Focused Log (MSFL)* curves through a water-bearing zone. Given:
the drilling mud is saltwater-based (R
mf
R
w
).
We've seen that where saltwater drilling muds invade a water-bearing formation (S
w
60%), there is low resistivity in the
flushed zone (R
xo
), a low resistivity in the invaded zone (Rj), and low resistivity in the uninvaded zone (R
t
). Because R
m
f is
approximately equal to R
w
, the pores in the flushed (R
xo
), invaded (Rj), and uninvaded (R
t
) zones are all filled with saline
waters; the presence of salt results in low resistivity. See Figure 4 for review.
Ignore the left side of the log on the opposite page, and compare the three curves on the right side of the log (tracks #2 and
#3). Resistivity values are higher as distance increases from the left side of the log.
Log Curve LLDDeep Laterolog* resistivity curves measure true resistivity (R
t
) or the resistivity of the formation deep
beyond the outer boundary of the invaded zone. In water-bearing zones (in this case from 9,830 to 9,980 ft), the
curve will read low resistivity because the pores of the formation are saturated with connate water (R
w
).
Log Curve LLSShallow Laterolog* resistivity curves measure the resistivity in the invaded zone (Rj). In a
water-bearing zone the shallow Laterolog* (LLS) will record a low resistivity because R
mf
is approximately equal
toR
w
.
Log Curve SFLMicrospherically Focused Log* resistivity curves measure the resistivity of the flushed zone (R
xo
). In
water-bearing zones the curve will record low resistivity because saltwater mud filtrate has low resistivity. The
resistivity recorded by the Microspherically Focused Log* will be low and approximately equal to the resistivities
of the invaded and uninvaded zones.
19
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
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20
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
Figure 7A. Example of Dual Induction Focused Log curves through a hydrocarbon-bearing zone. Given: the drilling mud is
freshwater-based (R
mf
> 3R
W
).
We've seen that where freshwater drilling muds invade a hydrocarbon-bearing formation (S
w
60%), there is high
resistivity in the flushed zone (R
x0
), high resistivity in the invaded zone (R;), and high resistivity in the uninvaded zone
(R
t
). But, normally, beyond the flushed zone some diminishment of resistivity takes place. See Figure 5 for review.
Ignore the left side of the log on the opposite page, and compare the three curves on the right side of the log (tracks #2 and
#3) . Resistivity values are higher as distance increases from the left side of the log.
Log Curve ILDDeep induction log resistivity curves measure the true resistivity (R
t
) or the resistivity of the formation
deep beyond the outer boundary of the invaded zone. This is a measure of the uninvaded zone. In
hydrocarbon-bearing zones (in this case from 8,748 to 8,774 ft), the curve will read a high resistivity because
hydrocarbons are more resistant than saltwater in the formation (R, > R
0
).
Log Curve ILMMedium induction log resistivity curves measure the resistivity of the invaded zone (R;). In a
hydrocarbon-bearing zone, because of a mixture of mud filtrate (R
m
f), formation water (R
w
), and residual
hydrocarbons (RH) in the pores, the curve will record a high resistivity. This resistivity is normally equal to or
slightly more than the deep induction curve (ILD). But, in an annulus situation, the medium curve (ILM) may
record a resistivity slightly less than the deep induction (ILD) curve.
Log Curve SFLSpherically Focused Log* resistivity curves measure the resistivity of the flushed zone (R
xo
). In a
hydrocarbon-bearing zone, the curve will read a higher resistivity than the deep (ILD) or medium (ILM) induction
curves because the flushed zone (R
xa
) contains mud filtrate and residual hydrocarbons. The SFL* pictured here
records a greater resistivity than either the deep (ILD) or medium (ILM) induction curves.
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
_
CAL I P ER 4 1 M L la i H k n
t SAMMA RAT AP I u i l l l 1 0 0
1 0 0 t O O
<
S
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Ther momet er Br oke
22
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
Figure 7B. Example of Dual Laterolog* - Microspherically Focused Log (MSFL)* curves through a hydrocarbon-bearing zone.
Given: the drilling mud is saltwater-based (R
mf
R
w
).
We 've seen that where saltwater drilling muds invade a hydrocarbon-bearing zone (S
w
60%), there is low resistivity in
the flushed zone (R
xo
), an intermediate resistivity in the invaded zone (Rj), and high resistivity in the uninvaded zone (R,).
The reason for the increase in resistivities deeper into the formation is because of the increasing hydrocarbon saturation.
See Figure 5 for review.
Ignore the left side of the log on the opposite page, and compare the three curves on the right side of the log (tracks #2 and
#3). Resistivity values are higher as distance increases from the left side of the log.
Log Curve LLDDeep Laterolog* resistivity curves measure true resistivity (R
t
), or the resistivity of the formation deep
beyond the outer boundary of the invaded zone. In hydrocarbon-bearing zones (in this case from 9,306 to 9,409
ft), the curve will read high resistivity because of high hydrocarbon saturation in the uninvaded zone (R
t
).
Log Curve LLSShallow Laterolog* resistivity curves measure the resistivity in the invaded zone (R
;
). In a
hydrocarbon-bearing zone, the shallow Laterolog* (LLS) will record a lower resistivity than the deep Laterolog*
(LLD) because the invaded zone (Rj) has a lower hydrocarbon saturation than the uninvaded zone (R
t
).
Log Curve SFLMicrospherically Focused Log* resistivity curves measure the resistivity of the flushed zone (R
xo
). In
hydrocarbon-bearing zones, the curve will record low resistivity because saltwater mud filtrate has low resistivity
and the residual hydrocarbon (RH) saturation in the flushed zone (R
xo
) is low. Therefore, in a
hydrocarbon-bearing zone with saltwater-based drilling mud, the uninvaded zone (R
t
) has high resistivity, the
invaded zone (R,) has a lower resitivity, and the flushed zone (R
xo
) has the lowest resistivity.
23
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
ESTIMATION OF F ORMATION TEMPERATURE
4>
I
I
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
180OO
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U 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340
|_mean surface temperature F
temperature
24
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
Figure 8. Chart for estimating formation temperature (T
f
) with depth (linear gradient assumed).
Courtesy, Dresser Industries.
Copyright 1975, Dresser Atlas.
Given:
Surface temperature = 80
Bottom hole temperature (BHT) = 180
Total depth (TD) = 10,000 feet
Formation depth = 6,000 feet
Procedure:
1. Locate BHT (180F) on the 80 scale (bottom of the chart; surface temperature = 80F).
2. Follow BHT (180) vertically up until it intersects 10,000 ft (TD) line. This intersection defines the
temperature gradient.
3. Follow the temperature gradient line up to 6,000 ft (formation depth).
4. Formation temperature (140) is read on the bottom scale vertically down from the point where the 6,000 ft line
intersects the temperature gradient.
NOTE: In the United States (as an example) 80 is used commonly as the mean surface temperature in the Southern States,
and 60 is used commonly in the Northern States. However, a person can calculate his own mean surface temperature if
such precision is desired.
25
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6

BASIC RELATIONSHIPS OF WELL LOG INTERPRETATION
Figure 9. Because resistivity varies with changes in temperature, you must adjust before calculation. Use the chart on the opposite
page.
Courtesy, Schlumberger Well Services.
Copyright 1972, Schlumberger.
Given: Resistivity of drilling mud (R
m
) equals 1.2 at 75F. Formation temperature (T
f
) = 160.
Procedure:
1. Locate the resistivity value, 1.2, on the scale at the bottom of the chart.
2. Follow the vertical line up to a temperature value of 75F (point A on the chart).
3. Follow the diagonal line (constant salinity) to where it intersects a temperature value of 160F (point B on the
chart).
4. From point B, follow the vertical line to the scale at the bottom, and find a resistivity value of 0.56.
27
CHAPTER II
THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG
General
This chapter and succeeding chapters (III through V)
introduce the reader to specific log types such as SP,
resistivity, porosity, and gamma ray logs. The text discusses
how different log types measure various properties in the
well bore and surrounding formations, what factors affect
these measurements, where a particular curve is recorded,
and how data are obtained from the log using both charts
and mathematical formulas.
The spontaneous potential (SP) log was one of the earliest
electric logs used in the petroleum industry, and has
continued to play a significant role in well log
interpretation. By far the largest number of wells today have
this type of log included in their log suites. Primarily the
spontaneous potential log is used to identify impermeable
zones such as shale, and permeable zones such as sand.
However, as will be discussed later, the SP log has several
other uses perhaps equally important.
The spontaneous potential log is a record of direct current
(DC) voltage differences between the naturally occurring
potential of a moveable electrode in the well bore, and the
potential of a fixed electrode located at the surface (Doll,
1948). It is measured in millivolts.
Electric currents arising primarily from electrochemical
factors within the borehole create the SP log response.
These electrochemical factors are brought about by
differences in salinities between mud filtrate (R
m
f) and
formation water resistivity (R
w
) within permeable beds.
Because a conductive fluid is needed in the borehole for the
SP log to operate, it cannot be used in non-conductive (i.e.
oil-based) drilling muds.
The SP log is recorded on the left hand track of the log in
track #1 and is used to: (1) detect permeable beds, (2)
detect boundaries of permeable beds, (3) determine
formation water resistivity (R
w
), and (4) determine the
volume of shale in permeable beds. An auxiliary use of the
SP curve is in the detection of hydrocarbons by the
suppression of the SP response.
The concept of static spontaneous potential (SSP) is
important because SSP represents the maximum SP that a
thick, shale-free, porous and permeable formation can have
for a given ratio between Rmf/R*,. SSP is determined by
formula or chart and is a necessary element for determining
accurate values of R
w
and volume of shale. The SP value
that is measured in the borehole is influenced by bed
thickness, bed resistivity, invasion, borehole diameter, shale
content, and most importantthe ratio of R
mf
/R
w
(Fig.10a).
Bed thicknessAs a formation thins (i.e. < 10 feet
thick) the SP measured in the borehole will record an SP
value less than SSP (Fig. 10b). However, the SP curve can
be corrected by chart for the effects of bed thickness. As a
general rule whenever the SP curve is narrow and pointed in
shape, the SP should be corrected for bed thickness.
Bed resistivityHigher resistivities reduce the deflection
oftheSP curves.
Borehole and invasionHilchie (1978) indicates that the
effects of borehole diameter and invasion on the SP log are
very small and, in general, can be ignored.
Shale contentThe presence of shale in a permeable
formation reduces the SP deflection (Fig. 10b). In
water-bearing zones the amount of SP reduction is
proportional to the amount of shale in the formation. In
hydrocarbon-bearing zones the amount of SP reduction is
greater than the volume of shale and is called "hydrocarbon
suppression" (Hilchie, 1978).
The SP response of shales is relatively constant and
follows a straight line called a shale baseline. SP curve
deflections are measured from this shale baseline.
Permeable zones are indicated where there is SP deflection
from the shale baseline. For example, if the SP curve moves
either to the left (negative deflection; R
mf
> R
w
) or to the
right (positive deflection; R
mf
< R
w
) of the shale baseline,
permeable zones are present. Permeable bed boundaries
are detected by the point of inflection from the shale
baseline.
But, take note, when recording non-permeable zones or
permeable zones where R
mf
is equal to R
w
, the SP curve
will not deflect from the shale baseline. The magnitude of
SP deflection is due to the difference in resistivity between
mud filtrate (R
mf
) and formation water (R
w
) and not to the
amount of permeability.
Resistivity of Formation Water (R
w
)
Calculated from the SP Curve
Figure 11 is an electric induction log with an SP curve
from a Pennsylvanian upper Morrow sandstone in Beaver
County, Oklahoma. In this example, the SP curve is used to
find a value for R
w
by the following procedure: After you
determine the formation temperature, you correct the
resistivities (obtained from the log heading) of the mud
filtrate (R
mf
) and drilling mud (R
m
) to formation
temperature (see Chapter I).
Next, to minimize for the effect of bed thickness, the SP
28
THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG
is corrected to static SP (SSP). SSP represents the
maximum SP a formation can have if unaffected by bed
thickness. Figure 12 is a chart used to correct SP to SSP.
The data necessary to use this chart are: (1) bed thickness,
(2) resistivity from the shallow-reading resistivity tool (R,),
and (3) the resistivity of the drilling mud (R
m
) at formation
temperature.
Once the value of SSP is determined, it is used on the
chart illustrated in Figure 13 to obtain a value for the
R
m)
/R
we
ratio. Equivalent resistivity (R
we
) is obtained by
dividing R
mf
by the R
m
f/R
we
v a m e
fr
m t n e
chart (Fig. 13).
The value of R
we
is then corrected to R
w
, using the chart
illustrated in Figure 14, for average deviation from sodium
chloride solutions, and for the influence of formation
temperature. A careful examination of Figures 11-14 should
help you gain an understanding of the R
w
from SP
procedure. But, rather than using charts in the procedure,
you might prefer using the mathematical formulas listed in
Table 3.
It is important to remember that normally the SP curve
has less deflection in hydrocarbon-bearing zones; this is
called hydrocarbon suppression, and results in too high a
Ibble 3. Mathematical Calculation of R
w
from SSP (modified after Bateman & Konen, 1977).
Instead of charts, some individuals may prefer using these formulas, especially if they want to computerize the procedure.
R
raf
at75F = R
m(K
J X (temp + 6.77)/81.77
Correction of R
mf
to 75
K = 60 + (0.133 x T
f
)
R
mf e
/R
we
= 10-ssp/Ktt
R
mfe
= (146 X R
mf
- 5)/(337 x R
mf
+ 77)
R^,. formula if R
mf
at 75F < 0.1
Rmfe = 0.85 X R
mf
R^e formula if R
mf
at 75 > 0.1
R\ve
=
Rmfe/(R
m
fe/Rwe)
R^ at 75F = (77 X R
we
+ 5)/(146 - 377 x R
we
)
R*. at 75 formula if R
we
< 0.12
R
w
at 75 F= - [0.58 - 10'
(0.69xRwe-0.24)
R
w
at 75 formula i f R
we
> 0.12
R
w
at formation temperature = R
w
at 75 x 81.77/(T
t
+ 6.77)
t
R
mf lemp
= R
mf
at a temperature other than 75F
t1
The e subscript (i.e. R
mfe
) stands tor equivalent resistivity.
THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG
kg
S
H
A

B
A
S
E

L
I
N
E

%
'
RMF = RW
RMF>RW
RMF:*>RW
RMF<RW
kj
si
I
SSP
SP
. RMFRW
5 _ ALL SANDS
-si
kj
^ E = | THICK CLEAN
91
rr-rl
WE T S AND
3
PSP
SP
PSP
i
THIN SAND
THICK SHALY
WET SAND
THICK CLEAN
GAS SAND
THICK SHALY
GAS SAND
10A
SSP- Kxl og(RMF/ Rw)
10B
30
THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG
Figure 10. Examples of SP deflection from the shale baseline.
10ASP deflection with different resistivities of mud filtrate (R
mf
) and formation water (R
w
). Where resistivity of
the mud filtrate (R^) is equal to the resistivity of the formation water (R
w
) there is no deflection, positive or
negative, from the shale baseline.
Where R
mf
is greater than R
w
, the SP line kicks to the left of the shale baseline (negative deflection). Where R
mf
greatly exceeds R
w
, the deflection is proportionately greater.
Where R
mf
is less than R
w
, the kick is to the right of the shale baseline. This is called positive deflection.
Remember, the spontaneous potential log (SP) is used only with conductive (saltwater-based) drilling muds.
10BSP deflection with resistivity of the mud filtrate (Rmf) much greater than formation water (R
w
). SSP (static
spontaneous potential) at the top of the diagram, is the maximum deflection possible in a thick, shale-free, and
water-bearing ("wet") sandstone for a given ratio of R
m
f/R
w
. All other deflections are less, and are relative in
magnitude.
SP (spontaneous potential) is the SP response due to the presence of thin beds and/or the presence of gas. PSP
(pseudo-static spontaneous potential) is the SP response if shale is present.
Note at bottom of diagram: A formula for the theoretical calculated value of SSP is given. SSP = K x log
(Rmj/RJ, where K = (.133 x T
f
) + 60.
31
THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG
SPONTANEOUS- POTENTIAL
MILLIVOLTS
-
20


-
-
-
-K
c[
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T*^
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CONDUCTI V
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Hi 138 F
F
32
THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG
Figure 11. Determination of formation water resistivity (R^,) from an SP log. This example is an exercise involving the charts on
Figures 12 through 14.
Given:
R
mf
=0.51atl35(BHT)
R,n = 0.91 at 135 (BHT)
Surface temperature = 60F
Total depth = 8,007 ft
Bottom Hole Temperature (BHT) = 135F
From the Log track:
1. SP = 40mv (spontaneous potential measured from log at a formation depth of 7,446 ft and uncorrected for
bed thickness). It is measured here as two 20mv divisions from the shale baseline. The deflection is negative,
so the value (-40mv) is negative.
2. Bed thickness equals 8 ft (7,442 to 7,450 ft).
3. Resistivity short normal (Ri) equals 28 ohm-meters.
4. Formation depth equals 7,446 ft.
Procedure:
1. Determine 7}Use Figure 8 to determine the temperature of the formation (T
f
). Use BHT = 135F, TD =
8,007 ft, surface temperature = 60F, and formation depth = 7,446 ft. (Your answer should be 130F).
2. Correct R
m
and R
mf
to 7)Use Figure 9 to correct the values for the resistivity of mud and of mud filtrate,
using T
f
(130F) from step 1. Use R
m
= 0.91 at 135F and R
mf
= 0.51 at 135F. (Your answers should be: R
m
= 0.94 at 130F and R
mf
= 0.53 at 130F).
3. Determine SPRead directly from the SP curve in Fig. 11. It measures two units (at a scale of 20 mv per
division) from the shale baseline. The deflection is negative, so your answer is also (40 mv) negative.
4. Correct SP to SSPCorrecting SP for the thin-bed effect will give a value for SSP; use the chart in Figure 12
to find the SP Correction Factor.
Given Ri/R
m
(or R
sn
/R
m
) = 28/0.94 = 30. Bed thickness (read from SP log) Fig. 11 equals 8 ft. Correction
factor (from Fig. 12)= 1.3.
SSP = SP X SP Correction factor (Fig. 12)
SSP = ( - 40mv) x 1.3
SSP = - 52 mv (Your answer)
5. Determine R
m{
/R
we
ratioUse the chart in Figure 13 (Your answer should be 5.0).
6. Determine R
we
Divide the corrected value for R
mf
by the ratio R
mf
/R
we
value.
R\e
=
RmP
/
(Rmf'Rwe)
R^ = 0.53/5.0
R
we
= 0.106
7. Correct R
we
to R
w
Use the chart in Figure 14, and the R
we
value in step 6 (Your answer should be R
w
= 0.11
atT
f
).
NOTE: The term short normal describes a log used to measure the shallow formation resistivity, or the resistivity
of the invaded zone (R;). Short normal resistivity (R^) was used in Procedure Step 4 above, and its use as a
logging/resistivity term is common.
THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG
SP CORRECTION
8
1
1
1.0 1.2 1.3 1.5
9 10
SP correction factor
34
THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG
Figure 12. Chart for finding SP Correction Factor used to correct SP to SSP (see exercise, Fig. 11).
Courtesy, Dresser Industries.
Copyright 1975, Dresser Atlas.
Defined:
R, = shallow resistivity
Rn, = resistivity of drilling mud at formation temperature
Example:
R/Rm = 30
Bed Thickness = 8 ft
Procedure:
1. Locate a bed thickness on the vertical scale (in this case 8 ft).
2. Follow the value horizontally across until it intersects the Rj/R
m
curve (in this example Ri/R
m
= 30, so point
will be to the right of the 20 curve).
3. Drop vertically from this intersection and read the SP correction factor on the scale across the bottom (in this
example, a value of 1.3).
4. Multiply SP by the SP Correction Factor to find SSP.
For the exercise in Figure 11:
SSP = SP x Correction Factor
SSP = -40mv x 1.3 (-40mv is SP value taken at 7,446 ft, see Fig. 11)
SSP=-52mv
35
THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG
. ' , . . ' . . " /
^^^^^^^^^^^^
GRAPHIC SOLUTION OF THE SP EQUATION
oi
e *
spontaneous potential (millivolts)
36
THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG
Figure 13. Chart used for determining the R
m
f/R
we
ratio from SSP values.
Courtesy, Dresser Industries.
Copyright 1975, Dresser Atlas.
Example:
SSP = -52mv (from SP log and Fig. 12)
T
f
= 130F
Procedure:
1. Locate an SSP value on the vertical scale (in this case -52mv).
2. Follow the value horizontally across until it intersects the sloping formation temperature line (130F; imagine
one between the lines for 100 and 150 temperature lines).
3. Drop vertically from this intersection and read the ratio value on the bottom scale (in this example, the ratio
value is5.0).
37
THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG
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38
THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG
Figure 14. Chart for determining a resistivity value for R
w
from R
we
.
Courtesy, Dresser Industries.
Copyright 1975, Dresser Atlas.
Given:
R
we
is calculated by dividing R
mf
corrected to formation temperature (T
f
) by the ratio R
mi
/R
we
. From the exercise
example you can calculate R
we
= 0.53/5 or R
we
= 0.106. R
mf
atT
f
= 0.53. T
f
= 130F.
Procedure:
1. Locate the value of R
we
on the vertical scale (in this case 0.106).
2. Follow it horizontally until it intersects the temperature curve desired (in this case 130F between the 100 and
150 temperature curves).
3. Drop vertically from the intersection and read a value for R
w
on the scale at the bottom (in this case 0.11).
39
THE SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL LOG
value for R
w
calculated from SSP. Therefore, to determine
R
w
from SP it is best, whenever possible, to use the SP
curve opposite known water-bearing zones.
Volume of Shale Calculation
The SP log can be used to calculate the volume of shale in
a permeable zone by the following formula:
PSP
V
s h
( i n%) =1. 0-
Where:
V
sh
= volume of shale
PSP = pseudo static spontaneous potential (SP of
shaly formation)
SSP = static spontaneous potential of a thick clean
sand or carbonate
SSP= -KxlogfJWRJ
K = 60+ (0.133 xT
f
)
The volume of shale in a sand can be used in the
evaluation of shaly sand reservoirs (Chapter VI) and as a
mapping parameter for both sandstone and carbonate facies
analysis (Chapter VII).
Review - Chapter II
1. The spontaneous potential log (SP) can be used to: (1)
detect permeable beds; (2) detect boundaries of permeable
beds; (3) determine formation water resistivity (K^); and (4)
determine volume of shale (V
sh
) in a permeable bed.
2. The variations in the SP are the result of an electric
potential that is present between the well bore and the
formation as a result of differences in salinities between R
raf
and R
w
.
3. The SP response in shales is relatively constant and its
continuity of amplitude is referred to as the shale baseline.
In permeable beds the SP will do the following relative to
the shale baseline: (1) negative deflection to the left of the
shale baseline where R
mf
> R
w
; (2) positive deflection to
the right of the shale baseline where R
mf
< R
w
; (3) no
deflection where R
mf
= R
w
.
4. The SP curve can be suppressed by thin beds,
shaliness, and the presence of gas.
40
CHAPTER III
RESISTIVITY LOGS
General
Resistivity logs are electric logs which are used to: (I)
determine hydrocarbon versus water-bearing zones, (2)
indicate permeable zones, and (3) determine resistivity
porosity. By far the most important use of resistivity logs is
the determination of hydrocarbon versus water-bearing
zones. Because the rock's matrix or grains are
non-conductive, the ability of the rock to transmit a current
is almost entirely a function of water in the pores.
Hydrocarbons, like the rock's matrix, are non-conductive;
therefore, as the hydrocarbon saturation of the pores
increases, the rock's resistivity also increases. A geologist,
by knowing a formation's water resistivity (R
w
), its porosity
((f>), and a value for the cementation exponent (m) (Table 1),
can determine a formation's water saturation (S
w
) from the
Archie equation:
ow
R,
l/n
Where:
S
w
= water saturation
F = formation factor (a/<
m
)
a = tortuosity factor
m = cementation exponent
R^ = resistivity of formation water
R, = true formation resistivity as measured by a deep
reading resistivity log
n = saturation exponent (most commonly 2.0)
The two basic types of logs in use today which measure
formation resistivity are induction and electrode logs (Table
4). The most common type of logging device is the
induction tool (Dresser Atlas, 1975).
An induction tool consists of one or more transmitting
coils that emit a high-frequency alternating current of
constant intensity. The alternating magnetic field which is
created induces secondary currents in the formation. These
secondary currents flow as ground loop currents
perpendicular to the axis of the borehole (Fig. 15), and
create magnetic fields that induce signals to the receiver
coils. The receiver signals are essentially proportional to
conductivityt, which is the reciprocal of resistivity
(Schlumberger, 1972). The multiple coils are used to focus
the resistivity measurement to minimize the effect of
materials in the borehole, the invaded zone, and other
t conductivity = 1000/resistivity. Conductivity in millimhos/meter;
resistivity in ohm-meters.
nearby formations. The two types of induction devices are
the Induction Electric Log and the Dual Induction Focused
Log.
A second type of resistivity measuring device is the
electrode log. Electrodes in the borehole are connected to a
power source (generator), and the current flows from the
electrodes through the borehole fluid into the formation,
and then to a remote reference electrode. Examples of
electrode resistivity tools include: (1) normal, (2) Lateral,
(3) Laterolog*, (4) Microlaterolog*, (5) Microlog*, (6)
Proximity Log*, and (7) spherically focused logs.
Induction logs should be used in non-salt-saturated
drilling muds (i.e. R
mf
> 3 R
w
) to obtain a more accurate
value of true resistivity (R
t
). Boreholes filled with
salt-saturated drilling muds (R
mf
R
w
) require electrode
logs, such as the Laterolog* or Dual Laterolog* with or
without a Microspherically Focused Log*, to determine
accurate R, values. Figure 16 is a chart which assists in
determining when use of an induction log is preferred over
an electrode log such as the Laterolog*.
Induction Electric Log
The Induction Electric Log (Fig. 17) is composed of three
curves: (1) short normal, (2) induction, and (3) spontaneous
potential or SR These curves are obtained simultaneously
during the logging of the well.
Short NormalThe short normal tool measures
resistivity at a shallow depth of investigation which is the
resistivity of the invaded zone (Rj). When the resistivity of
the short normal is compared with the resistivity of the
deeper measuring induction tool (R
t
), invasion is detected
by the separation between the short normal and induction
curves (Fig. 17). The presence of invasion is important
because it indicates a format ion is permeable.
The short normal tool has an electrode spacing of 16
inches and can record a reliable value for resistivity from a
bed thickness of four feet. The short normal curve is usually
recorded in track #2 (Fig. 17). Because the short normal
tool works best in conductive, high resistivity muds (where
R
mf
> 3 R
w
), salt muds (where R
mf
= R
w
) are not a good
environment for its use. In addition to providing a value for
Rj, the short normal curve can be used to calculate a value
for resistivity porosity if a correction is made for unflushed
oil in the invaded zone. To obtain a more accurate value of
Rj from the short normal curve, an amplified short normal
RESISTIVITY LOGS
Table 4. Classification of Resistivity Logs.
INDUCTION LOGS (measure conductivity)
ELECTRODE LOGS (measure resistivity)
A. Normal logs
B. Lateral Log'
1
'
C. Laterologs*
D. Spherically Focused Log (SFL)*
DEPTH OF RESISTIVITY LOG INVESTIGATION
E. Microlaterolog (MLL)*
F. Microlog (ML)*
G. Proximity Log (PL)*
H. Microspherically Focused Log (MSFL)*
Flushed Zone (R
m
)
Microlog*
Microlaterolog*
Proximity* Log
Microspherically Focused Log*
Invaded Zone (Rj)
Short Normal tt
Laterolog -8*ft
Spherically Focused Log*tt
Medium Induction Log
Shallow Laterolog*
Uninvaded Zone (R,)
Long Normal
Lateral Log
Deep Induction Log
Deep Laterolog*
Laterolog -3*
Laterolog -7*
Induction Log 6FF40
tFor a review of how to use Lateral logs see: Hilchie (1979).
t^When R
mf
is much greater than R
w
, the Laterolog - 8* and Spherically Focused Log* will have a shallower depth of investigation (closer to RJ
than the medium induction, shallow Laterolog*, and the short normal.
curve is sometimes displayed in track #2 along with the
short normal curve.
inductionThe induction device (Fig. 17) measures
electrical conductivity* using current generated by coils.
The transmitting coils produce an electromagnetic signal
which induces currents in the formation. These induced
currents are recorded as conductivity by receiver coils.
Modern induction devices have additional coils which focus
the current so that signals are minimized from adjacent
formations, the borehole, and the invaded zone. By
focusing the current and eliminating unwanted signals, a
deeper reading of conductivity is taken, and more accurate
values of true formation resistivity (R,) are determined from
the induction log. The induction log has a transmitter/re-
ceiver spacing of 40 inches and can measure a reliable value
for resistivity down to abed thickness of five feet.
The induction curve on the Induction Electric Log
appears in track #2 (Fig. 17). Because the induction device
is a conductivity measuring tool, an induction derived
conductivity curve is presented in track #3 (Fig. 17). The
track #3 conductivity curve is necessary to more accurately
determine the R, value of low resistivity formations, and to
eliminate possible errors when calculating true resistivity
from conductivity. Because the induction log does not
require the transmission of electricity through drilling fluid,
it can be run in air-, oil-, or foam-filled boreholes.
C, = 1000/R, where C, = conductivity in millimhos/meter, and R, = true
formation resistivity in ohm-meters.
Dual Induction Focused Log
The modern induction log is called the Dual Induction
Focused Log (Tixieretal, 1963). This log (Fig. 18) consists
of a deep-reading induction device (RrLd which measures
R,), and is similar to an Induction Electric Log. The Dual
Induction Focused Log (Fig. 18) also has a medium-reading
induction device (RiL
m
which measures Rj) and a shallow
reading (R
xo
) focused Laterolog* which is similar to the
short normal. The shallow reading Laterolog* may be either
a Laterolog-8 (LL-8)* or a Spherically Focused Log
(SFL)*.
The Dual Induction Focused Log is'used in formations
that are deeply invaded by mud filtrate. Because of deep
invasion, a deep reading induction log ( RTU )
m a v n o t
accurately measure the true resistivity of the formation (R
t
).
Resistivity values obtained from the three curves on a Dual
Induction Focused Log are used to correct deep resistivity
(R
ILd
) to true resistivity (R
t
) from a tornado chart (Fig. 19).
This tornado chart (Fig. 19) can also help determine the
diameter of invasion (d
;
) and the ratio of R
x0
/R
t
. An
example of the procedure is presented in Figure 19.
The three resistivity curves on the Dual Induction
Focused Log are recorded on a four cycle logarithmic scale
ranging from 0.2 to 2000 ohm/meters (Fig. 18) and
correspond to tracks #2 and #3 on the Induction Electric
Log. Normally, a spontaneous potential (SP) curve is placed
in track #1 (Fig. 18).
42
RESISTIVITY LOGS
The deep induction log (R]Ld) does not always record an
accurate value for deep resistivity in thin, resistive (where
R, > 100 ohm/meters) zones. Therefore, an alternate
method to determine true resistivity (R,) should be used.
The technique is called R
t
minimum (R,
min
) and is
calculated by the following formula:
R
tmin
= (LL-8*orSFL*)xR
w
/R
mf
Where:
R
t min
= true resistivity (also called R
(
minimum)
R
mf
= resistivity of mud filtrate at formation
temperature
R
w
= resistivity of formation water at formation
temperature
LL-8*= shallow resistivity Laterolog-8*
SFL* = shallow resistivity Spherically Focused Log*
The rule for applying R,
min
is to determine R
t
from both the
Dual Induction Focused Log tornado chart (Fig. 19) and
from the R
tmill
formula, and use whichever value of R
t
is the
greater. In addition to the R
tm
j
n
method for determining R
t
in thin resistive zones, correction curves (Schlumberger,
1979, p. 54-55) are available to correct the deep induction
log resistivity (Rim) to Rt-
Laterolog*
The Laterolog* is designed to measure true formation
resistivity (R,) in boreholes filled with saltwater muds
(where R
mf
R
w
). A current from the surveying electrode
is forced into the formation by focusing electrodes. The
focusing electrodes emit current of the same polarity as the
surveying electrode but are located above and below it. The
focusing, or guard electrodes, prevent the surveying current
from flowing up the borehole filled with saltwater mud
(Fig. 20). The effective depth of Laterolog* investigation is
controlled by the extent to which the surveying current is
focused. Deep reading Laterologs* are therefore more
strongly focused than shallow reading Laterologs*.
Invasion can influence the Laterolog*. However, because
resistivity of the mud filtrate is approximately equal to the
resistivity of formation water (R
mf
= R
w
) when a well is
drilled with saltwater-based muds, invasion does not
strongly affect R
t
values derived from a Laterolog*. But,
when a well is drilled with freshwater-based muds (where
R
mf
> 3 R
w
), the Laterolog* can be strongly affected by
invasion. Under these conditions, a Laterolog* should not
be used (see Fig. 16). The borehole size and formation
thickness affect the Laterolog*, but normally the effect is
small enough so that Laterolog* resistivity can be taken as
R
t
.
The Laterolog* curve (Fig. 21) appears in track #2 of the
log and has a linear scale. Because saltwater-based mud
where R
mf
= R
w
gives a very poor SP response, a natural
gamma ray log is run in track #1 as a lithology and
correlation curve (Fig. 21). A Microlaterolog* is sometimes
recorded in track #3 (Fig. 21).
Dual Laterolog-Microspherically Focused Log*
The Dual Laterolog* (Fig. 22) consists of a deep reading
(R
t
) resistivity device (Ru_d)
an<
^
a
shallow reading (Rj)
resisitivity device (RLLS)- Both are displayed in tracks #2
and #3 of the log on a four cycle logarithmic scale. A
natural gamma ray log is often displayed in track # 1 (Fig.
22).
The Microspherically Focused Log* is a pad type,
focused electrode log (a pad type focused electrode log has
electrodes mounted in a pad that is forced against the
borehole wall) that has a very shallow depth of
investigation, and measures resistivity of the flushed zone
(R
xo
). When a Microspherically Focused Log (MSFL*) is
run with the Dual Laterolog* (Fig. 22), the resulting three
curves (i.e. deep, shallow, and MSFL*) are used to correct
(for invasion) the deep resistivity (RLL<I) to true formation
resistivity (Suau et al, 1972). A tornado chart (Fig. 23) is
necessary to correct R
LLd
to R
t
and to determine the
diameter of invasion (dj) and the ratio of R,/R
xo
. The
procedure is illustrated in Figure 23.
Microlog (ML*)
The Microlog* (Fig. 24) is a pad type resistivity device
that primarily detects mudcake (Hilchie, 1978). The pad is
in contact with the borehole and consists of three electrodes
spaced one inch apart. From the pad, two resistivity
measurements are made; one is called the micro normal and
the other is the micro inverse (Fig. 24). The micro normal
device investigates three to four inches into the formation
(measuring R
TO
) and the micro inverse investigates
approximately one to two inches and measures the
resistivity of the mudcake (R
mc
). The detection of mudcake
by the Microlog* indicates that invasion has occurred and
the formation is permeable. Permeable zones show up on
the Microlog* as positive separation when the micro normal
curves read higher resistivity than the micro inverse curves
(Fig. 24). t Shale zones are indicated by no separation or
"negative separation" (i.e. micro normal < micro inverse).
tPositive separation can only occur when Rmc > Rm > Rmf- To verify these
values if there is any doubt, check the log heading for resistivity values of
the mudcake, drilling mud, and mud filtrate.
Remember that even though the resistivity of the mud filtrate (R
m
f) is
less than the resistivity of the mudcake (Rmc), the micro normal curve will
read a higher resistivity in a permeable zone than the shallower-reading
micro inverse curve. This is because the filtrate has invaded the formation,
and part of the resistivity measured by the micro normal curve is read from
the rock matrix, whereas the micro inverse curve measures only the
mudcake (R
mc
) which has a lower resistivity than rock.
43
RESISTIVITY LOGS
However, in enlarged boreholes, a shale zone can exhibit
minor, positive separation. In order to detect zones of
erroneous positive separation, a microcaliper log is run in
track # 1 (Fig. 24), so that borehole irregularities are
detected. Nonporous and impermeable zones have high
resistivity values on both the micro normal and micro
inverse curves (Fig. 24). Hilchie (1978) states that
resistivities of approximately ten times the resistivity of the
drilling mud (R
m
) at formation temperature indicate an
impermeable zone.
The Microlog* does not work well in saltwater-based
drilling muds (where R
mf
R
w
) or gypsum-based muds,
because the mudcake may not be strong enough to keep the
pad away from the formation. Where the pad is in contact
with the formation, positive separation cannot occur.
Microlaterolog* and Proximity Log*
The Microlaterolog (MLL)* (Fig. 21) and the Proximity
Log (PL)* (Fig. 25), like the Microspherically Focused Log
(MSFL)*, are pad type focused electrode logs designed to
measure the resistivity in the flushed zone (R
xo
). Because
the Microlaterolog* is strongly influenced by mudcake
thicknesses greater than 1/4 inch (Hilchie, 1978), the
Microlaterolog* should be run only with saltwater-based
drilling muds. The Proximity Log*, which is more strongly
focused than the Microlaterolog*, is designed to investigate
deeper so it can be used with freshwater-based drilling muds
where mudcake is thicker.
Resistivity Derived Porosity
The minerals that make up the grains in the matrix of the
rock and the hydrocarbons in the pores are nonconductive.
Therefore, the ability of rock to transmit an electrical
current is almost entirely the result of the water in the pore
space. Thus resistivity measurements can be used to
determine porosity. Normally, measurements of a
formation's resistivity close to the borehole (flushed zone,
R
xo
, or invaded zone, Rj) are used to determine porosity.
Shallow resistivity devices, used to measure R
xo
and R
i;
include the following: (1) Microlaterolog*; (2) Proximity
Log*; (3) Laterolog-8*; (4) Microspherically Focused
Log*; (5) short normal log; and (6) Spherically Focused
Log*.
When a porous and permeable water-bearing formation is
invaded by drilling fluid, formation water is displaced by
mud filtrate. Porosity in a water-bearing formation can be
related to shallow resistivity (R
xo
) by the following
equations:
' Fx
v
mf
Where S
xo
= 1.0 (100%) in water-bearing zones.
square both sides:
solve for F:
remember F = a/</
m
therefore:
1.0= / F X ^
OL
1.0 = Fx -fmL
R
xo
p - "*xo
Rmf
a
_ Rxo
W
solve for porosity (<f>)
< t > =
I Rn
1/m
Where:
Rmf
= formation porosity
= resistivity of mud filtrate at formation
temperature
S
xo
= water saturation of the flushed zone
R
xo
= resistivity of flushed zone from Microlaterolog*,
Proximity Log*, Laterolog-8*, or
Microspherically Focused Log* values
a = constant
a = 1.0 for carbonates
a = 0.62 for unconsolidated sands
a = 0.81 for consolidated sands
m = constant
m = 2.0 for consolidated sands and carbonates
m = 2.15 for unconsolidated sands
F = formation factor
In hydrocarbon-bearing zones, the shallow resistivity
(R
xo
) is affected by the unflushed residual hydrocarbons left
by the invading mud filtrate. These residual hydrocarbons
will result in a value for shallow resistivity (R
xo
) which is
too high because hydrocarbons have a higher resistivity than
formation water. Therefore, the calculated resistivity
porosity in hydrocarbon-bearing zones will be too low. To
correct for residual hydrocarbons in the flushed zone, water
saturation of the flushed zone (S
xo
) must be known or
estimated. Then, a formation's shallow resistivity (R ) can
be related to porosity by the following:
Sxo
v
now square both sides:
remember: F = a/0
" T O
44
RESISTIVITY LOGS
S * = F x
R
v
,
solve for F:
Therefore:
Sxo
2 X R
xo
Rraf
a
_ S
xo
2
X R
xo
solve for porosity (</>):
a(R
mt
/R
X0
)
] "
(S
x
)
2
Where:
0 = formation porosity
R
mf
= resistivity of mud filtrate at formation
temperature
Table 5. Percentages of Residual Hydrocarbon Saturation
as a function of hydrocarbon density and porosity
(modified after Hilchie, 1978).
APrGravity RHS% S
xo
%
Gas 40 to 5 60 to 95
High gravity oil 40 to 50 10 to 5 90 to 95
Medium gravity oil 20 to 40 20 to 10 80 to 90
Low gravity oil 10 to 20 30 to 20 70 to 80
Porosity % RHS% S,%
25 to 35
15 to 20
30
15
70
85
TRANSMITTER
OSCILLATOR
TRANSMITTER
COIL
AMPLIFIER
AND
OSCILLATOR
HOUSING
-BORE HOLE
R
xo
= resistivity of the flushed zone
a = constant
a = 1.0 for carbonates
a = 0.62 for unconsolidated sands
a = 0.81 for consolidated sands
m = constant
m = 2.0 for carbonates and consolidated sands
m = 2.15 for unconsolidated sands
S
xo
= water saturation of the flushed zone
S
xo
= 1.0 minus residual hydrocarbon saturation
(RHS). See Table 5 for examples.
F = formation factor
Review - Chapter III
1. Resistivity logs are used to: (1) determine
hydrocarbon- versus water-bearing zones; (2) indicate
permeable zones; and (3) determine resistivity porosity.
2. A formation's resistivity can be measured by either
induction or electrode (Laterolog*, normal, Lateral,
spherically focused logs, Microlog*, Microlaterolog*. and
Proximity*) logs.
3. Induction logs (induction electric log or Dual
Induction Focused Log) should be run in non-salt saturated
drilling muds (where R
mf
> 3 R
w
).
4. Laterologs* or Dual Laterologs* with R
xo
should be
run in salt-saturated drilling muds (where R
mf
= R
w
).
5. By use of tornado charts, the deep resistivity log on
either the Dual Induction Focused Log or the Dual
Laterolog* with R
xo
can be corrected for the effects of
invasion to determine a more accurate value of true
formation resistivity (R
t
).
6. Most minerals which make up the matrix of the rock
and the hydrocarbons in the pores are non-conductive.
Therefore, the ability of the rock to transmit an electric
current is almost entirely a function of the water in the
rock's pores.
Figure 15. Schematic illustration of a basic two-coil induction system.
Courtesy, SchlumbergerWell Services.
Copyright 1972, Schlumberger.
45
RESISTIVITY LOGS
2. 3. 4. 5. 7.
Rmf / Rw *"
20 30
46
RESISTIVITY LOGS
Figure 16. Chart for quick determination of preferred conditions for using an induction log versus a Laterolog* (Schlumberger,
1972).
Courtesy, Schlumberger Well Services.
Copyright 1972, Schlumberger.
Selection is a function of the ratio of R
m
^R
w
and, to some extent, porosity.
47
RESISTIVITY LOGS
SPONTANEOUS- POTENTIAL
MILLIVOLTS
-
20
i 1
H -
- -

?
^
^
' V
-
-
1
1
'
\
\
I
s
*.

X
7446
in
O
O
CONDUCTI V
miNimlioi/n
ITY
ipoo
atom. WI^AI
INDUCTION
1000 500
I
RESISTIVITY
16" NORMAL
0 | 50
0 i 500
0
0
~T'
* i
_t
l(
H
i t
t
j
t

n 1
1
^
INDUCTION
L
J
s^
,
3_
A
j $
zL
&*
^
,
P-"-~
S
>
DEPTH
MT WE
TYPE FLUID IN HOLE
Ml at nt. tiM.
^
**
^
50
500
8007
9
Oil ErnnMoR
L99 ol 6 2
s
F
1500 i
-
/*
<,
V
s
s
^s
/
/
,
/
/
__
f
\
1
.
V
s
\
/
N
i
'
<
P.M BHT
fmr WT
RNC BHT
MX. DEC TEDP.
1
V
J
'
as
0.5
1.21
ISO
0
1000
if
V
>
?
1 IS8 F
1 at I 39" F
ot 138 F
F
48
RESISTIVITY LOGS
Figure 17. Example Induction Electric Log.+ The purpose for presenting this log is to illustrate the different curves and to give
you guidance on picking log values. The Induction Electric Log is normally used when R^ R
w
.
Note that log scales are shown horizontally at top of log.
Track #1The log track on the far left contains the spontaneous potential (SP) log. Typically, each increment on the scale
equals 20 millivolts, so that the value at the sample depth of 7,446 ft is about 40. Because the deflection is to the
left (negative deflection) the log value is negative, or approximately 40 mv.
Track #2The middle log track contains two resistivity curves. One measures shallow resistivity (R
;
, 16" -normal or
short normal electrode log represented by solid line) and the other measures deep resistivity (R,, an induction log
represented by dotted line). The scale values increase from left to right, but two scales are present: The first scale
measures from 0 to 50 ohm-meters in increment values of 5 ohm-meters. This first scale contains both the Ri and
R, curves. The second-cycle scale measures from 0 to 500 ohm-meters in increment values of 50 ohm-meters. It
contains no curves in this example because the second-cycle scale is used only when the resistivity curves in the
first-cycle scale exceed the maximum scale values.
At the sample depth of 7,446 ft read a value for the 16" -normal of 28 ohm-meters. This is counted horizontally as
almost 6 increments of 5 ohm-meters per increment (28 is nearly 6 x 5 or 30). The induction reading on track #2
is counted at 10 ohm-meters, or 2 increments of 5 ohm-meters per increment.
Track #3The log track on the far right contains a conductivity curve measured by the induction log. The induction log
actually measures conductivity, not resistivity, but because conductivity is a reciprocal of resistivity, resistivity can
be derived. This is done automatically as the log is recorded in track #3. However, the conductivity curve can be
used to convert values to resistivity. In this way, track #2 resistivity values can be checked for accuracy.
For example, to convert track #3 values to resistivity the procedure is as follows: The values on the conductivity
scale increase from right-to-left, and two scales are present: values from 0 to 1,000 are marked in 50 mmhos/meter
increments for the first cycle, and values from 1,000 to 1,500 are marked for the second cycle (second cycle
values are not necessary on this log). Therefore, at a depth of 7,446 ft, track #3 shows a value of 100
mmhos/meter, or 2 increments (from the right) of 50 mmhos/meter for each division.
Because resistivity equals 1,000 -f- conductivity, resistivity = 1,000/100 or, in this case, 10. So, conductivity
converted to resistivity from the induction log is 10 ohm-meters.
?On this and all subsequent logs in the text, each small division on the depth scale is equal to 2 ft.
49
RESISTIVITY LOGS
0.0 190.0
SP (MV)
160.0 40. 00
_ _QLRA ( )
160.0 4O00
SR 1GAPI)
0.2000
afooo"
0.2000
IL0_(OHIIII(__
...Jk.i9HMf<J..
SFLU (OHMM)
2000.
"Soda
rVPE FLUID IH HOLE
at wi l l . Imp.
- 5/8
1.19 ol 8 0 * F
R.MF at mioi. ttmp.
RMC l l Hi m, t l up.
MAX. REC. TEMP,
0. 11 ol SO* F
50
RESISTIVITY LOGS
Figure 18. Example of a Dual Induction Focused Log. Use this log to pick values and determine ratios for the tornado chart
exercise in Figure 19. The Dual Induction Focused Log is normally used when R
mf
is much greater than R
w
, and also where
invasion is deep.
Track # 1 in this log suite contains a gamma ray, SP, and R
x0
/R
t
quick look curves. The gamma ray, SP, and R
xo
/R
t
quick
look curves will be discussed in subsequent chapters.
The resistivity scale in tracks #2 and #3 is a logarithmic scale from 0 to 2,000 ohm-meters, increasing from left to right.
Note the following logs.
Deep induction log resistivityThe dashed line ILD represents R^ and measures the deep resistivity of the formation, or
close to true resistivity (R
t
). At the sample depth in this exercise (13,590 ft), deep resistivity (ILD) reads a value of
70.
Medium induction log resistivityThe dotted-and-dashed line ILM represents R
ILm
and measures the medium resistivity
of the formation, or resistivity of the invaded zone (R
;
). At the sample depth in this exercise (13,590 ft), medium
resistivity (R
;
) reads a value of 105.
Spherically Focused Log* resistivitythe solid line SFL* represents RSFL* and measures the shallow resistivity of the
formation, or resistivity of the flushed zone (R
xo
). At the sample depth in this exercise (13,590 ft), resistivity of
the flushed zone (R
xo
) reads a value of 320.
The following ratios are needed for work on the tornado chart (Fig. 19), and the values are picked from the
example log:
*WRiLd = 320/70 = 4.6
I WRi Ld= 105/70=1.5
51
RESISTIVITY LOGS
DUAL INDUCTION-SPHERICALLY FOCUSED LOG
ILd-ILm-SFL*
THICK BEDS
8-lnt203wmJ
SKIN EFFECT
HOLE
CORRECTED
52
RESISTIVITY LOGS
Figure 19. Dual Induction-(SFL*) tornado chart used for correcting Ri
U
values to R as an indicator of true resistivity. Log values
used in this exercise are picked from the example Dual Induction Log in Figure 18.
Courtesy, Schlumberger Well Services.
Copyright 1979, Schlumberger
Given:
RiLd = 70
R
1Lm
=105
R
SFL
= 320
RsFL/RiLd = 4.6
RllVRlLd =1. 5
Procedure:
By using the tornado chart, pick the following values:
R,/Ri
Ld
Plot the ratio values for RSFI/RIUI
an
d RiiVRiLd by using the scales on the vertical axis (RsFi/RiLd)
an
d
horizontal axis (RiLm/Rim)- Where the values cross, read the R/RIUJ value from the tornado chart scale depicted
by solid, vertically oriented lines. Note that the scale decreases in intensity from left to right (from 1.0 to 0.80)
and that the R
t
/R
ILd
value falls just to the left of the 0.80 line, giving us a value of 0.82.
djFind the diameter of invasion surrounding the borehole by locating the same point used above, on the dj scale
of the chart. The scale is indicated by the dashed, vertically oriented lines on the tornado chart (note that the dj
scale is given in inches across the top of the tornado, and is given in meters through the midpart of the tornado
chart), and the scale reads horzontally. In this example, the sample value is plotted midway between the 60- and
70-inch value line, so we determine that the diameter of invasion (dj) is 65 inches.
R
x0
/R
t
Ratio of resistivity of the flushed zone (R
M
) over the true resistivity of the formation (uncorrected, R
t
).
This ratio, derived from the chart, is used in later calculations. The scale is represented by the solid, horizontally
oriented lines, and the scale values are shown as whole numbers midway across the lines. In this example, the
plotted sample falls on the scale with a value of 7.0.
Finally, with values taken from the chart as outlined above, calculate corrected values for R
t
and R
x0
.
(R,/R
ILd
) x R
ILd
= R, (corrected)
(Ratio value from chart) X log value = R, (corrected)
0.82 x 70 = 57.4 (R, corrected, or true formation resistivity).
and
(R
x0
/R,) x R
t
= R
xo
(corrected)
(ratio value from chart) x (corrected R, value) = R
xo
(corrected)
7 x 57.4 = 401.8 (corrected resistivity of the flushed zone)
RESISTIVITY LOGS
54
RESISTIVITY LOGS
Figure 20. Schematic illustration of a focused Laterolog* illustrating current flow.
Courtesy, Dresser Industries.
Copyright 1974, Dresser Atlas.
As cited in the example, A] (above) and A
2
(below) are the focusing (or guard) electrodes which direct and force the current
from the A
0
electrode into the formation. The monitoring electrodes (M, Mj' and M
2
M
2
') are brought to the same
potential by adjusting the current that emits from the focusing electrodes A! and A
2
.
55
RESISTIVITY LOGS
GAMMA RAY
ug Ra
-
eq/ton
LATEROLOG
"ohms m *vnn
MICROLATEROLOG
-ohms m
c
/ m
7.5 50 50
7.5 15
I I I I I
50 67 ICO 200 o
SPONTANEOUS- POTENTIAL
millivolts
MICROLATEROLOG CALIPER
3948
Typt Fluid in hol
Rnn at mtos. ttmp.
Rml a< mas. tmp.
7 7/8 Rmc at mtos. l i mp.
Mat. Rtc. Timp.
.062 ot 611 F
56
RESISTIVITY LOGS
Figure 21. Example Laterolog* and Microlaterolog*. The purpose for presenting this log is to illustrate the log curves, and to give
you guidance on picking log values. These logs are used when R
mf
R
w
.
Track #1The log track on the far left in this example is a gamma ray log. Gamma ray logs are discussed in a later
chapter, but they commonly accompany Laterologs*.
Track #2The middle log track here is the Laterolog* which measures the deep resistivity (R
t
) or true resistivity of the
formation. Note that the scale increases from left to right, in increments of 5 ohm-meters from 0 to 50 on the first
cycle, and in hybrid increments from 0 to on the second cycle.
At the sample depth of 3,948 ft the Laterolog* value reads 21 ohm-meters.
Track #3The right-hand log in this suite is the Microlaterolog* which measures the resistivity of the flushed zone (R
xo
).
Note that the scale starts with zero between tracks #2 and #3that is, zero for the Microlaterolog* is not the
same point as zero for the Laterolog* farther to the left. The scale ranges from 0 to 50 ohm-meters in increments
of 5 ohm-meters. There is no second cycle recorded.
At the sample depth of 3,948 ft the Microlaterolog* reads 10 ohm-meters, or the depth line intersects the log curve
at two increments from zero.
Note: In order to correct (for invasion) the Laterolog* to true resistivity (R
t
), do the following (use the example at 3,948
ft):
R, = 1.67 (R
LL
) - 0.67 (R
xo
) (Hilchie, 1979)
R,= 1.67(21) - 0.67(10)
R, = 28.4 ohm-meters
Where:
R, = resistivity of the uninvaded zone
Ry. = Laterolog* resistivity (21 ohm-meters at 3,948 ft)
R*> = Microlaterolog* resistivity (10 ohm-meters at 3,948 ft)
57
RESISTIVITY LOGS
6
CALIPER 4 lam. la i MkM
IS
GAMMA RAY API unirt 100
0
100 0 0
v .
_ i
P3
S
s - )
<*-
->-
<-
^
i -Js

C
u
t*^

H
>
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- "
"f
C
* 2
-r
<
i
y-
s
^
.
^
^-<
~
.
s
ry"
1
1
s-
-I
\
\
,
|
I
I
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s-
^
7 a
l
f\-
ittt
IHV
_64
i *
I M
K>i
T
_flll
i j
ft-
1

1
-
9 0 0
9324
_
9 4 0 0
RESISTIVITY okm. M M
MICRO-SFL
0.2 1.0 10 100 I000200C
SHALLOW LATEROLOQ " LL
0.2 1.0 10 100 I 000200(
DEEP LATER0L08- LLd
0. 2 LO 10 100 IO0O2OOC
^ 3 - -
= '
DEPTH
. . . . LLd
K-
. . . . _ _
*
<r?
^!
<r
BIT SIZE
TYPE FLUID IN HOLE
RM ot meas temp.
as.
21
_^
!""*
S
i _
^j
-

1* ,
* s
r
C-
*
ST"
jel .
11122
s = i
- ^*
' I
- " I
E5
V-*" ^-
E X
" ^
2^!
. . J . ' *
fi
^sf.
F^
- ^
^
pt .

* " ~~
" *
* - ^?
" T..
- ^
}=
S^
-
->
b^_
^ I B
"
^P
8 - V4
SALT MUD
. 0 6 6 at 7 4 F
^
^ ?
^=
_
*-J
y -
P
~ r
fc M

H-J.4,
*- * =
M^ i - -
'!" M
RMF at m
r t 1 m; J - -
. ! ! L=_ =
S I i " ^
-
sas t emp
RMC at meas. temp.
MAX REC. TEMP.
t :
_. -

1
j
I
1
- - --
. .
. 0 46 at

.
1
74 F
- - 01 - - F
Thermometer Broke
58
RESISTIVITY LOGS
Figure 22. Example of Dual Laterolog* with Microspherically Focused Log (MSFL)*. Use this log to pick values and determine
ratios for the tornado chart in Figure 23. These logs are used when R
nlf
R
w
and invasion is deep.
The resistivity scale in tracks #2 and #3 is a four-cycle logarithmic scale ranging from 0 to 2,000; the values increase from
left-to-right.
Deep Laterolog* resistivityThe dashed line LLd represents R
LLd
and measures the deep resistivity of the formation, or
true resistivity (R
t
). At the sample depth of this exercise (9,324 ft), true resistivity (R
t
) reads a value of 16.0.
Shallow Laterolog* resistivityThe dotted-and-dashed line LLs represents R
LLs
and measures the shallow resistivity of
the formation or the resistivity of the invaded zone (Rj). At the sample depth of this exercise (9,324 ft), resistivity
(Ri) reads a value of 10.0.
Microspherically Focused Log (MSFL)* resistivityThe solid line SFL* represents RMSFL*
a n a
measures the resistivity
of the flushed zone (R
xo
). At the sample depth in this exercise (9,324 ft), resistivity of the flushed zone (R
xo
) reads
a value of 4.5.
The following ratios are needed for work on the tornado chart (Fig. 23), and the values represented are picked from the log
as shown above:
I WR MS F L * = 16/4.5 = 3.6
I W R L L
S
= 16/10= 1.6
59
RESISTIVITY LOGS
DUALLATEROLOG*-R
x
LLd-LLs-R,
60
RESISTIVITY LOGS
Figure 23. Dual Laterolog*Microspherically Focused Log* tornado chart for correcting R
LL
d to R
t
. Log values in this exercise
are picked from the example Dual Laterolog*-MSFL* in Figure 22.
Courtesy, Schlumberger Well Services.
Copyright 1979, Schlumberger.
Given:
R
LLd
= 16.0
R
LLs
= 10.0
R
MSFL* = 4 . 5
RLLVRMSFL* = 3.6
RLLX/RLLS =1-6
Procedure:
Plot the values for RLIVRMSFL* (3.6) and RLIVRLLS (' ^) using the vertical and horizontal scales at the side and bottom of
the chart. Determine subsequent ratio values from the tornado chart.
R
t
/R
LLd
The scale for this value is represented by the solid, vertically oriented lines. The scale values read across the top
part of the tornado chart, and range from 1.1 to 1.8. Our value falls between the scale values 1.3 and 1.4, so we
assign a value of 1.35.
djThe diameter of invasion around the borehole is picked from the chart; the scale is represented by the dashed, vertically
oriented lines, and the scale values read across the top of the tornado chart ranging from 20 to 120 (inches) or 0.5
to 3.04 (meters). Our value falls between the scale values of 30 and 40 (inches), so we assign a value of 36 inches.
R,/R
xo
The scale for this ratio value is represented by the solid, horizontally oriented lines. The scale values read from
bottom to top on the left part of the chart, and range from 1.5 to 100. Our value falls between the scale values 3
and 5 (much closer to 5), so we assign a value of 4.5.
Finally, corrected values for true resistivity of the formation (R
t
) and resistivity of the flushed zone (R
x0
) are determined
using these ratios.
(R
t
/R
LLd
) x R
LLd
= R, (corrected R
t
)
(ratio) x log value = corrected R,
1.35 x 16.0 = 21.6 (R
t
corrected, or true formation resistivity).
And:
(corrected R,)/(R
t
/R
X0
) = R
xo
(corrected R
xo
)
(corrected R,)/(ratio value from chart) = corrected R
xo
21.6/4.5 = 4.8 (corrected resistivity of flushed zone)
61
RESISTIVITY LOGS
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL
a CALIPER
Millivolts
" ft*
HOLE SIZE- INCHES
7 9 II 13 15

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1 '
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DEPTH
(71
O
O
5146
m
ro
8
5238
RESISTIVITY
Ohmi m / m
HICRO INVERSE
I" X I"
0 20 40
i
MICRO NORMAL
2"
0 20 40
fi
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