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Statsvetenskap 41-60 p
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An analysis concerning three organisations work with
reducing child labour

A case study within Perus mining industry
Marie Bergvall Bark
Sanaz Sheikholeslamzadeh
C-uppsats 10 p Handledare: Rolf Hugoson
Hgskolan i Kalmar Humanvetenskapliga institutionen
VT 2007
Kurs: Statsvetenskap 41-60
2
Abstract
Humanvetenskapliga institutionen
Internationella Samhllsstudier, C-uppsats
Handledare: Rolf Hugoson
Vrterminen 2007
Title: An analysis concerning three organisations work with reducing child labour
a case study within Perus mining industry
Av: Marie Bergvall Bark och Sanaz Sheikholeslamzadeh
This thesis aim to describe and analyze different organisations work with reducing child
labour. In order to understand the complex matter of child labour, a case study concerning
childrens situation within the mining industry in Peru has been made. The first part of the
thesis has been designed to be an introduction to the matter, with a description of the
mining industry in Peru and the situation of child labour. The two following parts are more
analytic in character. The second and third part discusses how the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) can be used as an instrument of reducing child labour. Further, top down and
bottom up-theories will be discussed as different approaches and working methods for
organisations.
In addition to find the answers to our questions, interviews have been conducted with
employees of the organisations (ILO, UNICEF and Save the Children), articles and literature
have been analyzed and finally Internet have contributed with information about child
labour, Peru, the organisations, theories and the MDGs.
This study claims that child labour is a complex matter and one possible solution to reduce it
can be through promoting education. This can only be viable if organisations work together
with governments, using a combination of top down and bottom up approaches.
Keywords: Peru, child labour, MDGs, accountability, top-down and bottom-up approaches
3
1. INTRODUCTI ON...............................................................................................................................7
1.2PROBLEM................................................................................................................................................8
1.2.1BACKGROUND.....................................................................................................................................10
1.2.2PURPOSE OF THE PAPER.......................................................................................................................11
1.2.3QUESTIONS........................................................................................................................................11
1.2.4DISPOSITION......................................................................................................................................12
1.2.5DELIMITATIONS..................................................................................................................................12
1.3THEORY................................................................................................................................................14
1.4METHODOLOGY......................................................................................................................................15
1.4.1QUALITATIVE/QUANTITATIVE METHOD AND CASE STUDY RESEARCH.......................................................15
1.4.2METHOD PROBLEMS ............................................................................................................................16
1.4.3VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY..................................................................................................................17
1.5SELECTION OF DATA...............................................................................................................................17
1.5.1CRITICISM OF SOURCES.......................................................................................................................17
2. ACCOUNTABILITY......................................................................................................................... 19
2.1ACCOUNTABILITY FROM WHOM/WHERE?...................................................................................................21
3. MINING INDUSTRY AND ECONOMY IN PERU........................................................................22
3.1BACKGROUND........................................................................................................................................22
3.2THE MINING INDUSTRY...........................................................................................................................22
3.3CHILDRENS SITUATION WITHIN THE MINING INDUSTRY .............................................................................23
4. WHAT ARE THE ORGANISATIONS APPROACHES IN TERMS OF REDUCING CHILD
LABOUR WITHIN PERUS MINING INDUSTRY?........................................................................... 25
4.1UNICEF...............................................................................................................................................25
4.2ILO......................................................................................................................................................27
4.3SAVE THE CHILDREN..............................................................................................................................29
4.3.1SAVE THE CHILDREN ANGO............................................................................................................30
5. WHAT ARE THE OPPORTUNITIES AND DIFFICULTIES OF REDUCING CHILD LABOUR
THROUGH THE SECOND PARAGRAPH IN THE MDGS, WHICH ENTAILS EDUCATION FOR
ALL CHILDREN BY THE YEAR 2015? ..............................................................................................32
5.1. WHAT ARE THE OPPORTUNITIES WITH THE SECOND PARAGRAPH IN THE MDGS?.........................................32
5.2MDGS, CAN IT BE REACHED? ..................................................................................................................36
6. THERE ARE DIFFERENT APPROACHES FOR UNDERTAKE DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES,
SUCH AS TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP APPROACHES. WHICH OF THEM ARE MOST
EFFICIENT REGARDING THE MDGS AND THE EDUCATION AS AN INSTRUMENT TO REDUCE
CHILD LABOUR IN PERU? ................................................................................................................38
6.1 PERU AND EDUCATION..............................................................................................................41
7 ANALYSIS......................................................................................................................................... 45
8 CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................... 48
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................................50
4
List of charts
Figure 1: Child work by quintiles of expenditure p.42
Figure 2: Key Relationships of Power: The Accountability Triangle p.44
5
Descriptions
Human rights Refer to United Nations declaration on Human rights, from the year 1948.
1
Child labour Child labour refers to work that is mentally, physically, socially or morally
dangerous and harmful to children; and interferes with their schooling: by depriving them of
the opportunity to attend school; by obliging them to leave school prematurely; or by
requiring them to attempt to combine school attendance with excessively long and heavy
work. In its most extreme forms, it involves children being enslaved, separated from their
families, exposed to serious hazards and illnesses and/or left to fend for themselves on the
streets of large cities - all of this often at a very early age. Child labour is work that deprives
children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical
and mental development.
2
ILO International Labour Organisation, was founded in the year 1919, and was initially
working with labour standards, working hours and has developed to include even more
issues. It works with a three partial method, which includes the employer, the worker and
the government.
3
UNICEF United Nations International Childrens Emergency Fund, UNICEF was created
with this purpose in mind to work with others to overcome the obstacles that poverty,
violence, disease and discrimination place in a childs path. We work in 191 countries
through country programmes and National Committees.
4
UNDP United Development Programme, UNDP is the UN's global development network,
an organization advocating for change and connecting countries to knowledge, experience
and resources to help people build a better life. We are on the ground in 166 countries,
working with them on their own solutions to global and national development challenges.
5
Human Development In seeking that something else, human development shares a
common vision with human rights. The goal is human freedom. And in pursuing capabilities

1
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3
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and realizing rights, this freedom is vital. People must be free to exercise their choices and to
participate in decision-making that affects their lives. Human development and human rights
are mutually reinforcing, helping to secure the well-being and dignity of all people, building
self-respect and the respect of others.
6
HDI Human Development Index is decided from UNDPs three perspectives regarding,
education, health care and economic status.
7
Poverty The MDGs have poverty reduction at their core. The definition of poverty used in
these targets is an economic one and the measurements used is a poverty line. People living
on less than one US dollar per day are defined as being in extreme poverty and less than
two US dollars per day are in poverty.
8
Acronyms
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
ILO International Labour Organization
UNICEF United Nations Childrens Emergency Fund
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
GDP Gross domestic product
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
ICISS International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty
GNP- Gross National Product
EFA- Education for All (second paragraph of the MDGs)

6
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Willis, p.13
8
Willis, p. 13-14
7
1. Introduction
Child labour exists in several regions around the world and the International Labour
Organisation estimated that in the year 2004:
...there were 218 million children trapped in child labour, of whom 126 million in hazardous work...
9
The children in our world need to be protected and supported in order to uphold their rights.
Children have the right to a free life, childhood and education and that is why these rights
must be preserved.
10
Children should also be given the opportunity to receive an education
and not be forced to work.
11
The kind of work which children are involved in varies between countries and geographical
conditions. This thesis will examine perspectives of how three important organisations deal
with child labour in mining in Peru, furthermore there will be a discussion and analysis
regarding the theoretical and practical approaches of their work. The work intended to
reduce child labour and how this is related to the Millennium Development Goals, will be
declared in this thesis. A closing discussion regarding top down and bottom up-theories aim
to give the reader a wider perspective on the matter of child labour.
Peru is interesting from both an economical and a developmental perspective. During the last
ten years Peru has become a stable economy and many organisations have helped the
countrys development through projects and programmes.
Katie Willis and Amartya Sen will both be in the centre of our theories and inspiration. The
two authors both have strong opinions regarding development and personal freedom.
Therefore, their work and studies will be essential for this thesis. It is important to declare
the complexity in the matter of development. Finally the authors uphold a long history of
researching and writing about these matters.
There are many organisations working with childrens rights and we have chosen three
different international organisations for our thesis. The reasons to why we have chosen

9
ILO report, The end of child labour: within reach, 2006
10
Willis, p. 138
11
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these organisations are; firstly, they work at different levels and with different methods.
Secondly, they have slightly different directions concerning their aims. The organisations we
have chosen are ILO, UNICEF and Save the Children. Their work in Peru will be studied in
this thesis, from the perspective of childrens rights, education and development.
1.2 Problem
Child labour is not a new phenomena, it holds a long history throughout many countries in
the world. In the Western democracies it has been on the agenda since the 18
th
century and
the beginning of the industrial revolution.
12
ILO is one of the organisations that have been
dealing with these issues, since the year 1919.
13
There are different forms of child labour and ILO has defined some of them. Although in this
thesis focus will be on domestic work. According to ILO the worst forms of child labour are:
Slavery, trafficking, armed conflict, hazardous work and sexual exploitation.
14
Children who are involved with domestic work (domestic work regarding working in mining,
is considered to be included in the term hazardous work. This because of the high risk of
injuries and other health related issues.
15
) often face that their work interfere with their
schoolwork.
16
Mr Ndjonkou Director at the ILO office in New York has the following opinion:
Firstly you have to address the problem with poverty in order to reduce child labour. Of course there is not a
straight line between forced child labour and domestic work, but if the child is not in school, the question
remains, where is it?
Mr Ndjonkous comment is interesting and focuses on the centre of the matter of child
labour. The quote is referring to that child labour can never be discussed as a solitary
problem but must be seen in a wider perspective, including traditions, poverty and
development. This is one of the reasons why child labour can be related to the MDGs.

12
Hollander, Barn och rtt, p. 115
13
Ibid.
14
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15
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/dialogue/sector/sectors/mining/concern.htm
16
A World Bank country Study, A New Social Contract for Peru, p. 77
9
Within the UN there are two organisations that focus on childrens rights in various ways.
UNICEF and ILO are two crucial organisations, and therefore their work needs to be
evaluated and reviewed. What is their approach as regards to child labour in mining in Peru
and is their work relevant? One of the worlds most famous NGOs working for children is
Save the Children. They also play an important role in the work of reducing child labour.
We often hear about these organisations in terms of endowment programs and support,
nevertheless their actual work is seldom uttered in terms of how they work. Therefore it is
essential to study the theoretical work as well as the practical work of these organisations. It
is important to remember that their work is to some extent governed by regulations that
they can not control, and this is being confirmed in the thesis by explaining the role of the
MDGs and its essence in these matters.
This thesis wishes to emphasis the surrounding problems such as, the issue of poverty, the
global targets and the different approaches of the organisations. It is essential to
comprehend how all these problems are connected and that none of them stands alone,
each and every one of these problems leads to the other.
Theorists such as Amartya Sen and Katie Willis have both emphasized the different traditions
within development issues. Both of them have had great influence on development theories,
although they do not have exactly the same approach. Amartya Sen is promoting a more
philosophical theory, which can be used as a foundation. This theory does not provide actual
suggestions on how to reach development through increased freedom. Sens theory
discusses the term development in a wider perspective than perhaps other previous
research. On the other hand, Sens interpretation of the word development makes it almost
impossible to measure.
Another theorist such as Katie Willis has a different view regarding development. Willis
argues, presents and discusses different approaches and methods of working with issues
related to development. Her theory includes an essential discussion concerning grass root
development. This work holds interesting information and research about top down and
bottom up-theories, even though her personal opinion is very clear to the reader. Willis is a
supporter of grass root organisations and the bottom up theory.
Amartya Sen and Katie Willis argue why freedom and development is important. They also
discuss various obstacles for freedom; one example is the matter of child labour. Our thesis
10
seeks to investigate further how child labour is related to development through different
approaches. The discussion then leads further on to the matter of reducing child labour
through the MDGs. As the MDGs are composed from a top down perspective, Willis continues
with the following words:
The issue of child labour is a particularly complicated one in development policies and is a good example of how
policies need to be designed in particular contexts and based on the participation of groups that will be
affected.
17
Should perhaps one of the goals in the MDGs, specifically concern the issue of child labour,
instead of indirectly, with the present second goal? This is why our thesis becomes
interesting, theories have been created concerning development and we intended to bring
that discussion together with child labour and top down/bottom up-theories, by doing a case
study in Perus mining industry.
1.2.1 Background
A report from 1999 showed that Peru had a population of approximately 25 million people;
10 million of them were children and during the same period it was found that 2 million of
these children were working in informal settings
18
. This high number of children working
makes Peru an interesting example for our thesis.
Since Peru is a large exporter of minerals and metals, this generates many working
opportunities.
19
Unfortunately, this also leads child labour within the informal settings. The
mining industry is important for the countrys economy and thereby also for the inhabitants.
Many organisations such as ILO, UNICEF and Save the Children are working in the country in
order to deal with the issue of child labour.
Childrens rights are often seen as an obvious part of society, despite this many children
around the world are not receiving the help they need or the education they is crucial for
their personal development and their right to freedom. The issue regarding child labour holds
a complexity, which entails a great amount of patience and will in order to be able to reduce
it. Much still needs to be done and our thesis will describe and analyze some methods used,

17
Ibid. p. 138
18
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in the struggle to reduce child labour. These analyses will be concluded from top down and
bottom up-perspectives. The three organisations have tried various methods and
approaches, which are supposed to achieve certain goals. The MDGs are examples of
international goals, which are set to be a common guidance for both organisations and
countries around the world.
1.2.2 Purpose of the paper
Our purpose with this thesis is to examine how three important organisations deal with the
matter of child labour and their approach in their work of reducing it. The three
organisations we have chosen work all over the world, and at different levels of decision. We
found out that all these organisations are engaged in the work against child labour in mining
in Peru, in one way or another. Consequently, Peru became an interesting target.
Furthermore child labour in mining is not the most common sort of labour these days, and so
this makes it even more interesting.
A campaign was conducted a few years ago by ILO (International Labour Conference) and
UNICEF. The cooperation aimed to prevent child labour and promote children to go to
school.
20
This is only one example of what can be done in this issue. This matter is closely
related to the second paragraph in the MDGs. In order for children to be able to have a
compulsory education, they can not work at the same time. If the connection between
education and the MDGs is to be possible, the work with reducing child labour is of great
importance.
1.2.3 Questions
Our first question will examine what is being done by three organizations in this matter of
child labour in mining in Peru. The second question will view how education for all is the
key to reducing child labour in Peru, especially within the mining industry. We will also pose
the question if the goal is reasonable or not. The third question will discuss the matter of
responsibility, aid and theories.

20
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1. What are ILOs, UNICEFs, and Save the Childrens approach in terms of reducing
child labour within Perus mining industry?
2. What are respectively, the opportunities and difficulties with reducing child labour
through the second paragraph in the MDG, which entails education for all children by
the year 2015?
3. There are different approaches for undertaking developmental issues, such as top-
down and bottom-up approaches. Which of them are most efficient regarding the
MDGs and the education as an instrument to reduce child labour in Peru?
1.2.4 Disposition
In order to understand the work against child labour, within the mining industry in Peru and
how this issue is strongly related to the MDGs, we will begin the thesis with a short
introduction concerning sovereignty. This is because of the fact that the work with reducing
child labour often includes many actors. If an organisation is determined to work with this
issue, the countrys government must be included at least as a dialogue partner. One could
argue that the phenomenon called globalisation is affecting boundaries and relations
between countries around the world. Therefore it is of great importance that all participants
who handle policies are having a dialogue regarding accountability and sovereignty.
A short introduction of Peru will be made, with focus on the mining industry and childrens
situation in the country. This will be followed by a description of the three organisations
work in Peru. The thesis will continue with answering the second question concerning how
child labour is related to MDGs, and an introduction together with clarification about some
terms will be given, followed by a discussion about whether the goals can be reached or not.
The third question will discuss top down and bottom up-theories from a responsibility
perspective. Finally, an analysis and discussion will sum up the thesis.
1.2.5 Delimitations
13
We have chosen to focus on how these three organisations work to prevent child labour in
mining in Peru. This area is interesting since it holds a long history and tradition of child
labour. This specific type of child labour has been very common in western countries during
the 19
th
century.
21
Although the western countries have developed further, many countries
around the world are still struggling with the problems of child labour. Our second
delimitation concerns the geographical area which holds this problem. We chose the country
Peru for many reasons. Firstly the fact that Peru is a large exporter of copper and other
minerals in the world,
22
secondly Peru is facing an interesting development concerning
economical growth. Even though the country is known for having a strong economical
development there are other issues regarding human rights and social rights, which needs to
be dealt with, such as education and the literacy level.
Finally, we chose three different organisations which are well known within the international
community; UNICEF, ILO and Save the Children. UNICEF and ILO are both operating within
the UN; on the other hand they are working at different levels and partially with different
issues. The different levels and approaches will be discussed later in the second and third
question. UNICEF focus on childrens rights and child related matters while ILO manages
labour and employee policies and rights. Therefore the two organisations are suitable for our
thesis about child labour because the two organisations complement each other.
Our third organisation, Save the Children, is a worldwide organisation that also has a focus
on childrens rights. Unlike from the other organisations, Save the Children is an NGO. They
work under different circumstances and on different levels, as well as on different
economical groundings, which will be explained in more detail further on. This thesis will not
examine economical details that are connected to GDP (and GDP per capita). The main focus
will concern HDI which will be coherent with the chosen theories and keep a consistency
throughout the thesis.

21
Nygren, Barn och rtt, p.122
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1.3 Theory
The problems concerning child labour lies within poverty and development issues. There are
many theories within this area, of which we have chosen two of them, Development as
Freedom by Amartya Sen, and Theories and Practices of Development by Katie Willis. The
theories are chosen from the perspective of development related to child labour. Both
authors have strong negative opinions regarding measuring development in numbers and
statistics such as GNP (Gross National Product). Willis has chosen a more distinct theoretical
perspective, whilst Sen is more focused on moral philosophy and its practical
implementations.
According to Sen, economical development can not only be measured through GNP. Political
freedom, democracy and the individuals life and abilities must be taken into consideration as
well.
23
Sen argues that this perspective is too narrow and does not respect development as a
theory. Instead technology and economic growth has become the main factors. Further on,
Sen means that freedom is dependent on political and civil rights as well as economic and
social welfare (e.g. the right to education and health care). In order to encourage
development, one must first erase the obstacles for total freedom; poverty and tyranny must
be abolished and poor economic possibilities must be prevented.
24
The matter of freedom is
essential in Sens theory and it can also be related to child labour. The author is discussing
child labour by saying:
The worst violations of the norm against child labour occur typically through the actual situation of slavery for
children in extremely exposed families and through the fact that they are forced into labour and there they are
being exploited. This immediate matter of freedom is a part of the highly debated subject concerning child
labour.
25
The author continues the discussion by saying that the problems concern the childrens lack
of choice and that this forced labour prevents them to have the opportunity to receive an
education.
26
According to Katie Willis development is often measured in misleading ways. Features that
are regarded as basic needs such as shelter, food or employment are not simple to

23
Sen, p.217
24
Sen, p.48
25
Sen, p.48
26
Sen, p. 165-166
15
measure; therefore there can be misleading reports.
27
Development measures are in most
cases quantitative (exposed in numbers), and therefore excludes individual needs and
beliefs.
by focusing on quantitative measurement, the subjective qualitative dimensions of development are
excluded. This means excluding the feelings, experiences and opinions of individuals and groups.
28

The quantitative approach is also considered to emphasize what outsiders think about
development, instead of the local inhabitants and their ideas about what it is and how it
should be.
29
Willis mentions different theories that discuss two important approaches; top-
down and bottom-up approach.
30
These two approaches clarify how development issues can
be administered from organisations and governments. We will apply these approaches to the
chosen organisations to show how they work and hopefully give an indulgent to why.
1.4 Methodology
This part of the paper is to give an insight of which research methods and theories we have
chosen to complete our work with. Discussions regarding the methodological problems we
have faced will be presented, which also lead to discussions about validity and reliability.
1.4.1 Qualitative/Quantitative Method and Case Study Research
Based on the interpretative approach in this paper, the method is mainly qualitative. There
are many complex ideas like sovereignty or child labour, which requires a careful analysis
and description. Therefore a qualitative method has been applied. In the thesis we will also
demonstrate facts and figures connected to the mining industry in Peru, and this is also
related to the issue of the economical development of the country. This is an example of the
quantitative method we have been using. There are different perspectives when it comes to
applying both a qualitative and quantitative method. Scientists have been saying that these
two different strategies have different approaches and thus reach various theoretical
conclusions. For that reason scientists are advised not to believe that they are

27
Willis, p.13
28
Ibid.
29
Ibid.
30
Willis, p.93
16
complementary.
31
This is evidently not accurate in all cases. The results of combining the
two methods are in most cases positive and often strengthen and confirm each other.
32
The third method which actually is within the qualitative method is a case study research
method. Preferences for a case study research method are used from the author Robert K.
Yin. He defines the principles of a case study by saying:
A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within real-life context,
especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident.
33
Referring to this quote, we consider our study to fulfil the significant part of this idea; it is
empirical and highly contemporary. Our case study is what Yin calls an embedded case
study design.
34
Our case is Peru and further on we have embedded units of analysis which
are the organisations (ILO, UNICEF and Save the Children.)
1.4.2 Method problems
One of the first problems we had to face was of linguistic character, due to the fact that, a
lot of the information we found was in Spanish. Another problem was the matter of distance
and the time perspective, regarding our contact with the organisations. Among other things
we are referring to the e-mail contact with the organisations, which not always led to our
acquirements. Our meetings with the organisations were arranged at an early stage of this
thesis, therefore we were discussing child labour in a broader perspective and not specifically
about Peru. This could clearly be considered to have a negative effect regarding the
reliability (which will be mentioned below). Nevertheless it should be mentioned that the
representatives are people that are working specifically with these matters, and even though
they could not contribute with specific facts about Peru they gave us interesting views
regarding child labour.

31
Bryman, Social Research Methods, s.409
32
Ibid., s.412-413
33
Robert K. Yin p.13
34
Yin, p.43
17
1.4.3 Validity and Reliability
Seeing that the organisations have been contacted and we have been given information from
them gives the paper high validity and reliability. There were both general questions and
more specific questions for the individual organisations. The downside has been that only the
general questions have been answered and in some cases even referred to the web pages,
and only in one case has the specific questions been answered (by Save the Children). This
may give the paper a lower reliability. On the other hand, most of the questions have been
found through other sources. This is considered being a positive aspect regarding the
reliability due to the fact that we received proper facts and not only subjective facts and
opinions. The organisations have one common goal, and that is the MDGs. Their effort in
different countries should thereby be similar and therefore this study could be applied to
other countries in comparable situations. As a result the study holds high validity and
reliability.
1.5 Selection of data
The selected organisations websites have been attentively looked at and searched for
information. Also reports have been found through their internet sites on the subject of child
labour. Informal meetings were arranged with representatives from ILO and UNICEF in New
York. We were unable to set up a meeting with Save the Children, therefore our contact with
them was limited to email. These questions are not accounted due to the lack of information
that was given to us regarding this subject. The majority of all the data we have used is
contemporary. This includes the books, the reports, interviews etc, and according to us, we
consider it to be a constructive feature.
1.5.1 Criticism of sources
In our research we have used various methods of gaining information and collecting facts
and figures. The two most frequently used forms of sources have been literature (and
reports) and the Internet. In order to receive correct information both different organisations
own material have been used as well as other more objective sources, the two perspectives
are meant to complement each other. This is to increase the scientific value of the thesis.
The literature used in this thesis varies between older and more current publications. The
18
main argument for using literature from different years and decades is that some facts are
always relevant and contemporary. A complication with using facts from the Internet is that
homepages are constantly being updated. Although we have not been able to observe any
dramatic change over time on the main pages we have used.
As a researcher there is always a discussion concerning the authenticity within the sources.
Therefore we have carefully analysed all of our material and in some situations we tried to
find the same information from additional sources, to make sure it holds scientific standard.
A difficulty has been the lack of objective overviews, e.g. regarding the organisations work
in Peru. This is also a matter of objective evaluation. This meaning that no one is responsible
for evaluating different organisations work. The only reports we could find were from within
the organisation itself. For that reason, it is important to be critical to that kind of
information and consider this while reading the thesis.
A matter which is of great importance is the fact that the theory we have applied to this
thesis is acknowledged and holds a high scientific standard. Both theorists are analytic and
well-known; they both hold similarities and differences from each other. Amartya Sen has
very strong opinions concerning development and freedom as a philosophical base of
thinking. While Katie Willis describe and analyze development from a more practical
perspective.
In both our thesis and this part of criticism of sources, we have analysed all material from a
special perspective. Thorsten Thurn has written a book called Criticism of Sources (Sv.
Kllkritik) and he composed the four principles of critics:
1. Genuineness, the source is what it claims to be. 2. Time correlation, the longer time it is between the actual
event and the sources version of description, the stronger reason to doubt that source. 3. Independent, the
source must have a special value, and not entirely be an abstract. 4. Freedom of tendency, the source must be
beyond all doubt that it is telling its own truth, depending on economic, political or other reasons of not telling
the real truth.
35
We chose Thurns model of working method, as we believed it best for our thesis and most
appropriate for the forms of sources we were using.

35
Thurn, Kllkritik, p. 13
19
2. Accountability
In the third question there will be a discussion regarding the approaches that are being
applied in the work of child labour and development. However, it is extremely important to
make clear the boundaries, regulations and policies that surround governments and
organizations in their work. Therefore, in the following pages, there will be a discussion
regarding accountability.
The matter of accountability has many faces. There could be an entire thesis on who is
accountable towards whom, regarding development issues. In this thesis there are several
agencies involved which each and one of them work in different ways. Firstly, there will be
some general views regarding accountability and sovereignty. Secondly this matter will be
further connected to the situation in Peru.
According to Gareth Evans and Mohamed Sahnouns report from ICISS, it is a matter of the
responsibility to protect and not the right to intervene.
36
They agree on the fact that
responsibility lies within the sovereign states towards their citizens, but they also draw
attention to the international community and their recognized responsibility.
37
According to
author and lecturer Mark Duffield, governments must be held responsible for violating
human rights, but they must also be supported whilst trying to stabilise difficult conditions.
38

The responsibility is in other words in the hands of both the international community and the
sovereign states, if to understand Duffield. Evan and Sahnoun would not necessarily disagree
with Duffield. They mean that rather than talking about the responsibility to protect and
not the right to intervene, the explanation becomes clearer.
.this formulation implies that the primary responsibility rests with the state concerned. Only if that state is
unable or unwilling to fulfil its responsibility to protect or itself the perpetrator, should the international
community take the responsibility to act in its place.
39
Without any doubt the supporters of sovereignty agree that there is nothing like boundless
power to what one can do to its own people. Today it is recognized that the meaning of
sovereignty involves responsibility in two ways; the respect toward other states sovereignty

36
The responsibility to protect, by Evans and Mohamed, 2002
37
Ibid.
38
NGO relief in war zones: TOWARDS AN ANALYSIS OF THE NEW AID PARADIGM, by Duffield, 1997
39
The responsibility to protect, by Evans and Mohamed, 2002
20
(externally) as well as the respect for human rights and the dignity of all people within a
state (internally).
40
Childrens rights are included within the human rights. They also have the right to freedom,
security and should also be protected from inhuman treatment. Children working in mines
are unquestionably classified as harmful work. There are several mines that belong to
families and are private businesses and parents bring their children who then start working
in the mines.
41
But is West really taking responsibility in all matters? According to Duffield West is not
capable to handle crisis which has led to impoverishment.
The bottom line of international policy seems clear. The West is unable or unwilling to take comprehensive
responsibility for alleviating impoverishment and instability in crisis regions. The only feasible alternative is to
encourage political authorities and local institutions within the countries concerned, which has helped push relief
and development policy in a self-help direction.
42
Accountability has other meanings then just policy making. Duffield is also saying that the
new ways West is operating in relief situations, is in actual fact non-political.
43
But when
countries import copper, silver and gold from mines where they do not know the conditions
regarding children working in them or not, is that justifiable? For example, a small country
like Sweden is a large importer of copper from Peru.
44
This discussion requires other views than just authorities and responsibilities. It is important
not to forget the individuals and the actual people it might concern. J ean-Francois Vidal of
the Action Contre la Faim could not have said it better:
The problem with the traditional idea of humanitarianism is that it demands access for [NGO] workers to reach
victims who then become the object of 'our' compassion. What I support is the victims' access to their rights --
that is, a construction that makes them subjects, not objects.
45
Sovereignty ought to be qualified by the responsibility to protect, but there must be a
universal acceptance for the practical obligations it involves.
46
There is a difference between

40
Ibid.
41
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42
NGO relief in war zones: TOWARDS AN ANALYSIS OF THE NEW AID PARADIGM, by Duffield, 1997
43
Ibid.
44
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45
Humanitarianism in cricis, Rieff, 2002
46
The responsibility to protect, by Evans and Mohamed, 2002
21
humanitarian action and human rights and it should not be forgotten that human rights is
the foundation to everything.
47
2.1 Accountability from whom/where?
The dilemma with accountability in a broad perspective is in most cases the principle of
sovereignty. Human rights are being violated in everyday and everywhere and the UN cannot
intervene all the time. The matter of sovereignty is complex so therefore it will be a short
discussion regarding accountability of the local government in Peru. The matter of
accountability must be taken into consideration at many levels in the society.
The laws in Peru recognize the rights of children; the dilemma however lies within the
administration area. The protection and services that should be provided from the
operational institutions are not being fulfilled and are very limited. The capacity and will for
action does in fact depend on the national budget as well as the development of the
institutional organisations.
48

The Peruvian state spends, on each inhabitant, amounts very close to those of Chile and Costa Rica, and more
than Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela. However, the results in terms of social indicators are greatly inferior.
49
Nevertheless, this issue is complex and might have several factors illuminating the
differences. Despite of all the complexities, is it important to bear in mind that one of the
factors might be a matter of priority of spending. The role and accountability of a
government is relevant as regards the subject of priorities.
50
Further (in question 3) it will be
discussed more thoroughly of how the government could be more accountable as well the
citizens role in the process.

47
Humanitarianism in Crisis, by Rieff, 2002
48
Young Lives Preliminary Country Report: Peru, J avier Escobal et al., September 2003. p.12
49
Ibid. p.13
50
Ibid. p.14
22
3. Mining industry and economy in Peru
3.1 Background
Peru's economy reflects its varied geography
51
; the country is situated in the northwest
corner of Latin America. Peru borders to Brazil, Chile, Bolivia, Colombia and Ecuador
52
and
the countrys relationship with its neighbours is varied, throughout the history conflicts
concerning the maritime boundaries have been on the agenda. Especially with Chile and
Ecuador
53
, the boundaries are important for the fishing industry and Peru is one of the
largest exports of fishing products in the world.
54
Along with fishing products and agriculture
(mainly coffee and cotton), mining is an important factor in Perus export
55
.
3.2 The mining industry
After the year 1530 Peru became a colony of Spain and since the country was rich of
minerals and metals, it developed to be one of Spains most important colonies.
56
It was
mainly the resource of silver that Spain wanted to take advantage of. During the years 1821-
1890, the countrys economy was very unstable because of the many different political
leaders.
57
The various leaders had different ideas on how to run the economy in Peru. In the
early 20
th
century, the economy was growing through increased investments in both
agriculture and the mining industry. Today, Peru is considered a solid economy and
international mining firms have begun to reconsider the country as a business partner
58
.
Although voices have been raised regarding all the foreign investors which are settling down
in Peru, one example is:
As the government continues to invite foreign investment, there are some questions as to where the liability lies
for past environmental abuses, and what plans will be put in place to insure future behaviour is responsible and
not environmentally damaging
59
. The history of foreign investors in the mining sector started after the Second

51
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52
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53
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54
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55
Ibid.
56
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57
Ibid.
58
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59
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23
World War, although it stopped in the early 1970s during Perus nationalization and most of the mining
operations turned over into public agencies.
60
With poor administration and planning of the industry, the country had to invite foreign
investors once again to rescue the economy in the late 1970s. The economic development in
Peru has faced many challenges, but is now heading toward a steadier path.
The Swedish Trade Union reported last year following:
The Peruvian stock market was the most rapid growing market in the world during the year 2006 (with 137%).
This depends mainly on the high price of copper and the fact that Perus strongest export market is USA
61
.
These numbers indicate the importance of a strong export market and good international
relations, with other foreign countries. According to the latest research on an information
webpage about mining, 218 companies are active in Peru.
62
Examples of the companies are:
ChapleauResources LTD., CIA. Minera Algamarca S.A and Equionx Minerals LTD..
63
A large
number of the countrys universities are having programs, especially designed for students
who want to work in the mining industry.
64
This indicates that the industry is growing and it
creates both economic stability and work opportunities.
3.3 Childrens situation within the mining industry
Peru is an important exporter of copper and gold. And a large percentage of the export is
products from mining.
In 2001, Perus mining revenues of 3,2 billion dollars represented 45,1 % of 7,1 billion dollars in total export
65
.
Peru is the largest producer of gold in Latin America
66
, therefore this industry have a great
influence on both the economy in the country and obviously also on the inhabitants. Child
labour is common in both quarrying and mining
67
, which is a problem for the welfare of the

60
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61
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62
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63
Ibid.
64
Ibid.
65
www.infomine.com
66
www.mbendi.co.za/indy/ming/sa/pe/p0005.htm
67
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24
country. When school is expensive and children are working instead of attending at school,
this will, in along-termperspective, create a population without any experience of education.
A report from 1999 showed that Peru had a population of approximately 25 million
inhabitants, and 10 million of them were children. During the same period it was found that
2 million of these children were working in informal settings
68
. Many organisations are
working in the country in order to deal with the issue of child labour. In order to work
against child labour, it is of great significance to help children to receive an education.
A report from J anuary this year, show that many children in Peru do not complete primary school, only 70
percent of the children do. Of those who went to secondary school only 50 % graduated.
69
Ann Veneman at UNICEF emphasizes the importance of education for children:
We have to abolish the exploitation of children at the places of work. To get the children into the schools is our
best defence against child labour today and for coming generations.
70
The work in mining is dangerous from many perspectives, e.g. physical injuries, long working
hours, inhaling dust, working in unstable structures, crawling in narrow tunnels and so on.
71

The conditions are carrying many risks and the children are often being injured and they are
rarely taken to hospitals to get professional medical care.
72
The children working in the
mining industry are often very young and exposed for situations that more suitable for
adults.
On the national level, 20.8% of those between the ages of 6 to 17 years were employed. 11.6% of the children
between 6 to 11 years participated in the labour market, whereas of those between the ages of 12 and 17 years,
30.3% were economically active.
73
In addition, to be able to work with the matter of child labour, there is much to be learnt
from the history. For example, in the Western Europe during the 1900 century and the
industrial revolution, child labour was very common. Children were working in the factories,
with agriculture and in the mining industries. In Sweden e.g. there are statistics that show

68
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69
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70
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71
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72
Ibid.
73
ILO, Yearbook of Labour Statistics, 2001
25
that children (younger than 15 years old) were working over 90 hours per week.
74
These
conditions were not rare and the employers were well aware of the situations. It was not
until the end of 1900 century, that the employers began to abolish child labour and the
Swedish schooling reform was implemented in society.
75
Then the children were forced to
attend school, and were unable to work at the same time.
It is therefore understandable that organizations are promoting schooling, at the same time
as they are preventing child labour. The Western world has had its difficulties and experience
of child labour, now it is time to share that knowledge with the rest of the world.
4. What are the organisations approaches in terms of reducing child labour within
Perus mining industry?
4.1 UNICEF
UNICEF is working with stabilising childrens rights in Peru, through different programmes.
The organisation is also working with helping the government with financing development
projects for children.
76
Some of the projects are closely related to the UN MDGs, with focus
on the second paragraph concerning education. In a report from 2005, the organisation
declares that there are children who are active within the mining industry and that these
numbers are constantly increasing.
77
UNICEF reports that this increasing number of children
working within the mining industry has always been higher in the rural parts of the country,
but new figures show that this difference between rural and urban areas are now levelled
out.
78
In their report, it is described what is being a done and future plan.
The Government continues to need support to make a better analysis of the immediate and underlying causes of
the violation of childrens rights and to maintain current efficiency and effectiveness, the use of the human rights
approach and results-based management should be continued in the 2006 -2010 country programme.
79
This suggested support can be given by different organizations. UNICEF also emphasizes the
importance of further cooperation with the government of Peru and other UN agencies, in

74
Hollander, Barn och rtt, p. 123
75
Hollander, Barn och rtt, p. 124-125
76
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77
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78
Ibid.
79
Ibid.
26
order to strengthen childrens rights and to give children a voice of their own. Another
suggestion given in the report is to:
...ensure that regional governments develop the capacity to promote child rights; (c) mobilize sources of child -
oriented development financing, deriving from the Peruvian treasury, IFIs, the private sector (mainly mining,
tourism and international commerce) and international cooperation...
80
Much needs to be done, although UNICEF is hopeful and encourages local actors, partners
within the private sector and international partners to contribute with financial aid, which will
enhance childrens rights and make sure that these rights are protected. The current working
partners for UNICEF in Peru, regarding child labour, are: WHO/PAHO, UNFPA, UNAIDS, ILO,
the World Food Programme and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation.
81
Although UNICEF does not have campaigns against child labour in mining at
present, many projects are being implemented to help the children in Peru and to improve
their childhood. Some projects have been so successful that they are now being
implemented in the neighbouring countries as well.
Staff members from the Office of UNICEF in Peru, working with partners, built up temporary schools, provided
clothing for infants and football balls for children, etc., actions that were relevant and highly appreciated. As a
result of this experience, the Office took all adequate steps to strengthen its structure for emergency responses,
which has been since a model within UNICEF for other programmes in the region.
82
The organisation has been working on both governmental level and with other organisations.
Their work has received high international recognition. UNICEF has discovered following,
which makes it possible to further work with these issues.
...to the Governments commitment towards democratization and decentralization of institutions and processes in
terms both of openness and creating spaces for all Peruvians, particularly women, children and adolescents living
in isolated areas and marginal urban areas.
83
UNICEF speaks of respectful cooperation with the Peruvian government and sees many
successful projects. Nevertheless the development must continue and childrens rights must
be preserved and respected. It can be concluded that some improvements have been done,
but much still needs to be improved.

80
Ibid.
81
Ibid.
82
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83
Ibid.
27
4.2 ILO
ILO has been working with both labour standards and child labour in Peru. The country
ratified in 1990 the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC).
84
One of the comments
from investigators in the report from 2006
85
reads as follows:
There were concerns about the authority and effectiveness of inspectors, especially outside the cities where
there were few inspectors. Concerns were also voiced about child domestic workers and children of 5 to 17
working in dangerous circumstances. The delegation explained that in rural areas parents sent their children to
work for families in cities to give them a better life.
The report shows that Peru has not at all completed their obligations to the CRC. The
government must work even harder for childrens rights in the rural areas and more
resources are needed.
ILO has constantly reported that the numbers of working children in urban areas are
increasing.
86
Many of these children are involved in hazardous work, which can lead to
serious physical injuries. Positive progress in Peru was made through the establishing of the
National Committee for the Eradication of Child Labour, in 1997.
87
It was founded by the
Ministry of Promotion of Women and Human Development.
ILO has a unique idea of handling the matter of child labour:
Seeing child labour as a product of market forces supply and demand - has been a fruitful approach, taking in
the behaviour of employers as well as of individual households.
88
In small-scale mining, which is made up of mainly informal settings and employments, child
labour is common.
89
Of course, not all small-scale mining contains child labour, although
statistics from ILO show that it is more common amongst these forms of mining, rather than
the industries run by large international companies.

84
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85
State Party Examination of Perus Third Periodic Report, 2006 by ILO
86
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87
Ibid.
88
ILO report, The End of child labour: within reach, 2006
89
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28
The absence of employers' and workers' organizations in small-scale mining puts a special responsibility on the
State.
90
It is partially the lack of responsibility and overview that concerns ILO. If nobody can be held
responsible, then ILO has no one to discuss the issue with. Furthermore, if there is no one to
discuss the matter with, no future improvements can be made. ILO is just as UNICEF aiming
for the UN MDGs. In order to aim for the paragraph regarding education, in the MDGs and
ILO must have someone to have a dialogue with. Which, they do not always seem to have,
especially concerning small-scale mining. Even though, the organisation has very high
ambitions, regarding child labour and how to reduce it:
The aim is to withdraw children from hazardous work and rehabilitate them through education, skills training and
other support services. Activities are being carried out to sensitize and mobilize the mining communities to take
action against child labour. Parents of working children are also being trained and capacitated to seek and
engage alternative income generating activities. Advisory services are being provided to the mining communities
and operators on the appropriate technology and processes that will facilitate transition to child labour-free
mining services.
91
ILO is working with the three-partial method, which means that they engage in dialogue with
workers, employers and the government. The organisation always first consults with the
countrys government, before they begin their projects or programmes in a specific area.
They are using the top-down theory as an initial form of work. This design of work is unique
for ILO and it is considered to be a successful method. The theory behind top-down origins
from the 1950s and 1960s:
...because policy-makers believed that this development path had worked in the North so could work
elsewhere.
92
Perhaps the theory and construction behind this approach, is not that simple. Instead it must
be adjusted to be suitable for the specific country. ILO have not yet founded a dialogue with
Perus government concerning the child labour in mining and be given clear results, but
much have been done in the work of reducing hazardous work that involves children.

90
Ibid.
91
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92
Willis, p. 46
29
4.3 Save the Children
Save the children is a worldwide organisation which makes it difficult to chart all the work
that is being done within this area. The national organisation Save the Children Alliance,
consist of approximately 28 member organisations.
93
Each of these member states work in
different regions and with different programs.
In the matter of child labour within mining in Peru most, countries are aware of the problem
and have mentioned it in their reports. On the other hand, there are at the moment no
current projects that Save the Children is in charge of. This is also confirmed by Gina Solari
who is working with Save the Children Sweden in Peru, and has been provided some
information regarding this issue. There are programs relating to child labour in mining in
parts of Africa but unfortunately not in Peru at the moment.
94
What has been discovered is
that, at this moment in time, the focus on the matter of child labour in Peru and the rest of
South America is on sexual exploitation.
95
Nevertheless, Gina Solari has provided good
answers regarding the situation in Peru. Although they are not working with a campaign on
their own, they are and have been supporting other projects, specially one particular project
(EduFuturo) initiated by the organisation World Learning.
96
Save the children had an
important impact on that project, which was essential for preventing child labour in mining,
in Peru.
World Learning for International Development (WLID) has extensive experience working with stakeholders at the
local level. The EduFuturo project began as an effort by World Learning to leverage this experience in order to
lower the incidence of child labour in the Puno Region of Peru. With funding from the U.S. Department of Labour,
WLID educated parents, community members, schoolteachers and administrators about the dangers of child
labour and attempted to build support for innovative education initiatives.
97
Save the Children Canada is one of the organisations who lately have focused on Peru.
Although they mention child labour programs, they are quite indistinct regarding their
expressions on what they mean by child labour. The term domestic work
98
is used which

93
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94
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tails
95
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96
Including Children as Key Stakeholders in Child Labor Prevention: The EduFuturo Experience A World Learning Monograph,
Ernesto Garcia, Naoko Kamioka and Mason Ingram, 2006
97
Including Children as Key Stakeholders in Child Labor Prevention: The EduFuturo Experience A World Learning Monograph,
Ernesto Garcia, Naoko Kamioka and Mason Ingram, 2006, p.3
98
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30
can include several areas, such as mining, since many families work together in the mines.
99
Therefore there is no clear information if their work includes reducing child labour in mining
or not.
4.3.1 Save the Children A NGO
It is important to remember that NGOs work under different prerequisites due to the fact
that they are free-standing organisations. Nonetheless, this does not mean that they do not
cooperate with other organisations. Gina Solari was asked if they cooperate with other
organisations in Peru. She answered:
- Yes, Save the Children Sweden works mainly in partnership with local NGOs because the aim is to strengthen
the civil society where we work and in order they can advocate for the children rights before the national
authorities who are accountable regarding this. In some cases, when is necessary we collaborate also with some
public institutions, for example: Congress, Ministries, Police, Municipalities, Universities, etc.
Also at the main webpage (Save the Children Alliance) it says:
We work with children and their families at a community level, finding solutions together. We support and
strengthen schools, community health-care systems and other infrastructures in the long term by giving local
people appropriate skills and resources such as specialist training and good quality buildings.
100
By other means, Save the Children work according to a grassroots approach, or in other
words, a bottom-up approach.
101
That is to say that they focus on the children at a level
where help is aimed directly at them and is implemented quickly.
102
Within the bottom-up
theory lays the concept of basic needs. The concept became known at ILOs World
Employment Conference in 1976, and consisted of a policy which was meant to aim directly
to the poorest people.
103
The basic needs included essentials for physical survival (e.g.
shelter, clothing and food) as well as access to essential services (e.g. clean water,
education and healthcare).
104
This has also been associated with the increasing of NGOs.
105

99
Gina Solari, Save the Children Sweden in Peru
100
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101
Willis, p.93
102
Ibid, p.99
103
Ibid, p.93
104
Willis, p.94
105
Ibid, p.97
31
Different NGOs have different approaches and even though Save the Children has made it
clear that they mainly work at a community level, they still cooperate with governments in
some cases.
We cannot achieve change alone. We work with governments and with local, national and international
organisations to improve childrens lives directly or to influence the policies and practices of others.
106
Due to this information, Gina Solari was asked if the government of Peru was aware of the
problem with child labour within mining and, if yes, did they cooperate to reduce the child
labour? She responded that, they do not cooperate in this specific matter and she also said:
- In these last years it has had a grow in the demand of minerals and the prices have been increased; for that
reason a greater number of children are being recruited to work in the mines mainly by informal and artisan
exploitation of mines. Unfortunately, government authorities are not doing anything about this. They only have
signed international agreements with ILO but they dont follow up them or implement the laws against people
who are exploiting mines working children. Sometimes the actions that government takes are to persecute
children and the consequences are they have to hide and work in worst conditions
There is an obvious disappointment against the government of Peru, and in this particular
situation the organisation has not found a way to cooperate. A grassroots approach does not
mean that NGOs do not cooperate with governments, it only indicates that most
organisations are firstly interested in what the peoples opinions are and what kind of help
they need. This information is important to forward to the governments which might result in
some kind of cooperation.
Although it has come to our knowledge that Save the Children subsist in Peru to achieve a
better life for children, it has not been clear that they specifically are focusing on mining.
The reasons for children working in mines are many which also means that it can be tackled
in various ways. Save the children works worldwide and they also have a word wide aim, and
that is education. To educate children and their families is fundamental within the bottom-up
approach.
107
One thing that has been clear regarding the work of Save the Children is that they together
with other countries, organisations and the UN work towards the MDGs. Given that they

106
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107
Willis, p.94
32
focus a great deal on education, the second paragraph in the MDGs becomes more
interesting compared to the other goals.
108
This will be examined in the following chapter.
5. What are the opportunities and difficulties of reducing child labour through the
second paragraph in the MDGs, which entails education for all children by the
year 2015?
5.1. What are the opportunities with the second paragraph in the MDGs?
In order to answer this question, one must first declare the relation between the four terms:
development, freedom, education and the MDGs. These terms are often used in various
ways and in this thesis it will be explained how they are linked to each other and the main
discussion about child labour.
Development
The United Nations have a certain department which works intensively with development
issues; the department is called The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).
Education is typically seen as a means of narrowing inequalities, and among those who receive it, that purpose
are served; however, education also represents a medium through which the worst forms of social stratification
and segmentation are created. Inequalities in educational attainment often translate into differentials in
employment, occupation, income, residence and social class.
109
As the quote indicates education is linked to both development and freedom. Development
can not be achieved, if the foundation which a country is depending on is unstable and filled
with inequality.
The world today is far from equal, however, as evidenced by growing gaps between the rich and the poor.
These gaps exist not only in income and assets, but also in the quality and accessibility of education, health care
and employment opportunities, in the protection of human rights, and in access to political power and
representation.
110

108
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109
UN - Report on the World Social Situation, 2005, p. 79
110
Ibid. P. 21
33
The discussion concerning development is strongly related to the matter of freedom,
Amartya Sen has explained that the theory of development consists of several different
issues, which all can be seen as obstacles in the way of freedom.
Freedom
As we explained in the chapter regarding methodology, Sen have expressed his opinion
regarding child labour and freedom in following words:
Especially the freedom to go to school is being decreased not only by the weakness in their school systems, but
also by the fact that the children (and their parents) do not have a choice.
111
The quotation indicates how forced labour and family situations are being effected by child
labour and the fact that their children are unable to attend school. The free choice is not an
alternative for these families. It is most often a matter of income, when the family is
suffering from poverty, it helps if the children are working and contributing to the familys
economy.
112
In environments of extreme poverty, every family member must contribute something, and so children are
expected to do their share.
113
In order to reduce child labour, organisations must support the poor families with other
sources of income.
Poor families pull their children out of school to provide labour in the face of an income shortfall. Parents put
children to work as part of a survival strategy to minimize the risk of an interruption of the income stream (which
may be caused by failed harvests or loss of employment of an adult household member). Interruption in the
income stream is naturally more severe for poor households, as it can be life threatening.
114
As the quote intend, families need guarantees and help in order to change their situations.

111
Sen, p. 165-166
112
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113
Human Geography, p. 489
114
Millennium Development Goals and Child Labour. Bjrne Grimsrud October, 2003, p.11
34
Education
According to Sen, development is related to peoples right to total freedom over their own
lives. If a family does not have a free choice of whether their children should go to school or
not, development could never be achieved.
Poor education limits occupational choice and, ultimately, results in lower income.
115
Furthermore, from the perspective of the three organisations, they all relate the matter of
development and reducing child labour to the right to education. They all argue that if child
labour is to be reduced, they must have the freedom to go to school. UNICEF and ILO have
both been involved in educational programmes, for instance:
The Basic Education Programme transfers to the new Basic Education Project all projects strictly educational,
while assigning all elements related to health and early development and social communication to the new
projects focused specifically on those areas. This transformation seems to be oriented to basic education as it is
understood since J om Tien; that is to say, as permanent education to all people children, young people and
adults, Education for All oriented to the achievement of basic life skills. However, the new project activities
are limited to primary school and do not address other basic education areas.
116
That is an example of UNICEFs activities, while the following is an example of ILOs work in
Peru:
An educational programme has been developed with the NGO "Fe y Alegria", which is known for its alternative
teaching methods based on the public education system for the lower socio-economic sectors, especially oriented
to children with a very high risk of leaving school. This programme utilizes educational materials formulated by Fe
y Alegria and is directed towards 57,000 children, 2,700 educators and 42 schools nationwide.
117
The most obvious difference between the two organisations, implementation of their work, is
the fact that ILO is working more closely with the Peruvian government, which is apparent in
the large scale of their projects and that it is used in state-financed schools. The school
programme, which ILO initiated, has been proved to be successful in the aim to reduce child
labour and they encourage NGOs to further continue their combat against this matter.
118

115
Human Geography, p. 484
116
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118
Ibid.
35
Further, according to the World Bank, Peru is not spending as much money needed on
education.
119
The World Bank has conducted a study concerning education in Peru and how to achieve
good relations between the three main actors in a country:
(a) the State (including regional or sub national levels), which includes politicians and policymakers in both the
legislative and executive branches (b) the service providers (including organizations such as the ministerial
bureaucracy, regional bureaucracies (c) the citizens or clients of the system.
120
This model creates a distinct scheme of participants and their role of responsibility. So it is
clear to the viewer, who is responsible and for what.
MDGs and opportunities
The previous discussion brings the subject of child labour back to the UN. The Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) was composed at summit with the worlds leaders.
In September 2000, at the UN Millennium Summit, world leaders agreed to a set of time bound and measurable
goals and targets for combating poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degradation and discrimination
against women. Placed at the heart of the global agenda, they are now called the Millennium Development Goals.
The Summits Millennium Declaration also outlined a wide range of commitments in human rights, good
governance and democracy
121
.
The UN describes the importance of the MDGs as following:
The agreement of the MDGs has been justly hailed as an important milestone. Not only the UN but all its
associated organizations including the world Bank, member states, and a broad swath of civil society actors have
railed around them. The MDGs are probably the most important UN goals ever promulgated.
122
What the quote emphasis, is the international importance and influence which the goals are
aimed to have.

119
A New Social Contract for Peru: An Agenda for Improving Education, Health Care, and the Social Safety Net (World Bank)
120
Ibid.
121
www.un.org/MDGs-FACTSHEET1.pdf
122
www.un.org/docs/erosoc/meetings/2007/Stephen%205Smith.pdf
36
It is the second goal, which is the most important for this thesis. The goal aims to Achieve
universal primary education
123
; this is an initiative which encourages countries around the
world to really work with this matter. As mentioned earlier in the thesis, education is strongly
linked with child labour. The MDGs create an opportunity for countries and set a goal to
reach. If children are given an education, they can not work fulltime. This is where the
matter of MDGs is linked to child labour. The terms development, freedom, education and
MDGs are all linked together and in this meaning of our thesis, hard to separate. It is
meaningful to understand the importance of these terms. Following part will problematise
the MDGs and the possibility to reach them.
5.2 MDGs, can it be reached?
At the UN Millennium Summit in September 2000 the 189 states of the United Nations reaffirmed their
commitment to work towards a world in which eliminating poverty and sustaining development would have the
highest priority. The Millennium Declaration was signed by 147 heads of state and passed unanimously by the
members of the UN General Assembly.
124
In addition it was also accepted by many NGOs who decide to achieve the parts which
interested them. Save the children is an example and they are focusing on the second
paragraph; all children going to school.
125
Organisations do not only work to achieve the
goals, the also try to influence politicians through their own experiences. Save the Children:
Using a child focused approach, Save the Children analyses the European Unions efforts to realise the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
126
There have been several reports written by e.g. Save the Children where they have made
recommendations on how to achieve the MDGs at different levels, in this case, a European
Union level.
127
The second paragraph was limited to the year 2015 which is becoming quite distressing.
Save the Children UK distributed quite recently a report regarding their concern on reaching
the goals.
128
UNESCO has also shown their concern in their report regarding Education for All

123
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125
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126
Ibid.
127
Ibid.
128
Report from Save the Children, MDGs off track: 17.5 million children have died waiting for change, 2/5-07
37
(EFA) from the year 2002.
129
Gina Solari was also asked if Save the Children thought that the
goal was realistic. Her answer was that it is not realistic, and that is why many countries are
changing their goals.
130
One of the fundamental ways to take the EFA back in progress is money and has always
been. 20 donor countries out off 22 have failed to give their fair share of funds to be able to
reach EFA by 2015.
France, Switzerland, Spain, J apan, US, Austria, Italy and Germany are the worst donors for committing their fair
share of aid for education and for supporting education in countries affected by conflict.
131
In 2005 there were US$ 3 billion donated for education, but compared to the estimated US$
9 billion it was considered a big failure.
132
Unfortunately the numbers keep increasing and
since the MDGs began, 80 million children have died.
133
According to UNESCO one third of the
worlds population are living in countries where achieving the EFA goals remain a dream
rather than a realistic proposition, unless a strong and concerted effort is made.
134
UNESCO
has estimated that 22 countries in Latin America have already achieved or have high chances
to achieve the second goal in the MDGs.
135
Simultaneously; Peru was ranked last among 41
countries concerning literacy, the education quality was considered as being very poor.
136
There are many implausible thoughts and opinions regarding the accomplishment of the
MDGs and specifically the second goal. According to Michael Clemens and Todd Moss at the
Centre for Global Development, the goal is measured as a real target, but it has started to be
considered more like a tool than a practical target.
137
The goals in general have served its
purpose to some extent:
Goals generate discussion, focus attention, and help assign accountability. The
MDGs have doubtlessly served these purposes to some degree.
138
UNESCO, Save the Children and other scientists like Clemens all agree on the amount of aid
that must be attained to be able to reach the goal. Education is the key to development, and

129
UNESCO- Education for all, is the world on track?, Global Monitoring Report, 2002
130
Gina Solari from Save the Children Sweden, Peru
131
Report from Save the Children, MDGs off track: 17.5 million children have died waiting for change, 2/5-07
132
Ibid.
133
Ibid.
134
UNESCO- Education for all, is the world on track?, Global Monitoring Report, 2002
135
Ibid.
136
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and Gina Solari
137
Whats Wrong with the Millennium Development Goals? by: Michael Clemens and Todd Moss
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138
Ibid.
38
development gives us a better understanding which hopefully reduces such elements as child
labour. If aid is the answer to the problem and Western countries do not donate the money
that is needed, then in what direction is the development going?
Whilst many scientists, writers and politicians argue that funds must be raised to able to
reach the EFA goal, many NGOs point out the importance of involving the civil society. They
need to be concerned regarding the implementation of the education policy.
6. There are different approaches for undertake developmental issues, such as
top-down and bottom-up approaches. Which of them are most efficient regarding
the MDGs and the education as an instrument to reduce child labour in Peru?
The two approaches have been discussed, and there are different perspectives to why each
and one of them ought to be applied regarding the work for child labour. The thesis has
exposed the two main different approaches which are being implemented through different
programs and by different organizations. This third part aims to analyze different views on
top-down and bottom-up approach as well as connect them to Peru and the problems of
education in the country.
The MDGs are applying a top-down approach and the decisions are being made at the UN-
level which many are starting to criticize, though not necessarily the targets that have been
set, but the approach that is being applied to reach these targets. It is being said that
dramatic changes needs to be made regarding the top-down approach to reach the MDG and
its substantive policy.
The MDGs are set within the wider framework of values and principles encapsulated in UN conventions on
economic, social and cultural rights. This is fundamentally important given the current approach that risks making
no distinction between best practice and bad practice.
139
It is being said that the MDGs should distance itself from:
Top-down donor policy, conditionality and unfulfilled donor pledges, as well as on the principle of subsidiary
which asserts that policies must be designed and owned at the level at which they are implemented.
140

139
MDGs require a genuine partnership for their achievement, Statement by International Cooperation for Development and
Solidarity (CIDSE) in Consultative Status with the UN Economic and Social Council, 2005
140
Ibid
39
The view regarding aid is also supported by others. According to Dr. Pauline Rose, it is very
important that donors try to break out of their conventional way of working, when it comes
to achieving the education for all goal. To be able to reach the targets, countries need more
than allocation of resources, they also need assistances.
141
Governments make agreements on reaching the MDGs when local problems might be as
important. Reasonably the targets are set to help and create better conditions; however
global targets do not suit every country and government. They all have different needs and
prerequisites. It has been said that, in order to have a positive effect of the MDGs it is
required a:
...radical change in the current top-down approach to development that ignores local knowledge, participation
and solutions in the name of a global agenda and global targets. The MDGs must not become a new
conditionality that binds governments to international goals and targets, regardless of their own national
priorities. The MDGs must be set squarely within the context of macroeconomic policy-making and the power
imbalances underpinning such policy formulation.
142
The governments accountability should primarily be intended to their people; therefore the
international policy making ought to take into account the realities of local politics. According
to political economist Patrick Bond, the targets that are supposed to be reached by 2015 are
less important than the actual social struggles, and the obsession with the MDGs is a
diversion of solidarity.
143
In other words, governments should be accountable to their people
regarding social policy and the UN should take in to consideration the local policymaking.
It is believed that the MDGs need a partnership. The top-down approach should be revised
and a bottom-up approach should be taken into consideration in a more efficient way.
144

Local knowledge and participation is mentioned as important matters, therefore the
approach is known as being enhanced.
145
People need to be given better awareness
regarding child labour and the bottom-up approach is known to help people at their level, for
an example in their own villages or schools. Amartya Sens theory about freedom can be

141
Is there a fast-track to achieving education for all? Pauline Rose, Centre for International Education, Sussex School of
Education, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9QQ, UK
142
MDGs require a genuine partnership for their achievement, Statement by International Cooperation for Development and
Solidarity (CIDSE) in Consultative Status with the UN Economic and Social Council, 2005
143
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144
Ibid.
145
MDGs require a genuine partnership for their achievement, Statement by International Cooperation for Development and
Solidarity (CIDSE) in Consultative Status with the UN Economic and Social Council, 2005
40
mentioned as further discussion regarding the own will of an individual. Sen claims that
personal freedom is highly important, when development is being debated.
Willis mentions two approaches regarding grassroots development; one is empowerment and
the other participatory approach. Grassroots development includes the help from NGOs, but
NGOs cannot empower communities. The empowerment must come from within the people
and NGOs can provide the framework and its process for making the empowerment possible.
Nevertheless, empowerment concerns peoples will to learn.
146
One of the methods through
which empowerment is intended to be realized is participation.
Participation is usually used as an umbrella term to refer to the involvement of local people in development
activities, often NGO based.
147
NGOs are using different methods regarding participation to be able to gain more
understanding about local inhabitants. One of the participatory methods is to involve local
people in the actual setting of agenda regarding development. An example perhaps, is that
Save the Children is having courses for parents in Peru so they get a better indulgent as
regards child labour. Further, the organisation also has programs for improving schooling
and the quality of primary education.
148
The agenda ought to be set by the communities
more willingly than outside agencies.
149
Another example is UNICEF; they have tried to
educate mothers in Peru about nutrition, health care and the importance of educating their
children.
150
UNICEF clearly expresses two main components which carry importance and
aims for their work in Peru:
- Local initiatives for social inclusion that contribute to the participatory development of strategic interventions
with an emphasis on equal access to quality and culturally relevant social services, and
- The exercise of citizenship and adolescent participation. This includes promoting and monitoring rights
and operates nationally aiming to strengthen access to information and knowledge, and commitment to and
participation in establishing inclusive public policies to realize children's and women's rights.
151
NGOs has been placed at the forefront of such actions, participation has been promoted as a
concept for giving the local people more influence and power.

146
Willis, p.103
147
Ibid. p. 103
148
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149
Ibid. p.104
150
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We must end exploitation of children in the workplace, Ann Veneman at UNICEF said. Getting more children
into school is our best defence against child labour today and for the next generation.
152
As the quote expresses, the focus no matter what approach must be set on securing and
protecting the childrens rights.
6.1 PERU and education
As it has been confirmed above, the MDGs have been criticized as encompassing too much
of a top-down policy and the bottom-up approach is to be preferred. Regarding Peru, there
are several notions concerning education enhancement as well as poverty reduction.
The literacy amongst youths in Peru is relatively high. According to UNESCO Institute of
Statistics 97.1 percent youths (15-24 years old) in Peru are literate.
153
Then again, there are
issues regarding quality and equity of the education in Peru as well as the role of the
government. The governments budget for education has for the past 30 years remained
quite constant, furthermore the costs per student has decreased which consequently have
deteriorated the quality of the education.
154
Comparing to other Latin American countries
Peru lags behind with 18 percent (of public spending per student) comparing to 31 percent
in e.g. Chile and Brazil. Furthermore, Peru also has a low ranking concerning the standard of
education in contrast to other countries (in Latin America) with similar levels of GDP.
155
The accountability of the government regarding education has been widely discussed,
especially concerning the differences between rural and urban areas. The government
spending is known to be higher in urban areas which affect childrens education in rural
areas.
Children who live in rural areas spend just 250 hours in the classroom annually, even though the required
minimum is 1,050. They complete only 4.4 years of education in the same time that students in urban areas
complete an average of 8.7 years, since they spend 500 to 600 hours in the classroom.
156

152
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154
Young Lives Preliminary Country Report: Peru, J avier Escobal et al., September 2003. p.7
155
Ibid., p.7
156
Ibid., p.7
42
This is rather worrying since a large amount of child labour occurs in rural areas. The figure
below will illustrate the disparity between children working in rural and urban areas.
FIGURE 1: CHILD WORK BY QUINTILES OF EXPENDITURE
Source: Figure 4. Young Lives Preliminary Country Report: Peru, September 2003

However, it has been stated that the quality of education is low as well as the economical
spending are not equal, (it must be pointed out that this perspective might clearly vary
depending whom is asked). The priorities of the government have been questioned since
there is a large gap between the poor and the non-poor, which has also made an impact on
the educational level. In the Andes region, the central and regional government is known to
be more or less absent along with providing barely minimal education.
157
Due to the lack of
the governments ability, the support of NGOs have been recognized and required further.
The Young Lives Preliminary Country Report has been made with approximately 13 partners
such as: Institute Of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the UK and Centre
for Economic and Social Studies (CESS) in India. Regarding schooling in Peru they have
uttered:
The literacy and numeracy tests given to the eight-year-olds in Peru indicate that quality of schooling is a big
problem, affecting rural and poorer children in particular. [Sic] Programmes to improve the quality of education,
paying particular attention to rural and poorer areas of the country, should be given priority.
158

157
Including Children as Key Stakeholders in Child Labor Prevention: The EduFuturo Experience A World
Learning Monograph, By Ernesto Garcia, Naoko Kamioka and Mason Ingram, September 2006
158
Young Lives Preliminary Country Report: Peru, Javier Escobal et al., September 2003, p.48
43
There are several associates which have expressed the importance regarding development in
Peru. Amongst them The United States Agency for International Development has set
importance to grassroots projects which functions on a local level collectively with the
governments and local NGOs.
159
The empowerment of the civil society has become further
known as a powerful tool for strengthening the civil society. Local participation is viewed as a
reliable way of increasing the quality of education in many ways such as the parents
acknowledgement regarding their childrens education, as well as the teachers performance.
Civil society is playing a relatively active role in development in Peru. Peru has followed the international trend of
NGOs becoming more active in development, and government and donors are now seeking stronger ties with
NGOs.
160
The number of NGOs in Peru is in fact increasing; however the importance of empowerment
and the lack of accountability must be recognized.
161
Therefore, it will firstly be emphasized
why empowerment regarding childrens education is important for increasing the quality of
education, and secondly, how this is strongly related to the issue of accountability.
One explanation to the poor quality of learning in Peru might be that the government at
some point in the need of wanting to expand the school coverage neglected the policy
standards for education.
162
Examples of how that has been done are the decrease of hours in
school per day in order to have more shifts in school. Furthermore, the training standards
of teachers have been lowered in order to have more teachers available.
163
The main
dilemma is that there are no specific goals for setting the high standards; in addition, as long
as parents are not aware of the lack of accountability they are content with their childrens
education. As long as parents are pleased with their childrens education and the quality then
empowerment cannot be relied on. Hence, NGOs must help parents to be informed
regarding the violation of their rights and what they are entitled to.
164
The voice
mechanism is important as regards the accountability of the government. Consequently,
standards are needed to be able to measure accountability. Accountability can be forced by

159
Poverty Profile Executive Summary Republic of Peru, February 2001, Japan Bank for International
Cooperation, p.6
160
Ibid. 7
161
Ibid., 7
162
Daniel Cotlear, New Social Contract for Peru : An Agenda for Improving Education, Health Care, and the
Social Safety Net, The World Bank, Washington D.C. 2006, p.4
163
Ibid. p.4
164
Ibid. P.92
44
the people who must empower themselves (in this case with help of NGOs). If people know
their rights they will be able to claim them as well.
165
Parent bodies need training in how to hold schools accountable for performance to standard and for budgetary
and financial issues. This should include the development of reporting formats, and the training of parent bodies
in how to use the formats to put pressure on schools. On the other hand, a clear distinction between a
governance or accountability role, which is positive, and a daily management role for parents, which is likely to be
negative, needs to be drawn, and both parents and principals need to be educated about this.
166
The connection between power and accountability has been presented in a figure which is
called: The Accountability Triangle.
Figure 2: Key Relationships of Power: The Accountability Triangle
Long rout of accountability
The state
Source: Figure 1.10. Cotlear

165
Daniel Cotlear, New Social Contract for Peru : An Agenda for Improving Education, Health Care, and the
Social Safety Net, The World Bank, Washington D.C. 2006, p.103
166
Ibid. p.104
Politicians Policymak-
ers
Compact
Providers
Administrators
Front - line
Providers
Citizens
Users
V
o
i
c
e
Client power
Services
Short Route
45
The figure illustrates that people as students in school are also clients of services. There is a
relationship with the frontline providers which in this case are the schoolteachers. However
there are no direct accountability between the providers and the users. People can through
voices influence policy makers, and that is a long route to accountability, still this is not
enough. A short route of accountability need to be established from the providers towards
the users, and the policymakers must be the ones who can assure that.
167
Even if people can reach the policymaker, services will not improve unless the policymaker can ensure that the
service provider will deliver services to them. This relationship between the policymaker and the provider
embodies the creation of laws and regulations and the provision of resources.
168
Hence, what are the connections with the MDGs and the different approaches? This part of
the thesis has tried to emphasize firstly, how different organizations as well as theorists
believe that a bottom-up approach is the most efficient way to development. Furthermore, it
has been recognized that there are numerous of criticism towards the MDGs and in this case
the second goal EFA. Secondly, it has been illustrated what types of problems the education
system in Peru stands before. Even though Peru is trying to enroll as much children as
possible in school, they are still lacking behind in since they cannot assure good quality of
education. Thus it has been emphasized that better quality in education which will lead to
better development can ensue together with empowerment and participation which will also
lead to a demand for accountability. NGOs will play a crucial role in this segment.
7 Analysis
The reason for this thesis has been to look into the matter of child labour and how three
organisations approach this phenomenon. During the research we found that these
organisations, are working from various perspectives and that they have different
approaches to reducing child labour. There is one thing that all the three organisations have
in common; they are all having human rights as a foundation for their work. We also wanted
to use child labour in the mining industry in Peru as a case study. This was to make the
matter of child labour clear and realistic to the reader. In order to really explain the
complexity of this issue and the actors involved, we chose to display this through the
example of Peru.

167
Cotlear, p.23
168
Ibid. P.24
46
Our aim was to analyze and find out how the selected organizations (UNICEF, ILO and Save
the Children) work and implement their goals. Their methods are related to what approach
they choose to work from. A summary of the results will follow.
UNICEF is the organization which is a kind of exception when it comes to the structure of the
organization. They are a part of the UN system and are therefore working on the basis of
UN's decisions as a typical top-down approach. On the other hand UNICEF is also trying to
encourage local communities and strengthen grassroots-development. This makes the
organization special since it is combining top-down and bottom-up approach. Since they
have the MDGs on their agenda, we have found that a top-down approach has been the
most common regarding their work in Peru.
ILO is a tripartite UN agency, which means that they are having dialogues with
governments, employers and workers. They also work on the basis of the MDGs; therefore
their approach becomes a top-down approach. Since ILO is depending on a dialogue partner
and always discuses with a countries government first, they can not always implement their
work. This can be seen from two perspectives, either that the government is not taking full
responsibility or those ILOs working method is too specific and is not open for alternatives.
As mentioned before on the section concerning the work of Save the Children, this was
commented by Gina Solari at Save the Children in Peru:
Unfortunately, government authorities are not doing anything about this. They only have signed international
agreements with ILO but they dont follow up them or implement the laws against people who are exploitation
mines working children
169
Gina Solari is in this quote referring to the problem regarding child labour in mining in Peru.
Though ILO is a well known organization regarding labour issues, this confirms that their
approach needs to be overlooked. Perhaps ILO must find ways around the discussions with
governments, if and when the dialogue is unsuccessful. This is clearly the case in Peru and
therefore must be prioritized.
Save the Children is a typical NGO which practice a bottom-up approach. Though it is known
that they work at a community level and strengthen the civil society, it has been difficult to
recognize their actual projects or programmes in Peru.

169
Gina Solari, Save the Children, Peru
47
The MDGs have been designed to be influencing organisations and governments, how they
choose to work with the goals is up to each and every part. MDGs are intended to be a
global foundation for poverty reduction and to strengthen democratic values. The targets are
set to be reached by the year 2015, but this has come to be extremely criticized as the
countries around the world do not have the same foreground concerning development. Peru
is a suiting example of this, since the country did not develop a stabile economy until the
1990s.
In this thesis the second goal has been the most important one from the perspective of child
labour. According to MDGs children are suppose to receive an education and this can not be
done while working in mines. As it was mentioned before, both Sen and Willis argues that
other sources of income must be found in order to reduce child labour. Education is also the
way to strengthen the development both financially and socially. Amartya Sen emphasizes
the importance of personal freedom, and forced child labour erases the possibility of
freedom to education.
170
The thesis claims that education is the key to reduce poverty and
which also reduces child labour. Sen mentions instrumental roles of freedom such as political
freedom, social freedom and etc. Within the social freedom there is freedom to education
and he declares that, education is important for gaining a better life and a greater freedom.
Sen also claims that illiteracy is an obstruction concerning the development and hinders the
participation in the society.
171
Katie Willis has given a diverse description regarding development theories. Willis makes
clear that while some see development as economic growth and wealth (top-down), others
consider it to encompass a way for greater autonomy (bottom-up).
172
Despite the fact that
there are different theories and approaches, it has been verified that grassroots-
development has constantly altered and been implemented more throughout decades. This
is also what the thesis has realized; reduction of child labour must be tackled in many ways,
but global goals are not one of them. The government of Peru has apparently difficulties
with implementing agreements regarding child labour, nevertheless in times when
earthquakes and other natural disasters occur, other things are prioritised. Willis also agrees
on the actuality that the MDGs do not achieve what it is meant to:

170
Sen, p.165
171
Sen, p.57-58
172
Willis, p.200
48
While there have clearly been successes, the fact remains that the Millennium Development Goals are
a reflection of the relative failure of development practices to provide even the most basic levels of
food, shelter, healthcare and education for millions of the worlds people.
173
The MDGs might be understandable; however it does not supply the tools for achieving
them.
In conclusion, the organisations that have been explored have in fact different approaches in
their work in Peru, some of them more successful than others. Furthermore, their
approaches are also being criticised or given support by the theories. The difficulties as well
as the opportunities with the MDGs have also been discussed. It was argued that the
problems with the MDGs should be revised and looked upon. In addition the approach
should also be modified since it applies a top-down theory instead of a bottom-up, which is
considered to be a more effective approach. In the final question a last effort has been made
to give an idea on why a bottom-up approach is preferred. This is also supported by both
Sen and Willis, but also by a range of of other people, which have been verified.
8 Conclusion
The problems that surround child labour are complex and hold a long history. Many conflicts
and struggles around the world effects children in an inhuman way which should not be
allowed. But child labour is not a problem which simply can be reduced through agreements
and conventions. Who is to be held accountable is still the question. Regulations can be set
but the will and understanding needs to be reached before anything can be accomplished.
This thesis has been an interesting journey along with exciting meetings and contacts with
compassionate people within different organisations. Our understanding for the matter has
increased, both in a positive and negative way. This meaning, that we have gained greater
knowledge about the subject, nevertheless realised all the obstacles and complications in the
matter.
The database of information is various and vast, however relevant information which
provides us with clear answers have been problematic to find this because of the complexity
with this issue. No straight answers can be given, there are no universal laws and rules,

173
Ibid, p. 202-203
49
concerning reducing child labour. What we have tried to find is the advantages and
disadvantages with two various approaches. The top down approach has one obvious
advantage, it can provide accountability and be used as a foundation for cooperate work. On
the other hand we found that the disadvantages were more frequent.
There are several reasons to why we believe that child labour must be managed with a
grassroots-approach. Given that there are many forms of child labour around the world and
with different motives, they have to cope with individually.
174
Today most of the research
concerns trafficking which includes prostitution and sexual exploitation of children. Although
these problems are very significant, we chose to focus on child labour within the mining
industry. This can appear to be old fashioned problem, but in the industrialised and a
globalise world coal, copper and silver still place a very important role. Therefore we
consider this kind of child labour in Peru being relevant as well as it might risk to be placed
in the background. As we have mentioned before, Sweden is large importer of copper from
Peru, this is an example of how countries besides global goals can be accountable. To keep a
track on the market, the workers and also to be certain that the human rights are not being
violated is crucial for the work against child labour. This is obviously a question equally for
the international arena as each individual government.
A further discussion can be made regarding the Wests accountability concerning reducing
the global poverty. We have intentionally chosen to not develop this matter. Since this is an
issue containing controversial arguments, such as the West gains a lot from keeping the
poorest parts of the world poor. It is from those parts of the world that West can gather
cheap labour and materials. It is depressing to declare this theory but this can perhaps shed
some light on the frequently asked question, why is nothing happening? What do we think is
the answer to these problems? Politicians, governments, organisations, they all claim that
more money is needed. This is only one part of the truth. As we have mentioned several
times, the tools for knowing how to manage the money and how they should be spent
efficiently is lacking. According to Sen aid should not be a part of development at all; the
development should come from within. It is important to build a school, but is even more
important that people understand the significance of education and the contribution to the
individual autonomy and economical development. Development cannot be built upon
dependence; it must grow by itself from freedom.

174
www.ilo.org/ipec/areas/lang--en/index.htm
50
References
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Bryman Alan, Social Research Methods, Malm: Liber Ekonomi, 2001
Cotlear Daniel, New Social Contract for Peru : An Agenda for Improving Education, Health
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politics, Chatham House Publishers Inc. 1984
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NGOs, St. Pau, Minnesota:Paragon House, 2003
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2003
Reports:
UNESCO Education for all, is the world on track?, Global Monitoring Report, 2002
MDGs off track:17.5 million children have died waiting for change, 2/5-2007
ILO report The end of child labour: within reach, 2006
ILO report State Party Examination of Perus Third Periodic Report, 2006
ILO Yearbook of Labour Statistics, 2001
A World Bank country study, A New Social Contract for Peru
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Care, and the Social safety Net
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Experience A World Learning Monograph, by Ernesto Garcia, naoko Kamioka and Mason
Ingram, 2006
Whats wrong with the MDGs?, by Michael Clemens and Tod Moss
(www.cgdev.org/content/publications/detail/3940)
Poverty Profile Executive Summary Republic of Peru, February 2001, J apan Bank for
International Cooperation
Articles:
Duffield Mark, NGO relief in war zones: TOWARDS AN ANALYSIS OF THE NEW AI D
PARADIGM, Third World Quarterly, volume 8, nr 3, p. 527-542, 1997
Gareth Evans and Sahoun Mohamed, The responsibility to protect, Foreign affairs, volume
81, nr 6, p. 99-110, 2002
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51
MDGs require a genuine partnership for their achievement, Statement by International
Cooperation for Development and Solidarity (CIDSE) in Consultative Status with the UN
Economic and Social Council, 2005
Is there a fast-track to achieving education for all? Pauline Rose, Centre for International
Education, Sussex School of Education, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9QQ, UK
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ILO
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/ipec/about/factsheet/expls-98/exampl8.htm
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UNICEF
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www.savethechildren.net/alliance/where_we_work/MS/mapPE.html#a76e3
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www.savethechildren.net/alliance/about_us/approach/index.html
www.savethechildren.net/alliance/resources/mdg/
http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/scuk/jsp/resources/details.jsp?id=2218&group=resources&section
=project&subsection=details
United Nations
http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/social/
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R_Country=6040, 2/12-07
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http://www.crin.org/docs/CRC41_Peru.doc
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www.foreignpolicy-infocu.org
www.worldlearning.org
http://www.stopchildlabor.org/pressroom/world_day_2005.html
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52
http://www.swedishtrade.se/landrapporter/?objectID=6773
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https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/pe.html
Educational WebPages
http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-206308
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http://www.american.edu/TED/perumine.htm
http://www.demokratitorget.gov.se/content/1/c6/01/94/41/383ecbad.pdf
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www.american.edu/TED/perumine.htm
www.opendemocracy.net/node/2104/print
Interviews
Mr. Ndjonkou, Director at I LO office, New York, 27
th
March and 30
th
March 2007
Ms. Solari, Save the Children, Peru
Ms. Schumacher, UNICEF, New York, 29
th
March 2007