Aristotle (384-322 BC)

Unlike Plato, he was not an Athenian by birth. He was a stuent at Plato!s a"ae#y an
later $oune his own a"ae#y "alle %&C'U(
Aristotle works are on Arts, astrono#y, biolo)y, botany, "he#istry, "onstitutional history,
ethi"s, lan)ua)es, law, lo)i", #athe#ati"s, #e"hani"s, #eta*hysi"s, natural history,
*hysiolo)y, *oliti"s, *sy"holo)y an +oolo)y. ,n the wors o$ -... Barnes in Aristotle
(/082) "o##ent, 1"hoose a $iel o$ resear"h, an Aristotle is"ourse u*on it. His ran)e
is astonishin)2.
Aristotle is re)are as the $ather o$ *oliti"al s"ien"e, as he was the $irst to analy+e,
"riti"ally an syste#ati"ally, the then e3istin) "onstitutions an "lassi$y the#. His
"lassi$i"ation o$ "onstitutions is still use in unerstanin) "onstitutions "o#*arati4ely.
He was one o$ the earliest to use the "o#*arati4e #etho, a #etho that has "ontinue to
be rele4ant e4en toay.
5he #ost well known o$ Aristotle!s works were the Politics, the Nicomachean Ethics an
the Eudemian Ethics or On the Soul
Politi"s6 5he "entral the#e o$ Politi"s was the Polis, an institution that was uni7ue to 8
th
"entury BC. 5here was a etaile e3a#ination o$ the nature o$ the state an its ori)ins, an
analysis o$ the ieal state an the i$$erent "onstitutions o$ a"tual states, the "on"e*ts o$
"iti+enshi*, law an "onstitution.( His Constitutions analyses the syste# o$ )o4ern#ent
on the basis o$ his stuy o$ about /88 "onstitutions. 9otable a#on) the# is the
"onstitution o$ Athens).
9i"o#a"hean 'thi"s6 Aristotle instru"te the stuent to stuy the hu#an soul.
Methodology
Aristotle:s #ethoolo)y was i$$erent $ro# Plato. ;hile Plato ao*te the *hiloso*hi"al #etho
in his a**roa"h to *oliti"s, Aristotle $ollowe the s"ienti$i" an analyti"al #ethoolo)y. Plato:s
style is al#ost *oeti" whereas that o$ Aristotle, *rose-like.
(a<or $eatures o$ Aristotle #ethoolo)y
/. ,nu"ti4e an =eu"ti4e6 Plato:s #etho o$ in4esti)ation is #ore eu"ti4e than
inu"ti4e where Aristotle:s #ethoolo)y is inu"ti4e than eu"ti4e. Althou)h there are
4isibility o$ eu"ti4e. Aristotle:s Nicomachean Ethics oes "ontain ieals o$ nor#ati4e
thinkin) an ethi"al li$e. .a#e is true about his Politics. %ike Plato, Aristotle oes "on"ei4e
:a )oo li$e: (his eu"ti4e thinkin)) but he buils, :)oo: an >honourable li$e: on the
inu"ti4e a**roa"h about the state as a union o$ $a#ilies an 4illa)es whi"h "a#e into
e3isten"e $or satis$yin) the #aterial nees o$ #an.
2. Histori"al an Co#*arati4e6 Consierin) history as a key to all the se"rets, Aristotle takes
re"ourse in the *ast to unerstan the *resent. 5he $a"t is that all his stuies are base on his
histori"al analysis6 the nature o$ the "auses an es"ri*tion o$ re4olution, whi"h Aristotle
takes u* in the Politics, ha4e been ealt histori"ally. Aristotle also $ollows the "o#*arati4e
#etho o$ stuy both intensi4ely an e3tensi4ely. His "lassi$i"ation o$ states to)ether with
the "onse7uent "y"le o$ "han)e is base on his intensi4e stuy o$ /88 "onstitutions o$ his
ti#es. 5hrou)h "o#*arati4e analysis he s*eaks about the :*ure: an :*er4erte: $or#s o$
states.
3. 5heolo)i"al an Analo)i"al6 His a**roa"h was teleolo)i"al usin) the #oel o$ "ra$ts#anshi*.
Aristotle insiste that nature works, like an artist an in the *ro"ess it seeks to attain the
ob<e"t $or whi"h, it e3ists. 9ature, Aristotle use to say, i nothin) without a *ur*ose- #an
li4es in so"iety to attain his e4elo*#ent? state hel*s #an to a"hie4e his en. @ollowin) his
tea"hes Plato, Aristotle $oun #u"h in "o##on between a ruler an an artist, between a
states#an an a *hysi"ian.
4. Analyti"al an Abser4ational6 ,n his whole thou)ht-*ro"ess, he obser4e #ore than lie
thou)ht? all his stuies were base on ata an $a"ts, whi"h "a#e uner his keen obser4ation.
5hrou)h stuy, e3*eri#ents an obser4ation, Aristotle analyse thin)s an, there$ore,
rea"he "on"lusions. Be)arin) state as so#ethin) o$ a whole, $or e3a#*le, Aristotle went on
to e3*lain its "onstituents- $a#ilies, an 4illa)es. He e"lares #an, a so"ial ani#al by nature,
"onsiers $a#ily as the e3tension o$ #an!s nature, 4illa)e as the e3tension o$ $a#ily:s nature,
an state as the e3tension o$ 4illa)e:s nature.
Plato and Aristotle
'4en thou)h Aristotle was the stuent o$ Plato an has a *ro$oun in$luen"e on Aristotle
*hiloso*hy, the two were #u"h se*arate in their 4iews an Aristotle was one o$ the #ain "riti"s
o$ Plato!s works.
5he $ollowin) are the "riti"is# on Plato6
/. His )reatest "o#*laint a)ainst Plato was that he #ae a e*arture $ro# e3*erien"e.
Aristotle says6 C%et us re#e#ber that we shoul not isre)ar the e3*erien"e o$ a)es? in
the #ultitue o$ years these thin)s, i$ they were )oo, woul "ertainly not ha4e been
unknown...2 He a#itte Plato:s works were Cbrilliant an su))esti4eC but were at the
sa#e ti#e Crai"al an s*e"ulati4eC (.ee .abine, A History o$ Politi"al 5heory, @irst
,nian 'ition, /0D3).
2. Aristotle i not a)ree with Plato that all knowle)e "oul be $oun u*on a sin)le set o$
a3io#s. Aristotle i4ie the knowle)e into three #a<or "ate)ories6 *rou"ti4e,
*ra"ti"al, an theoreti"al. Prou"ti4e is knowle)e in the sense that it is "on"erne with
#akin) o$ thin)s. Pra"ti"al be"ause it is relate to a"tion (how one ou)ht to a"t in
i$$erent "ir"u#stan"es with the knowle)e that one *ossesse). Both *oliti"s an ethi"s
belon)e to this "ate)ory. 5heoreti"al it ai#e to e3*lore the truth by the hel* o$
eu"ti4e #etho o$ lo)i".
3. Aristotle "riti"i+e Plato!s 4iewe on the state as an arti$i"ial institution (built su""essi4ely
in three sta)es with *rou"ers "o#in) $irst an therea$ter $ollowe by the au3iliaries an the
rulers). Aristotle on the "ontrary, re)are state as a natural institution o$ )rowth an
e4olution. Be$ore the state there were nu#erous )rou*s an with the e4olution o$ so"iety it
later e4elo*e to a state (#akes an analo)y with or)anis#). (oreo4er, unlike Plato who
oes not think o$ state as unity, Aristotle essen"e o$ state was unity in i4ersity.
4. Aristotle i not a)ree with Plato on the notion o$ <usti"e, $or Aristotle, unlike Plato, $oun
<usti"e #ore in the real#s o$ en<oyin) one:s ri)hts rather than *er$or#in) one:s uties. @or
Aristotle, <usti"e was a *ra"ti"al a"ti4ity 4irtue an not oin) thin)s in a""oran"e with one:s
nature. Plato:s <usti"e was ethi"al in nature while that o$ Aristotle <urii"al or #ore
s*e"i$i"ally, le)al in nature.
8. Aristotle "riti"i+e Plato!s theory o$ @or#s on three )rouns. @irstly, he enie that the
1)eneral2 "oul be 1substantial2. .e"only, he "riti"i+e Plato $or #akin) 1*ro*erties2 o$
thin)s outsie the thin)s o$ whi"h they are *ro*erties. 5hirly, he 7uestione Plato $or
su**ortin) @or#s or ,eas as "auses o$ *heno#ena. Aristotle instea istin)uishe
between #atter an $or# that #atter is sha*eless but within the #atter there e3ist the
$or# that i$$erentiate one thin) $ro# another. 5hus, $or# to Aristotle was in #atter not
outsie, whi"h itsel$ )i4e sha*e to $or#. But neither "oul a"hie4e a"tuality without
bein) atta"he to what he ter#e as an 1e$$i"ient2 "ause.
E. Plato, in his Be*ubli" i not "onsier laws as i#*ortant. He was o$ the o*inion that where
the rulers were 4irtuous, there was no nee o$ laws, an where they are not, there the laws
were useless. Aristotle realise the si)ni$i"an"e o$ laws an hel the 4iew that rule o$ law was
any ay better than the rule o$ #en, howsoe4er wise those rulers #i)ht be. '4en Plato
realise the utility o$ laws an re4ise his *osition in his Laws.
D. Aristotle oubte i$ Plato:s "o##unity o$ wi4es an *ro*erty woul hel* *rou"e the esire
unity. Bather, he re)ars these e4i"es as i#*ra"ti"able $or "o##unis# o$ *ro*erty "reate
"on$li"ts while that o$ the $a#ily le to a syste# where lo4e an is"i*line within the $a#ily
woul e4a*orate. By *ro4iin) "o##unisti" e4i"es, Plato, Aristotle $elt, ha *unishe the
)uarians an e*ri4e the# o$ intrinsi" lo4e a#on) the #e#bers o$ the $a#ily. Plato:s
"o##unis# "reate a $a#ily o$ the state whi"h, a""orin) to Aristotle, le to a *oint where
the state "eases to be a state. .abine says6 1A $a#ily is one thin) an a state is so#ethin)
i$$erent, an it is better that one shoul not try to a)e the other.C Aristotle 4iewe that
within $a#ily there are three kins o$ relationshi* ((aster F .la4es? Husban F;i$e an
@ather F .on) but in state the relationshi* is one (between the )o4erne an )o4ernors).
(oreo4er the relationshi* is between i$$erent kins o$ ini4iuals, where it the role o$
states#an not the role o$ husban Fwi$e or #aster F sla4es as the relationshi* is
*oliti"al.
8. Aristotle:s theory o$ *ro*erty is base on his "riti"is# o$ Plato:s "o##unis# o$
*ro*erty. Plato thou)ht o$ *ro*erty as an obsta"le in the *ro*er $un"tionin) o$ the state
an, there$ore, su))este "o##unis# $or the )uarian "lass. But $or Aristotle, *ro*erty
*ro4ie *sy"holo)i"al satis$a"tion by $ul$illin) the hu#an instin"t $or *ossession an
ownershi*.
Aristotle theory of Justice
Traditional view of Justice
/. 5he $o"us is on <ust #an
2. '#boies a "onser4ati4e iea
3. '#*hasi+es #oral ele#ent o$ <usti"e
4. ,nsists on aa*tin) ini4iual to a
*re"on"ei4e i#a)e o$ so"iety
8. ;as a sour"e o$ iea o$ so"ial <usti"e
E. Chie$ e3*onents6 Plato an Aristotle
Modern view of Justice
/. 5he $o"us is on <ust so"iety
2. '#boies a *ro)ressi4e iea
3. ,ntens to trans$or# so"iety itsel$ $or
the reali+ation o$ hu#an 4alues
4. Gi4es way to notion o$ le)al, *oliti"al,
so"io-e"ono#i" <usti"e
8. -ohn Bawls as the )reatest theorist on
-usti"e
-usti"e to Aristotle was a "o#*lete 4irtue (a "o#*letely <ust #an, a""orin) to Aristotle is
"o#*letely 4irtuous), thou)h not absolute. 5he so"ial "hara"ter o$ 4irtue was >uni4ersal! <usti"e
or law$ulness. Both Plato an Aristotle belie4e that *ri#ary task o$ the state was to ensure
<usti"e.
Aristotle #ae a istin"tion between two ty*es o$ <usti"e
/. =istributi4e <usti"e, an
2. Corre"ti4e or re"ti$i"atory or re#eial <usti"e
Aristotle =istributi4e <usti"e is the other na#e $or *ro*ortionate e7uality- 1it re"o)nises an
*reser4es istin"tions between the worthy an non-worthy. ,t "ounters e7uality o$ the une7ual
an ensures that a #an!s ri)hts, uties an rewars shoul "orres*on to his #erit an so"ial
"ontribution2. -usti"e in the state, there$ore, is relati4e an not absolute. ,t is only in an ieal
state that <usti"e be"o#es absolute an is ienti$ie with absolute 4irtue.
Corre"ti4e <usti"e on the other han, takes no a""ount o$ the *osition o$ the *arties "on"erne.
But si#*ly se"ures e7uality between the two by takin) away $ro# the a4anta)e o$ the one an
ain) it to tile isa4anta)e o$ the other, )i4in) <usti"e to one who has been enie, an
in$li"tin) *unish#ent to one who has enie others their <usti"e.
Aristotle o*ine that <usti"e is so#ethin) *ertains to *ersons. >,n<usti"e! says, Aristotle, >arises
when e7uals are treate une7ually an also when une7uals are treate e7ually!.
Ane "an "o#*are the notion o$ <usti"e as )i4en by Plato an Aristotle6
/. @or Plato, <usti"e is the *er$or#an"e o$ one:s uties to the best o$ one:s abilities an
"a*a"ities? $or Aristotle, <usti"e is the rewar in *ro*osition to what one "ontributes?
2. Plato:s <usti"e is relate to :uties:? it is uties-oriente whereas Aristotle:s <usti"e is relate to
:ri)hts:? it is ri)hts-oriente?
3. Plato:s theory o$ <usti"e is essentially #oral an *hiloso*hi"al? that o$ Aristotle is le)al
4. Both lai a "on"e*tion o$ istributi4e <usti"e. @or Plato, that #eant ini4iual e3"ellen"e' an
*er$or#an"e o$ one:s uties while $or Aristotle it #eant what *eo*le eser4e, the ri)ht to
re"ei4e
8. Plato:s <usti"e is s*iritual whereas Aristotle:s, *ra"ti"al, i.e., it is 4irtue in a"tion, )ooness in
*ra"ti"e
E. Plato:s <usti"e is relate to one:s inner sel$, i.e., what "o#es strai)ht $ro# the soul? Aristotle:s
<usti"e is relate to #an:s a"tions, i.e., with his e3ternal a"ti4ities
Aristotle:s theory o$ <usti"e is worlly, asso"iate with #an:s "onu"t in *ra"ti"al li$e, o$ "ourse with
all ethi"al 4alues )uiin) hi#. But he was unable to "o-relate the ethi"al i#ension o$ <usti"e to its
le)al i#ension His istributi4e <usti"e (rewars in a""oran"e to one:s abilities) is $ar, $ar away $ro#
the realities o$ the *oliti"al worl. ,t is, inee, i$$i"ult to brin) about a balan"e between the e4er-
in"reasin) *o*ulation an: e4er-e"reasin) o**ortunities o$ the state.
Aristotle theory of State
1(an is by nature a *oliti"al ani#al2? [Link] "o#es into e3isten"e $or the sake o$ li$e an
"ontinues $or the sale o$ )oo li$e2 (an"ient Greek 4iew)? 1one who "an li4e without state "an be
either a beast or Go2 an [Link] is *rior to #an2
@or Aristotle, as with Plato, the state (Polis) is all i#*ortant. Both, Plato an Aristotle, see in the
polis #ore than a state. 5he polis is, $or both, a "o##unity as well as a state, state as well as a
)o4ern#ent? )o4ern#ent as well as a s"hool? s"hool as well as a reli)ion. ;hat is #ore is the
$a"t that both re)ar the polis as a #eans $or the attain#ent o$ "o#*lete li$e. 5he state with
Aristotle, as with Plato too, be)an $or the satis$a"tion o$ basi" wants, but as it e4elo*e, it "a#e
to *er$or# #ore ele4ate ai#s essential $or )oo li$e. Aristotle says6 CBut a state e3ists $or the
sake o$ a )oo li$e an not $or the sake o$ li$e only.C
Aristotle has *ro4e the *oliti"al nature o$ #an on the basis o$ three ar)u#ents
Ari)in o$ state 5eleolo)y %o)i"
9atural nees it is natural estination o$ #an to be state Chronolo)i"al
Origin of State6 Aristotle has establishe that state ori)inate in the natural nees o$ #an. .in"e
state is a *rou"t o$ natural nees it it-sel$ is a natural institution
Teleology: #eans nature has sele"te a estiny $or #an. 5he natural estiny o$ #an is to be"o#e
a #e#ber o$ state without state a #an "annot li4e a "o#*lete li$e
Logic: Chronolo)i"ally #an is *rior to state but lo)i"ally state is *rior to #an. %i$e without state
is not worthy o$ bein) "alle as the li$e o$ #an. He hi#sel$ says that state is *rior to #an an
whosoe4er "an li4e without state "an be either a beast or Go but he "an!t be a #an.
The characteristics features of Aristotle State
/. 5he state, $or Plato, is a natural or)anisation, an not an arti$i"ial one. Unlike Plato:s ieal
state, Aristotle:s state is not stru"ture or #anu$a"ture, not a #ake, but is a )rowth,
)rowin) )raually out o$ 4illa)es, 4illa)es )rowin) out o$ $a#ilies, an the $a#ilies, out
o$ #an:s nature, his so"ial instin"ts. 5he state has )rown like a tree. (.tate is a natural
institution)
2. .tate!s ori)in is to be $oun in the hu#an nature6 to Aristotle it is the nature o$ #an to be
a #e#ber o$ *oliti"al "o##unity. 9ature has "reate #an in su"h a #anner that he "an
neither sur4i4e nor li4e without state. 5hat is why Aristotle hel that #an by nature is a
>*oliti"al ani#al!.
3. 5he state is *rior to the ini4iual. ,t is so in the sense, the whole is *rior to the *ast6 C5he
state CAristotle says (Politics, Book I), Cis by nature "learly *rior to the $a#ily an the
ini4iual, sin"e the whole is o$ ne"essity *rior to the *ast? $or e3a#*le, i$ the whole boy be
estroye, there will be no $oot or han, e3"e*t in an e7ui4o"al sense, as we #i)ht s*eak o$ a
stone han? $or when estroye the han will be no better than that. But thin)s are e$ine by
their workin) an *ower? an we ou)ht not to say that they are the sa#e when they no lon)er
ha4e their *ro*er 7uality but only that they ha4e the sa#e na#e.C ::5he *roo$ that the state is
a "reation o$ nature, an *rior to the ini4iual, :he "ontinues is that the ini4iual, when
isolate, is not sel$-su$$i"in)? an there$ore, lie is like a *art in relation to the whole. But he
who is unable to li4e in so"iety, or who has no nee be"ause he is su$$i"ient $or hi#sel$, #ust
either be a beast or a )o? lie is no *art o$ a state.C (.tate is Prior to ini4iual)
4. 5he state is not only an asso"iation or union as Aristotle "alls it, but is an asso"iation o$
asso"iations. 5he other asso"iations are not as lar)e as is the state? they are s*e"i$i", an,
there$ore, li#ite in their ob<e"ti4e an essen"e. 5he state, on the other han, has )eneral an
"o##on *ur*oses, an, there$ore, has lar)er "on"erns as "o#*are to any or other
asso"iations.
8. Aristotle *ointe out the state e4ol4e $ro# lower asso"iations. 5he $irst asso"iation was a
househol or the $a#ily, whi"h arose to satis$y an ini4iual!s biolo)i"al ur)es. A "luster o$
househols be"a#e a 4illa)e, an a )rou* o$ 4illa)es "onstitute a *oliti"al "o##unity or the
Polis. 'a"h o$ these le4els o$ asso"iations has i$$erent le4el o$ su$$i"ien"y or autar"hy. But
to Aristotle at en o$ asso"iations is the Polis that *ro4ies that hi)hest attain#ent o$ sel$-
su$$i"ient not only in e"ono#i" nees but also $or $ull e4elo*#ent o$ hu#an *otential.
E. 5he state is like a hu#an or)anis#. Aristotle is o$ the o*inion that the state, like the hu#an
or)anis#, has its own *arts, i.e. the ini4iuals. A*art $ro# the state, lie ar)ues, the
ini4iuals ha4e no i#*ortan"e, an se*arate $ro# the boy, the *arts ha4e no li$e o$ their
own. 5he interest o$ the *art o$ the boy is inherent in the interest o$ the boy-what se*arate
interest a han has when away $ro# the boy. %ikewise, the interest o$ the ini4iuals is
inherent in the interest o$ the state. (or)ani" theory)
D. 5he state is not, Aristotle says, a unity whi"h it is $or Plato. Plato seeks to attain unity within
the state. Aristotle too seeks to attain the unity, but $or hi#, it is unity in i4ersity. @or
Aristotle, the state is not uni$or#ity, but is one that brin)s all the i4ersities to)ether.(the
essen"e o$ state is i4ersity)
8. Aristotle:s best *ra"ti"al state is a""orin) to .abine what Plato "alle se"on-best state.
Aristotle:s state is the best *ossible state, the best *ra"ti"able. ("llwain su#s u* Aristotle6
best *ossible state, sayin)6 CAristotle:s best *ossible state is si#*ly the one whi"h is neither
too ri"h nor too *oor? se"ure $ro# atta"k an e4oi o$ )reat wealth or wie e3*ansion o$
trae or territory, ho#o)eneous, 4irtuous, e$ensible, una#bitious "o##unity, sel$-su$$i"ient
but not a))ressi4e, )reat but not lar)e, a ti)htly ine*enent "ity e4ote to the a"hie4e#ent
o$ the hi)hest *ossible #easure o$ "ulture an 4irtue, o$ well-bein) an true ha**iness
attainable by ea"h an by all.C ,t is one (i) whi"h is a s#all "ity-state? (ii) whose territory
"orres*ons to the *o*ulation it has? (iii) that is )eo)ra*hi"ally lo"ate near the ri4er an
where )oo "li#ati" "onitions e3ist? (i4) where the rule o$ law *re4ails, an (4) where
authorityH*ower is 4este in the hans o$ the ri"h.
Organic theory of state6 in a nutshell, the or)ani" theory o$ state "onsiers state as an
or)anis# or a li4in) boy, an ini4iual as or)ans. ;hy they use this analo)y is that $irstly
as e4ery or)ans e*ens on the e3isten"e o$ or)anis# in this way the ini4iual e*ens on
the e3isten"e o$ the state. .e"only, as e4ery or)an *er$or#s i$$erent $un"tions within the
or)anis#. %ikewise there are i$$erent ini4iual in a so"iety who *er$or#s i$$erent
$un"tions.
Characteristics
/. .tate as a natural institutions6
2. .tate as an ethi"al institution6 #eans that in a state ea"h ini4iual *er$or#s their
*arts an en<oys the ri)hts an $reeo#. By *er$or#in) an at the sa#e ti#e obeyin)
it allows $or #oral e3"ellen"e in state.
Howe4er this "on"e*t o$ state as a natural institution was "hallen)e in the /Dth "entury ue to
s"ienti$i" re4olution an e#er)en"e o$ #e"hanisti" theory. But the "on"e*t was #o4e to
another le4el ue to the "ontribution o$ '#un Burke, the "hie$ e3*onent o$ "onser4atis#.
A""orin) to Burke the state was a *rou"t o$ histori"al )rowth an linke it with li4in)
or)anis#.
,n the #oern era, the theory o$ state as a natural institution or as an e4olution *rou"t "arrie
#ore wei)ht a)e ue to the biolo)i"al s"hool o$ *oliti"al theory in the /0th "entury. 5hey
s*oke o$ >tissues o$ the state! that like e4ery or)ans in the hu#an boy *er$or#s i$$erent
$un"tions an has its i#*ortan"e!s e4en in the state base on ini4iual i$$eren"es, the
ini4iual *er$or#s i$$erent $un"tions.
Summary on State:
/. .tate!s ori)in is to be $oun in hu#an nature
2. .tate is a natural institution
3. @a#ily-4illa)e-*olity (state)
4. .tate "o#es into e3isten"e $or the sake o$ li$e but "ontinues $or the sake o$ )oo li$e.
8. .tate is the *rou"t o$ reason
E. Polity is the best an e#o"ra"y the worst $or# o$ state
D. 5rue state is a *artnershi* in a li$e o$ 4irtue
Critical Evaluation
/. .uborination o$ #an to state6 the theory "o#*letely *uts the ini4iual uner the state
authority not only in ter#s o$ obeyin) law an orer but it #akes an ini4iual to surrener
e4ery ri)hts an $reeo#. '4en thou)h or)ani" theory "onsier state as an ieal $or the
relationshi* between the state an #an. ,n a state it is "o#*ose o$ #en or )rou* o$ *eo*le
e3er"isin) authority whi"h "an be "onsier as an ieal state.
2. =istorte 4iew o$ $reeo#6 sin"e the or)ani" theory *ostulates that there "an be no ri)hts
a)ainst the state, it estroys the liberty o$ an ini4iual thereby #akin) $reeo# irrele4ant.
3. =enial '7uality6 there is e3isten"e o$ ine7uality as istin"tion is #ae between ini4iual
base on the wiso#, *osition or authority, where $ew "ontrol o4er the #a<ority or #asses
thereby e3"luin) $ro# the e"ision-#akin).
Aristotle on Law
1%aw is the reason una$$e"te by esire2 1%aw is the reason without *assion2
-usti$i"ation o$ Bule o$ law
/. %aw is >the su# o$ all the s*iritual li#its uner whi"h #an!s a"tions #ust *ro"ee2
2. Criti7ue on the theory o$ *hiloso*her o$ kin) an establishe the su*eriority o$ rule o$
law. @or Aristotle it is not $easible to $in a 4irtuous ruler an e4en i$ there is *ossibility
that he #ay be"a#e a tyrant.
3. Aristotle "onsiere "onstitutional law as the $inal authority an is the ieal
"onstitutionally base orer. %aws were less arbitrary an $airer, sin"e they were
i#*ersonal as "o#*are to rule by *erson. ,n the Politi"s says 1the rule o$ law is
*re$erable to that o$ a sin)le "iti+en? e4en i$ it be the better "ourse to ha4e ini4iuals
rulin), they shoul be #ae law-)uarians or #inisters o$ the laws2
4. He is a $un"tionalist. Hen"e he belie4es that law is a ti#e teste institution an shoul not
be abolishe $or the sake o$ the institution o$ the *hiloso*her kin)
8. Aristotle o*ine that %aw an reason is sa#e thin). Beason is inwar an law is outwar.
Both $ul$ill the sa#e $un"tion. Beason tells what shoul be one or what shoul be
a4oie in the sa#e way is *er$or#e by the law. But what #akes law #ore *ro$oun is
that reason #ay "o#e with a *assion whereas law is una$$e"te by *assion. (oreo4er
reason is *ersonal whereas law is "olle"ti4e. Philoso*her kin) #ay )et *er4erte be"ause
o$ *assion but law is i#*ersonal. Hen"e there is no su"h *ossibility. 5hus .abine in
History of Political heory (/0D3) o*ine that Aristotle unlike Plato, "ontene that the
"olle"ti4e wiso# o$ the *eo*le was su*erior to that o$ the wisest or le)islator, $or >the
reason o$ the states#an in a )oo state "annot be eta"he $ro# the reason e#boie in
the law an "usto# o$ the "o##unity the rules2.
E. Plato hi#sel$ "han)e his 4iews in his book >5he %aws!. He establishe the su*re#a"y
o$ the laws. Plato!s se"on best state an Aristotle!s ieal state are both )o4erne by the
rule o$ law
5hus, Aristotle has le the $ounation o$ the theory o$ the "onstitutional state. 5his theory is
$oun in #ost o$ the "onte#*orary "onstitution in the worl.
Theory of Constitutions
1Polity is the best *ra"ti"able $or# o$ )o4ern#ent2
Classi$i"ation o$ .tateH)o4ern#ent
9o. o$ Bulers ,nterest o$ Peo*le .el$-interest o$ rulers
Ane (onar"hy 5yranny
@ew Aristo"ra"y Ali)ar"hy
(any Polity =e#o"ra"y
Aristotle analyse an "o#*are /88 "onstitutions, thereby unitin) the e#*iri"al an s*e"ulati4e
#oes o$ en7uiry. He built on Plato!s "lassi$i"ation o$ "onstitutions in the .tates#an by takin)
into a""ounts the ens o$ a "onstitution an the nu#ber who wiele (e3er"ise) *oliti"al *ower.
Aristotle on the 7uestion o$ "onstitution *oint out nature o$ the )o4ernan"e that those *ro#otin)
on the well-bein) as true or )oo an those that $ettere (restri"t) the interest o$ rule as
*er4erte or ba.
A )o4ern#ent that is rule by one, $ew an #any in the )eneral interest o$ the *eo*le was
#onar"hy, aristo"ra"y an *olity. ,n the si#ilar )o4ern#ent that is rule by sel$-interest were
tyranny, oli)ar"hy an e#o"ra"y.
An the true $or# o$ )o4ern#ent, a""orin) to Aristotle #onar"hy was *ossible ue to a 4irtuous
*erson as a ruler but he was ske*ti"al o$ $inin) a 4irtuous *erson. Aristotle istin)uish $i4e
ty*es o$ kin)shi*
/. .*artan (oel6 kin)s is res*onsible $or #ilitary an reli)ious #atters
2. Iin)shi* an tyranny6 $oun a#on) barbarians
3. =i"tatorshi*6 e3ist in early Greek history
4. Heroi" A)e6 kin)shi* was hereitary an rule by law
8. Absolute kin)shi*6 rule by one *erson
@or Aristotle #onar"hy e4elo*e into an aristo"ra"y- a true $or# o$ rule by $ew. 5here are o$
three kins
/. Cartha)e6 "o#bine 4irtue with wealth an nu#ber
2. .*arta6 "o#bine 4irtue with e#o"rati" *rin"i*le o$ $reeo#
3. (ore Ali)ar"hi"6 "o#bine wealth with $reeo#
@or Aristotle thir $or#e a #i3ture in whi"h a true o$ )o4ern#ent was *olity
An the *er4erte $or#s o$ )o4ern#ent, tyranny e$ine arbitrary *ower o$ an ini4iual. ,t
e)enerate into an oli)ar"hy. Aristotle es"ribe $our ty*es o$ oli)ar"hy
/. (oerate6 where rulers rule in a""oran"e with law
2. '3"lusi4e6 it was the ri"h an $ew who en<oye $ew bene$its
3. Bestri"ti4e6 hereitary )o4ernin) elite
4. .#all ri"h "oterie6 rule without law
An the >least ba2 or *er4erte $or#s o$ )o4ern#ent was e#o"ra"y.
An the better $or# o$ )o4ern#ent- #onar"hy was better than aristo"ra"y an in turn aristo"ra"y
was better than *olity.
An the *er4erte $or# o$ )o4ern#ent- tyranny was worse than an oli)ar"hy an in turn oli)ar"hy
was worse than a e#o"ra"y. (Can see Aristotle su**ort $or e#o"ra"y)
An e#o"ra"y, Aristotle es"ribe $our kins o$ e#o"ra"y
/. (oerate e#o"ra"y6 on *ro*erty 7uali$i"ations $or o$$i"ials
2. Here there is no *ro*erty 7uali$i"ations (no *ay#ents $or holin) *ubli" o$$i"es)
3. Here "iti+enshi* 7uali$i"ations is )i4en all $ree#an in"luin) aliens an "hilren o$
e#an"i*ate sla4es, who were e3"lue $ro# the abo4e two
4. '3tre#e e#o"ra"y6 all restraints are re#o4e. @ull ri)ht to e#a)o)ues
5hus, Plato "lassi$ie )o4ern#ents on the basis o$ their law-abiin)ness, while Aristotle use the
"riterion o$ )eneral wel$are an the nu#ber who wiele *oliti"al *ower. .abine in History o$
Politi"al 5heory (/0D3) o*ine that $or Aristotle, 1there are two istin"t "lai#s to *ower, one
base u*on the ri)hts to *ro*erty an the other u*on the wel$are o$ the )reater nu#ber o$ hu#an
bein)s2.
9e4ertheless Aristotle i not 7uestion Plato!s *ro*osition that wiso# an 4irtue ha an
absolute "lai# to *ower, but was #ore "on"erne with its o*erationalisation in *ra"ti"e. @or
Aristotle, a state ou)ht to reali+e <usti"e in its $ullest an lar)est sense, $or <usti"e #eant e7uality.
Aristotle theory of citienshi!
Aristotle *la"e the "on"e*t o$ "iti+enshi* at the "entre o$ his *oliti"al analysis be"ause o$ his
belie$ in law-base )o4ern#ent. 5his was "ontrary to Plato, who i)nore the issue an *la"e
)reater $aith on *hiloso*hi" rule
5hose who are not to be treate as "iti+ens
/. Besiential 7uali$i"ation is not enou)h $or "iti+enshi*
2. %e)al ri)ht to sue another *erson in the "ourt oes not #ake a *erson "iti+en
3. Persons whose *arents are not "iti+ens o$ "ity-state will not be treate as "iti+ens. Aliens
are not treate as "iti+ens
4. ;o#en, "hilren, sla4es, ol *eo*le are also not treate as "iti+ens ("hilren an ol not
"iti+en be"ause o$ i##ature? wo#en are not "iti+ens be"ause o$ la"ke in eliberati4e
$a"ulty an to unerstan *oliti"s)
;ho are "iti+ensJ
/. A "iti+en is one who en<oye the ri)ht to share in the eliberati4e or <ui"ial o$$i"es, an
was able to e3er"ise his *oliti"al ri)hts a$$e"ti4ity.
2. A )oo "iti+en to Aristotle is one who has intelli)en"e an the ability to rule an be rule
an who "oul li4e in har#ony with the "onstitutions an e4otin) su$$i"ient leisure ti#e
to the res*onsibilities an workin) o$ "iti+enshi*.
3. Consiere eu"ation as an i#*ortant tools $or the "iti+enshi* to $orbi in "orru*tion an
*oliti"al instability
Evaluation
/. %ike Plato, Aristotle "o##itte to the iea o$ state "ontrolle eu"ation.
2. Aristotle "on"e*t o$ "iti+ens is base on two *rin"i*les- <us soli (soil) an <us san)uine
(bloo). 5he "on"e*t is narrow be"ause it tens to e3"lue lar)e nu#ber o$ *eo*le $ro#
the status o$ "iti+enshi*
3. Aristotle theory o$ "iti+enshi* is #ainly base on the iea o$ a"ti4e "iti+enshi*. As
Aristotle hi#sel$ *ut that those who are unable or i##ature o$ $a"ulty "annot *arti"i*ate
in the a$$airs o$ *olity. 5his is the reason why e3"lue wo#en, "hilren, ol *eo*le.
Theory of Slavery" #omen and Pro!erty
On women$family
As a)ainst Plato, Aristotle a4o"ate the *ri4ate $a#ily syste#. A""orin) to Aristotle $a#ily is
the *ri#ary unit o$ so"ial li$e, whi"h not only #akes so"iety but kee*s it )oin). He was "riti"al
o$ Platoni" "on"e*tion o$ "o##unis# that a4o"ate $or the abolition o$ $a#ily. A""orin) to
Aristotle $a#ily is the startin) *oint o$ one!s intelle"tual e4elo*#ent o$ a "hil to learn the
so"ial 4irtues, lo4e, toleran"e an the natural hierar"hy ensure stability an o$$ere the
*re"onitions $or the *ursuit o$ 4irtue. He )oes on by sayin) that $a#ily is the e3tension o$ the
state- $a#ily- 4illa)es- state. His e$en"e o$ the $a#ily was si#ilar to the ar)u#ents e4elo*e
by He)el
5he $a#ily to Aristotle belon)e to *ri4ate real#, whi"h was the worl o$ *arti"ular rather than
uni4ersal. %ike Plato, he re)are the worl as hierar"hi"ally stru"ture, where the better rule
o4er the in$erior, the stron) o4er the weak an the soul o4er the boy. ,n this "onte3t Aristotle
says a $a#ily "onsists o$ husban, wi$e, "hilren, sla4es an *ro*erly. ,t in4ol4es three ty*es o$
relationshi* that o$ the #aster an sla4e, #arital (between the husban an wi$e) an *arental
(between the $ather an "hil). 5he #aster, Aristotle hel, rules the sla4e? husban rules the wi$e
(Aristotle re)ars wo#en in$erior to #an, an in"o#*lete #ale), an the $ather rules the son. ;ith
his belie$ in *atriar"hy Aristotle wante to kee*, wo#en within the $our-walls o$ the house, )oo
only $or househol work an re*rou"tion nurture o$ the s*e"ies. @or hi#, #an is the hea o$ the
$a#ily. %ikewise, Aristotle a$$ir#e that #an is su*erior to wo#an (wo#en were e3"lue $ro#
the *ubli" real# be"ause their eliberati4e $a"ulties were in"on"lusi4e an la"ke authority),
wiser than the sla4e an #ore e3*erien"e than the "hilren. ,nterestin)ly, Aristotle "onsiere
the $a#ily to be the seat o$ ine7uality, an hierar"hy )a4e rise to the #ore #a<esti" an i#*ortant
*olis, the s*here o$ e7uality.
@ro# the *oint o$ $e#inists, both Plato an Aristotle raise a "ru"ial issues like was the $a#ily an
instru#ent or an obsta"le to se3ual e7ualityJ Coul the $a#ily be the arena in whi"h wo#en
"oul attain $reeo# an $ul$ill#entJ Plato assu#e that wo#en "oul be $ree only i$ the
institutions o$ #ono)a#ous #arria)es an *ri4ate $a#ilies were abolishe. Aristotle, on the
other, e$ene the *ri4ate *ro*erty, on the )roun that it #ae *ossible $or the #oral $ounation
an *osition o$ wo#en within the househol, $or whi"h they were best suite, an $or o$$s*rin)
o$ "hilren. Both 4iews howe4er, in #oern a)e are harly a""e*table. ,nterestin)ly, Aristotle
4iew on the *osition o$ *ri4ate real# o$ $a#ily has been restate by the liberals. 5he liberals,
howe4er like ;ollstone"ra$t an -... (ill 4iewe wo#en *ri#arily as ho#e#akers an wi4es,
but ar)ue $or e7ual le)al an "i4il ri)hts an e#ane e7ual o**ortunities in eu"ation,
e#*loy#ent an su$$ra)e.
Theory of slavery:
Unlike Plato, who i)nore the institution, Aristotle e$ene the sla4e both $ro# the 4iew *oint
o$ sla4e an the #aster (householer)
;hy a *erson shoul be a sla4e an another a #asterJ Aristotle <usti$ie on the $ollowin)
)rouns
/. .la4ery is natural6 it is natural be"ause o$ natural i$$eren"es between the "a*abilities o$
i$$erent ini4iuals. He e"lare in "lear ter#s, >$ro# the hour o$ birth so#e #en are
#arke out $or sub<e"tion an others $or rule!. Aristotle <usti$ie that it is the triu#*h o$
reason an 4irtue, that it the #aster who re*resent reason an 4irtue an the sla4e the
absen"e o$ reason an non-4irtue. 5hus, so#e are estine to be #asters an others to be
sla4es.
2. .la4ery is use$ul6 it is use$ul $ro# *oliti"s *ers*e"ti4e as #aster will ha4e ti#e to *ursue
the *oliti"al a"ti4ities be"ause sla4e is oin) #anual <obs $or hi#. .e"only $ro# #oral
*ers*e"ti4e, in a "o#*any o$ 4irtuous #aster the sla4e "an lea a )oo li$e. He "an
e4elo* his 4irtues an #ay result in his *ersonal e4elo*#ent.
3. '"ono#i"6 sin"e the sla4es are *hysi"ally stron)er it is suite in *rou"tion *ur*ose
4. .la4ery is not only natural, it is ne"essary as well. ,t is natural, Aristotle ar)ue, be"ause
nature oes not a#it e7uality? it is ne"essary, it "ontinues, be"ause i$ the #aster nees a
sla4e so that he is able to en<oy a $ree li$e, the sla4e also nees a #aster so that he is able to
attain the '4irtues o$ $ree#an only in the "o#*any o$ $ree#en.
8. A sla4e, a""orin) to Aristotle, is not a hu#an bein). He is sub-hu#an, in"o#*lete, an a
barbarian. Here Aristotle istin)uishe between ani#ate an inani#ate instru#ents in a
househol. 5he sla4e was an ani#ate instru#ent who oes not "reate *rou"tion but only
hel* in the business o$ househol.
E. Aristotle also istin)uishe between "on4entional an natural sla4es. 5he $or#er were
not sla4es by nature but "iti+ens o$ a *arti"ular state (*risoner o$ war) an later are sla4es
be"ause o$ la"ke o$ reason.
D. Aristotle also *oint out on the re$or#s o$ sla4es, that it is only in a relationshi* with the
#aster that the sla4es woul able to e4elo*e his sel$ an liberate hi#sel$.


Criticisms
/. ,n "onte#*orary ti#es o$ hu#an ri)hts an e#o"ra"y it is not a""e*table to a)ree on
su"h institutions.
2. Iant, 4iew that >no *erson "an be allowe to be"o#e a #atter o$ utility $or another
*erson!.
3. 5here is no s"ienti$i" basis to "lassi$y *eo*le on natural i$$eren"es as #ost *eo*le are by
*rou"t o$ so"io-e"ono#i" syste#, eu"ational e4elo*#ent, o**ortunities an so on
4. =enial o$ e7uality an $reeo#
On Pro!erty
Aristotle:s theory o$ *ro*erty is base on his "riti"is# o$ Plato:s "o##unis# o$ *ro*erty. Plato
thou)ht o$ *ro*erty as an obsta"le in the *ro*er $un"tionin) o$ the state an, there$ore, su))este
"o##unis# $or the )uarian "lass. But $or Aristotle, *ro*erty *ro4ie *sy"holo)i"al
satis$a"tion by $ul$illin) the hu#an instin"t $or *ossession an ownershi*.
Aristotle o**ose to Plato!s 4iew on the )roun that it will
/. =i#inish the area o$ )ooness
2. .tar4e #en o$ natural an *ro*er *leasure, an
3. ,n"rease instea o$ i#inish is"or
A""orin) to Aristotle6 CPro*erty is a *art o$ the househol an the art o$ a"7uirin) *ro*erty is
a *art o$ #ana)in) the househol? $or no #an li4es well, or inee li4e at all unless he is
*ro4ie with2. ;ith re)ar to the ownershi* o$ *ro*erty, Aristotle re$erre to6
.la4es
9atural le)al
(aster sla4es
Aristotle is ealin) with this *risoner o$ war
a) ,ni4iual ownershi*, an ini4iual use, whi"h is, $or Aristotle, the #ost an)erous
situation
b) Co##on ownershi*, an ini4iual use, a situation whi"h "an be)in with so"ialis#, but
woul en u* in "a*italis#? it is also not a""e*table
") Co##on ownershi* an "o##on use, a e4ise in4ariably i#*ra"ti"able
) ,ni4iual ownershi* an "o##on use, a e4i"e )enerally *ossible an e7ually
a""e*table.
Aristotle says6 C*ro*erty ou)ht to be )enerally an in the #ain *ri4ate, but "o##on in use.C He
<usti$ie *ri4ate *ro*erty on the iea o$ natural ri)ht. ,t is natural to Aristotle be"ause it was
base on #oral *rin"i*les an as an e3tension o$ hu#an *ersonality. (He a""e*ts the e4il o$
*ri4ate *ro*erty but thin)s "annot be i#*ro4e throu)h a syste# o$ e7uality o$ *ro*erty, but
throu)h the #oral i#*ro4e#ent o$ #an)
Theory of %evolution
Unlike Plato, who i not a""e*t "han)e an e7uate it with e"ay an "orru*tion. Aristotle on
the "ontrary re)are "han)e as ine4itable an *ossibility o$ "han)e. ,n book K o$ the Politi"s,
Aristotle is"usse one o$ the #ost i#*ortant *roble#s, whi"h #ae it a hanbook $or all the
states#en $or all ti#es to "o#e. 5he *roble#, whi"h he took u*, was one that relate to *oliti"al
instability or the "auses an "ures o$ re4olutions. 5he analyti"al an the e#*iri"al #in o$
Aristotle )i4e nu#erous "auses, whi"h woul a$$e"t the li$e o$ the state.
Be4olution #eans, a""orin) to Aristotle, a "han)e in the "onstitution, a "han)e in the rulers, a
"han)e bi) or s#all. @or hi#, the "han)e $ro# #onar"hy to aristo"ra"y, an e3a#*le o$ a bi)
"han)e, is a re4olution? when e#o"ra"y be"o#es less e#o"rati", it is also a re4olution, thou)h
it is a s#all "han)e. ,n Aristotle:s 4iews, *oliti"al "han)e is a re4olution? bi) or s#all, total or
*artial. ,.o to su# u* Aristotle:s #eanin) o$ re4olution, one #ay say re4olution i#*lies6 (i) a
"han)e in the set o$ rulers? (ii) a "han)e, *oliti"al in nature6 (iii) a *ala"e re4olution? (i4) *oliti"al
instability or *oliti"al trans$or#ation? (4) a "han)e $ollowe by 4iolen"e, estru"tion an
blooshe.
Pro$essor (a3ey ienti$ies the )eneral "auses o$ re4olutions as state by Aristotle in his Politics.
::5hey are (/) that uni4ersal *assion $or *ri4ile)e an *rero)ati4e whi"h "auses #en to resent an
rebel a)ainst "onition whi"h (un$airly in their o*inion) *la"e other or on le4el with the# in rank
or wealth? (2) 5he o4errea"hin) insolen"e or a4ari"e o$ rulers or rulin) "lasses whi"h "auses #en
to rea"t a)ainst the# (3) 5he *ossession by one or #ore ini4iuals o$ *ower su"h as to e3"ite
$ears that they esi)n to a"t u* a #onar"hy or an oli)ar"hy (4) 5he enea4ors o$ #en )uilty o$
wron) oin) to $o#ent a re4olution as a s#okes"reen to "on"eal their own #isees or o$ #en
$reein) the a))ressions o$ others to start a re4olution in orer to anti"i*ate their ene#ies? (8) 5he
is*ro*ortionate in"rease o$ ally *art (territorial, so"ial, e"ono#i" or otherwise) o$ the state,
"ausin) other *arts to resort to 4iolent #eans o$ o$$settin) this *re*oneran"e? (E) 5he issension
an ri4alries o$ *eo*le o$ i$$erent ra"es? (D) 5he yna#i"s an $a#ily $eus an 7uarrels? (8)
stru))les $or o$$i"e an *oliti"al *ower between ri4al "lasses an *oliti"al $a"tions or *arties2.
5o the )eneral "auses o$ re4olutions, Aristotle as the *arti"ular one *e"uliar to other 4arious
ty*es. ,n e#o"ra"y the #ost i#*ortant "ause o$ re4olution is the un*rin"i*le "hara"ter o$ the
*o*ular leaers. =e#a)o)ues atta"k the ri"h, ini4iually or "olle"ti4ely, so as to *ro4ie the#
to $or"ibly resist an *ro4ie the e#er)en"e o$ oli)ar"hy. 5he "auses o$ o4erthrow o$ oli)ar"hies
"an be internal as when a )rou* within the "lass in *ower be"o#es #ore in$luential or ri"h at the
e3*ense o$ the rest, or e3ternal, by the #istreat#ent o$ the #asses by the )o4ernin) "lass. ,n
aristo"ra"ies, $ew *eo*le share in honour. ;hen the nu#ber o$ *eo*le bene$itin) be"o#es
s#aller or when is*arity between ri"h an *oor be"o#es wier, re4olution is "ause. (onar"hy,
Iin)shi* an tyranny are ba $or#s o$ "onstitution to be)in with an are 4ery *rone to
issensions.
Alon) with the "ause o$ re4olution Aristotle also su))est re#ey $or *re4entin) it. @irstly in a
#onar"hy in orer to sto* it, the s*irit o$ obeien"e to law shoul be #aintaine. .e"only in the
"ase o$ oli)ar"hies an aristo"ra"ies, the re#ey was in ensurin) that rulers were on )oo ter#s
both with the "i4i" boy an those who has "onstitutional ri)hts. (that noboy shoul be #ae
abo4e other in ter#s o$ o$$i"e *ower, honors, wealth an so on) so that no ra*i su""ession take
*la"e. @inally, "onstitution *er#anen"e is the aa*tation o$ eu"ation to the $or# o$ )o4ern#ent.
,n other wors, the youn) #ust be traine in the s*irit o$ the "onstitution whate4er that #ay be?
#ust be is"i*line to so"ial habits "onsonant with the #aintenan"e o$ the "onstitution? #ust
learn , to think an a"t as inte)ral *arts o$ a *arti"ular $or# o$ *oliti"al so"iety.