Chapter 2
Strain energy methods
To recap what we did in chapter 1: we thought about stress and strain and how they are related; and
we introduced an Airy stress function, using which we arrived at the biharmonic equation (1.29). Airy
stress functions have been found for many dierent loading cases, so we can pick these o the shelf.
Also, due to the linearity of the problems we considered, we can use the principle of superposition to
combine loading cases to generate more complex loading. This is great for mathematicians, but not
always so useful for engineers: it can be tedious, and it is not well-suited to complex geometries. In
this chapter we will look at some other methods to solve linear elastic problems using energy-based
arguments. In particular, we will think about:
strain energy
virtual work
Castiglianos theorems
statically indeterminate structures.
First, lets remind ourselves a little bit about work in particular, the work done by an applied force.
2.1 Work
When a force P is applied at a point on a structure, the deection of that point lets call it in
the direction of the applied force increases at a rate directly related to P. If the total deection is
1
, then the work performed by the force P on the structure is
W =
_
1
0
P d. (2.1)
That is, the work done is merely the area under the P curve, evaluated up to
1
. If the relationship
between P and is linear, P = k for some constant k, then the work done is
W =
1
2
k
2
1
=
1
2
P
1
1
, (2.2)
where P
1
is the force required to deect the structure by the amount
1
, P
1
= k
1
.
12
2.2. Strain energy 13
2.2 Strain energy
Strain energy is the energy stored in a solid under load. If we imagine a solid as a very large number
of particles that are interconnected by springs, then the strain energy is the energy stored in those
springs.
2.2.1 Uniaxial case
Lets consider again an innitesimal element within a solid. If the element is subjected to a normal
stress
x
only, then we have a force
x
y z, and this force does work by extending the element by
an amount (u/x)x =
x
x. The relationship between these two quantities is represented by a
straight line on a stress-strain curve, and the work done during deformation is given by the area
under this curve. Writing V for this work, we have
V =
1
2
x
xy z. (2.3)
We call this energy acquired by the element the strain energy. (In setting the strain energy equal
to (2.3), we have assumed that none of the energy is converted into heat or kinetic energy.) To get
the strain energy per unit volume, we need to divide by the volume of our element. Well call this
quantity V
o
, giving
V
o
=
1
2
x
. (2.4)
Since the stress is uniaxial, (
y
=
z
= 0), the strain is given simply by
x
=
x
/E, and we can also
write the strain energy per unit volume as
V
o
=
1
2E
2
x
. (2.5)
2.2.2 All normal stresses acting
If the normal stresses
y
and
z
are also present, then we need to add the contributions to the strain
energy from each, and we have
V
o
=
1
2
(
x
x
+
y
y
+
z
z
). (2.6)
By using generalized Hookes law, we can write this as
V
o
=
1
2E
(
2
x
+
2
y
+
2
z
)
E
(
x
y
+
y
z
+
z
x
). (2.7)
2.2.3 Shear stress
If we look in the xy plane, for example, and sum up the work done by
xy
on all four faces, we nd
that the work done per unit volume is
V
o
=
1
2
xy
_
v
x
+
u
y
_
=
1
2
xy
xy
. (2.8)
2.2. Strain energy 14
Using generalized Hookes law, this can be written as
V
o
=
1 +
E
2
xy
. (2.9)
2.2.4 General state of stress
In the most general case, we need to consider all six stress components, giving the strain energy per
unit volume as
V
o
=
1
2
(
x
x
+
y
y
+
z
z
+
xy
xy
+
yz
yz
+
zx
zx
). (2.10)
This is a pretty long expression! By dening
{}
T
=
_
x
y
z
xy
yz
zx
_
{} =
_
x
y
z
xy
yz
zx
_
T
,
we can write it in the very compact form
V
o
=
1
2
{}
T
{}. (2.11)
If we make use of generalized Hookes law, then we can write (2.10) in terms of the stresses only
(i.e. eliminate the strains):
V
o
=
1
2E
(
2
x
+
2
y
+
2
z
)
E
(
x
y
+
y
z
+
z
x
) +
1
2G
(
2
xy
+
2
yz
+
2
zx
). (2.12)
Alternatively, we can use (1.18) to express (2.10) as a function of the strain components only:
V
o
=
1
2
e
2
+ G(
2
x
+
2
y
+
2
z
) +
1
2
G(
2
xy
+
2
yz
+
2
zx
), (2.13)
in which
e =
x
+
y
+
z
and (one of the Lame constants) was dened in 1.6.3. This form shows at once that V
o
is always
positive.
What happens if we dierentiate (2.13) with respect to one of the strain components? Dieren-
tiating with respect to
x
, for example, we nd
V
o
x
= e + 2G
x
=
x
. (2.14)
This happens for all the other strain components as well: dierentiation of V
o
with respect to any
strain component gives the corresponding stress component.
The total strain energy of a deformed elastic body is given by integrating the strain energy per
unit volume, V
o
, over the volume:
V =
___
V
o
dx dy dz.
V represents the total work done against internal forces during loading. If we think of a body as a
very large number of particles that are interconnected by springs, then V represents the work done
in stretching or contracting those springs.
2.3. Virtual work 15
2.3 Virtual work
In the case of a particle, the principle of virtual work states that if the particle is in a state of
equilibrium, then the total work of all forces acting on the particle in any virtual displacement
vanishes. The particle is free to move in any direction, so a small displacement in any direction can
be taken to serve as the virtual displacement. If u, v, w are components of a virtual displacement
in the x-, y- and z-directions and
F
x
,
F
y
,
F
z
are the sums of the forces acting on the particle
in those directions, then the principle of virtual work states that
u
F
x
= 0; v
F
y
= 0; w
F
z
= 0. (2.15)
These equations can be satises for any virtual displacement only if
F
x
= 0;
F
y
= 0;
F
z
= 0. (2.16)
This is simply a restatement of the equations of equilibrium of a particle but we got there using
dierent arguments. In applying the principle of virtual work, we assume that the forces are constant
during a virtual displacement. If some of the forces acting on a point are elastic reactions, for example,
we assume that the virtual displacements are so small that any changes in these reactions can be
neglected.
For an elastic body, a virtual displacement is any small displacement which is compatible i ) with
the condition of continuity of the material; and ii ) with any conditions for the surface displacements
of the body, if any are given. If, for example, we are dealing with a built-in end of a beam which is
immovable or has a given displacement, then the virtual displacement for this portion must be zero.
As an example, lets consider the case of a plane stress distribution in a plate. Well denote by
u and v the components of the actual displacements due to the loads; and well denote by u and
v the components of a virtual displacement from the loaded position of equilibrium. The virtual
displacements are arbitrarily small quantities satisfying the conditions of continuity of an elastic
deformation, i.e. they are continuous functions of x and y. The virtual displacements u, v produce
the change in strain components
x
=
u
x
;
y
=
v
y
;
z
=
w
z
. (2.17)
The corresponding change in strain energy per unit volume is then
V
o
=
V
o
x
+
V
o
y
+
V
o
z
=
x
x
+
y
y
+
z
z
, (2.18)
where we have made use of (2.14) and its equivalent expressions for the other stress/strain compo-
nents.
When we calculate the work done by external forces during a virtual displacement, we must take
into account any surface forces (applied at the boundary of the plate, which we denote by P
x
and P
y
,
and which are per unit area) and also any body forces (which we denote by F
x
and F
y
). The work
done by the surface forces on the virtual displacements per unit thickness is
_
(P
x
u + P
y
v) ds, (2.19)
2.4. Castiglianos first theorem 16
in which the integration is taken along the boundary s of the plate. Similarly, the work done per
unit thickness by the body forces is an integral over the whole area of the plate:
__
(F
x
u + F
y
v) dx dy. (2.20)
The condition that we need to meet is that the total work done during the virtual displacement is
zero. We therefore have that
_
(P
x
u + P
y
v) ds +
__
(F
x
u + F
y
v) dx dy
__
V
o
dx dy = 0. (2.21)
This really says that any work done by the surface forces (rst term) and body forces (second term)
must have gone into strain energy in the solid (third term).
Since the forces and the stresses are considered as constant during a virtual displacement, we can
bring the variation sign before the integral sign for each term, so that the overall expression can
be rewritten as
___
V
o
dx dy
__
(F
x
u + F
y
v) dx dy
_
(P
x
u + P
y
v) ds
_
= 0. (2.22)
The rst term is the potential energy of deformation. The second and third terms together represent
the potential energy of forces acting on the body. The complete expression in brackets represents the
total potential energy of the system.
So in comparing various values of the displacements u and v, the displacements which actually
occur under the action of given external forces are those which lead to zero variation of the total
potential energy of the system for any virtual displacement from the position of equilibrium. This
implies that the total potential energy at the position of equilibrium is either a maximum or a mini-
mum. For stable equilibrium it is necessary to demand a positive work for any virtual displacement
of the system from equilibrium. Hence the total potential energy of the system at this position is a
minimum.
2.4 Castiglianos rst theorem
This was rst derived by Alberto Castigliano in 1879. Imagine a series of forces, P
i
, which are
gradually applied to a body (i = 1, 2, . . . , n). At each point of application of the load, let
i
be the
component of the total deection of point i along the line of action of force P
i
. Then the total work
applied by all forces is
W =
n
i=1
_
P
i
d
i
. (2.23)
If energy is conserved, then the total work performed is equal to the increase in the total strain
energy of the body:
V = W. (2.24)
Now, lets concentrate on one specic point i, setting all other forces to zero. Lets allow the point
i to deect by an innitesimal amount
i
in the direction of P
i
by applying an innitesimal force
2.5. The complementary energy theorem 17
P
i
. The additional work W will cause an innitesimal change in the strain energy of the system,
V . Thus
1
W = P
i
i
+
_
i
+
i
i
P
i
d
i
= V. (2.25)
The term in the integral is of the order of the product of two innitesimal terms, so we can neglect
it. We therefore have simply that V = P
i
i
, or
P
i
=
V
i
. (2.26)
If we now allow
i
to approach zero, then we have the partial derivative:
P
i
=
V
i
. (2.27)
This is Castiglianos rst theorem. In words: At a particular point i in an elastic body, the rate of
change of the bodys total strain energy with respect to the displacement at point i,
i
, is equal to
the force applied at that point, P
i
. Remember that the displacement we are talking about is in the
direction of the force P
i
.
2.5 The complementary energy theorem
The denition of the complementary work performed by a gradually-applied force P undergoing a
deection is
W
c
=
_
P
1
0
dP (2.28)
where, again, is the component of the total deection in the direction of P. Dening the comple-
mentary energy of the system, as being equal to the complementary work, and allowing a number
of forces P
i
and deections
i
like before, the total complementary energy of the system is
=
n
i=1
_
i
dP
i
. (2.29)
Using the same arguments as before: if we apply an innitesimal force P
i
, the increase in the
complementary energy is
2
W
c
=
i
P
i
+
_
P
i
+P
i
P
i
i
dP
i
= (2.30)
which, ignoring the integral because it is a second-order term, becomes
=
i
P
i
or
i
=
P
i
. (2.31)
Allowing P
i
to approach zero gives us
i
=
P
i
. (2.32)
1
Here, P
i
is considered constant through the deection
i
: the load was already there before we came along, and
doesnt care what the value of
i
is. The force P
i
is gradually applied throughout the loading period, though, hence
the integral term.
2
i
is the deection that was already set in place before P
i
was applied. By its very denition, then,
i
is constant
and can be brought out of the integral.
2.6. Castiglianos second theorem 18
2.6 Castiglianos second theorem
If the load-displacement relation is linear, then the complementary energy, is equal to the strain
energy, V . Thus Eq. (2.32) becomes
i
=
V
P
i
. (2.33)
This is Castiglianos second theorem. In words: At a particular point i in an elastic body, the
rate of change of the bodys total strain energy with respect to the force at point i, P
i
, is equal to
the displacement at that point,
i
. Again, remember that the displacement,
i
is dened as in the
direction of the force P
i
. Castiglianos method usually refers to the application of this, his second
theorem. This is because this second theorem is perhaps more useful in practice. We can use it not
only to nd deections at points under specied loads, but also the deection at points where no loads
are applied by introducing phantom loads ( 2.7) and values of redundant forces for indeterminate
structures ( 2.8).
One last point: Notice that Castiglianos rst theorem, (2.27), and the complementary energy
theorem, (2.32), are valid for both linear and nonlinear materials. In other words, we dont require
that the stress-strain curve follow a straight line for these theorems to hold. For Castiglianos second
theorem, though, we require a linear elastic material, because this is what allows us to say that
= V , and therefore that
i
= V /P
i
. Since we will only consider linear elastic behaviour, though,
this is not a problem for us.
2.7 Phantom loads
Castiglianos theorems relate the deection at a point to the applied load at that same point. But
what if no load is applied at the point at which we want to nd the displacement? We can get around
this by introducing a phantom load (or dummy load if you prefer). This involves introducing a load
at the point of interest, going through the same procedure as before, but then simply setting this
load to zero at the end. This is best seen with an example, which we will go through in lectures.
2.8 Statically indeterminate problems
Castiglianos second theorem can also be used for solving statically indeterminate problems that
is, problems where there are more unknowns than equations we can generate. In this case, we use
Castigliano II not to nd displacements, but to nd the reaction forces. Again, the application of
Castigliano II to such problems is best seen with an example, which we will cover in lectures. In
addition, we will look at how the principle of superposition can be used as an alternative method to
solve statically indeterminate problems.
