Managing Earthmoving Operations 1-1

Chapter 1
Managing Earthmoving Operations
Ear thmovi ng may i ncl ude si te pr epar ati on; excavati on; embank ment
constr ucti on; backfi l l i ng; dr edgi ng; pr epar i ng base cour se, subbase, and
subgr ade; compacti on; and r oad sur faci ng. The types of equi pment used
and the envi ronmental condi ti ons wi l l affect the man- and machi ne-hour s
requi red to compl ete a gi ven amount of wor k. Before prepari ng esti mates,
choose the best method of oper ati on and the type of equi pment to use.
Each pi ece of equi pment i s s peci fi cal l y des i gn ed to per for m cer tai n
mechani cal tasks. Ther efor e, base the equi pment sel ecti on on effi ci ent
operati on and avai l abi l i ty.
PROJ ECT MANAGEMENT
1-1. Pr oject manager s must fol l ow basi c management phases to ensur e that
con s tr u cti on pr oj ects s u cces s fu l l y meet deadl i n es s et for th i n pr oj ect
di r ecti ves. Addi ti onal l y, manager s must ensur e confor mance to safety and
envi r onmen tal -pr otecti on stan dar ds . The bas i c man agemen t ph ases as
di scussed i n FM 5-412 are
Pl anni ng.
Or gani zi ng.
Staffi ng.
Di r ecti ng.
Contr ol l i ng.
Executi ng.
EQUIPMENT SELECTION
1-2. Pr oper equi pment sel ecti on i s cr uci al to achi evi ng effi ci ent ear thmovi ng
and constr ucti on oper ati ons. Consi der the machi nes oper ati onal capabi l i ti es
and equi pment avai l abi l i ty when sel ecti ng a machi ne for a par ti cul ar task.
The manager shoul d vi sual i ze how best to empl oy the avai l abl e equi pment
bas ed on s oi l con s i der a ti on s , zon e of oper ati on , an d pr oj ect-s peci fi c
requi r ements. Equi pment pr oducti on-esti mati ng procedures di scussed i n thi s
manual hel p quanti fy equi pment pr oducti vi ty.
PRODUCTION ESTIMATES
1-3. Producti on esti mates, pr oducti on contr ol , and producti on r ecor ds are the
basi s for management deci si ons. Ther efor e, i t i s hel pful to have a common
method of r ecor di ng, di r ecti ng, and r epor ti ng pr oducti on. (Refer to speci fi c,
FM 5-434
1-2 Managing Earthmoving Operations
equi pment pr oducti on-esti mati ng pr ocedur es i n the appr opr i ate chapter s i n
thi s manual .)
PRODUCTION-RATE FORMULA
1-4. The most conveni ent and useful unit of work done and unit of time to use
i n cal cul ati ng pr oducti vi ty for a par ti cul ar pi ece of equi pment or a par ti cul ar
job i s a functi on of the speci fi c wor k-task bei ng anal yzed. To mak e accur ate
and meani ngful compar i sons and concl usi ons about pr oducti on, i t i s best to
use standar di zed terms.

Production rate. The enti r e expr essi on i s a ti me-rel ated pr oducti on
r ate. I t can be cubi c yar ds per hour , tons per shi ft (al so i ndi cate the
dur ati on of the shi ft), or feet of di tch per hour.
Unit of work done. Thi s denotes the uni t of pr oducti on
accompl i shed. I t can be the vol ume or wei ght of the mater i al moved,
the number of pi eces of mater i al cut, the di stance tr avel ed, or any
si mi l ar measur ement of producti on.
Unit of time. Thi s denotes an arbi trar y ti me uni t such as a mi nute,
an hour , a 10-hour shi ft, a day, or any other conveni ent dur ati on i n
whi ch the uni t of work done i s accompl i shed.
TIME-REQUIRED FORMULA
1-5. The i nver se of the pr oducti on-r ate for mul a i s someti mes useful when
schedul i ng a pr oject because i t defi nes the ti me r equi r ed to accompl i sh an
arbi trary amount of wor k.
NOTE: Express the time required in units such as hours per 1,000 cubic
yards, hours per acre, days per acre, or minutes per foot of ditch.
MATERIAL CONSIDERATIONS
1-6. Dependi ng on wher e a mater i al i s consi der ed i n the constructi on pr ocess,
dur i ng excavati on ver sus after compacti on, the same mater i al wei ght wi l l
occupy di ffer ent vol umes (Figure 1-1). Mater i al vol ume can be measur ed i n
one of thr ee states:
Bank cubic yard (BCY). A BCY i s 1 cubi c yard of materi al as i t l i es
i n i ts natur al /undi sturbed state.
Loose cubic yard (LCY). A LCY i s 1 cubi c yard of mater i al after i t
has been di stur bed by an excavati on process.
Compacted cubic yard (CCY). A CCY i s 1 cubi c yard of materi al
after compacti on.
Production rate
unit of work done
unit of time
-------------------------------------------------- =
Time required
unit of time
unit of work done
-------------------------------------------------- =
FM 5-434
Managing Earthmoving Operations 1-3
Figure 1-1. Material-Volume Changes Caused by Construction Processes
1-7. When mani pul ati ng the mater i al i n the constr ucti on pr ocess, i ts vol ume
changes. (Tables 1-1 and 1-2, page 1-4, gi ve mater i al -vol ume conver si on and
l oad factor s.) The pr i me questi on for an earthmover i s about the natur e of the
mater i al s ph ysi cal pr oper ti es; for exampl e, how easy i s i t to move? For
ear thmovi ng oper ati ons, mater i al i s pl aced i n thr ee categor i esr ock, soi l
(common earth), and uncl assi fi ed.
Rock. Rock i s a mater i al that ordi nary earthmovi ng equi pment
cannot r emove. Fr actur i ng r ock r equi r es dr i l l i ng and bl asti ng. After
bl asti ng, use excavator s to l oad the r ock fragments i nto haul uni ts for
removal .
Soil. Soi l s ar e cl assi fi ed by parti cl e-si ze di str i buti on and cohesi veness.
For i nstance, gr avel and sands have bl ocky-shaped par ti cl es and ar e
noncohesi ve, whi l e cl ay has smal l , pl aty-sh aped par ti cl es and i s
cohesi ve. Al though r i ppi ng equi pment may be necessar y to l oosen
consol i dated deposi ts, soi l removal does not requi re usi ng expl osi ves.
Unclassified. The uncl assi fi ed (rock-soi l ) combi nati on i s the most
common mater i al found thr oughout the wor l d. I t i s a mi xture of rock
and soi l materi al s.
SOIL PROPERTIES
1-8. I n an ear th mov i n g oper ati on , th or ou gh l y an al y ze th e mater i al 's
pr op er ti e s (l oa da bi l i ty , moi s tu r e con ten t, p er cen ta ge of s wel l , a n d
compactabi l i ty) and i ncor porate thi s i nfor mati on i nto the constr ucti on pl an.
Soi l preparati on and compacti on requi rements are di scussed i n Chapter 11.
Loadability
1-9. Loadabi l i ty i s a gen er al mater i al pr oper ty or char acter i sti c. I f the
mater i al i s easy to di g and l oad, i t has hi gh l oadabi l i ty. Conver sel y, i f the
materi al i s di ffi cul t to di g and l oad, i t has l ow l oadabi l i ty. Cer tai n types of cl ay
and l oam are easy to doze or l oad i nto a scraper fr om thei r natural state.
1.25 cubic yards after
digging (LCY)
1 cubic yard in natural
conditions (BCY)
0.9 cubic yards after
compaction (CCY)
FM 5-434
1-4 Managing Earthmoving Operations
Moisture Content
1-10. Moi stur e content i s a ver y i mpor tant factor i n earthmovi ng wor k si nce
moi stur e affects a soi l s uni t wei ght and handl i ng pr oper ti es. Al l soi l i n i ts
natur al state contai ns some moi stur e. The amount of moi stur e r etai ned
depends on the weather , the dr ai nage, and the soi l s r etenti on pr oper ti es.
Mechan i cal or ch emi cal tr eatment can s ometi mes chan ge th e moi s tur e
content of a soi l . Refer to Chapter 11 for i nfor mati on about i ncr easi ng and
decreasi ng the soi l s moi sture content.
Table 1-1. Material Volume Conversion Factors
Converted To
Material Type Converted From Bank (In Place) Loose Compacted
Sand or gravel Bank (in place)
Loose
Compacted

0.90
1.05
1.11

1.17
0.95
0.86

Loam
(common earth)
Bank (in place)
Loose
Compacted

0.80
1.11
1.25

1.39
0.90
0.72

Clay Bank (in place)

Loose
Compacted

0.70
1.11
1.43

1.59
0.90
0.63

Rock (blasted) Bank (in place)

Loose
Compacted

0.67
0.77
1.50

1.15
1.30
0.87

Coral
(comparable
to lime rock)
Bank (in place)
Loose
Compacted

0.67
0.77
1.50

1.15
1.30
0.87

Table 1-2. Material Weight, Swell Percentages, and Load Factors

Material Type
Loose
(Pounds Per
Cubic Yards)
Swell
(Percent) Load Factor
Bank
(Pounds Per
Cubic Yard)
Cinders
Clay, dry
Clay, wet
Earth (loam or silt), dry
Earth (loam or silt), wet
Gravel, dry
Gravel, wet
Sand, dry
Sand, wet
Shale (soft rock)
Trap rock
800 to 1,200
1,700 to 2,000
2,400 to 3,000
1,900 to 2,200
2,800 to 3,200
2,700 to 3,000
2,800 to 3,100
2,600 to 2,900
2,800 to 3,100
2,400 to 2,700
2,700 to 3,500
40 to 55
40
40
15 to 35
25
10 to 15
10 to 15
10 to 15
10 to 15
65
50
0.65 to 0.72
0.72
0.72
0.74 to 0.87
0.80
0.87 to 0.91
0.87 to 0.91
0.87 to 0.91
0.87 to 0.91
0.60
0.66
1,100 to 1,860
2,360 to 2,780
3,360 to 4,200
2,180 to 2,980
3,500 to 4,000
2,980 to 3,450
3,080 to 3,560
2,860 to 3,340
3,080 to 3,560
4,000 to 4,500
4,100 to 5,300
NOTE: The above numbers are averages for common materials. Weights and load
factors vary with such factors as grain size, moisture content, and degree of
compaction. If an exact weight for a specific material must be determined, run a test
on a sample of that particular material.
FM 5-434
Managing Earthmoving Operations 1-5
Percentage of Swell
1-11. Most ear th and r ock mater i al s swel l when r emoved fr om thei r natur al
r esti ng pl ace. The vol ume expands because of v oi ds cr eated dur i ng the
excavati on pr ocess. After establ i shi ng the gener al cl assi fi cati on of a soi l ,
esti mate the per centage of swel l . Expr ess swel l as a per centage i ncr ease i n
vol ume (Table 1-2). For exampl e, the swel l of dr y cl ay i s 40 per cent, whi ch
means that 1 cubi c yar d of cl ay i n the bank state wi l l fi l l a space of 1.4 cubi c
yar ds i n a l oosened state. Esti mate the swel l of a soi l by r efer ri ng to a tabl e of
materi al pr oper ti es such as Table 1-2.
Compactability
1-12. I n earthmovi ng wor k, i t i s common to compact soi l to a hi gher densi ty
than i t was i n i ts natural state. Thi s i s because ther e i s a cor rel ati on between
hi gher densi ty and i ncr eased str ength, reduced settl ement, i mproved bear i ng
capaci ty, and l ower per meabi l i ty. The pr oject speci fi cati ons wi l l state the
densi ty r equi rements.
SOIL WEIGHT
1-13. Soi l wei ght affects the per for mance of the equi pment. To esti mate the
equi pment r equi r ements of a job accur atel y, the uni t wei ght of the mater i al
bei ng moved must be known. Soi l wei ght affects how dozer s push, gr ader s
cast, and scraper s l oad the mater i al . Assume that the vol umetr i c capaci ty of a
scr aper i s 25 cubi c yar ds and that i t has a r ated l oad capaci ty of 50,000
pounds. I f the mater i al bei ng car r i ed i s r el ati vel y l i ght (such as ci nder ), the
l oad wi l l exceed the vol umetr i c capaci ty of the scr aper befor e r eachi ng the
gr avi metr i c capaci ty. Conversel y, i f the l oad i s gr avel (whi ch may wei gh more
than 3,000 pounds per cubi c yar d), i t wi l l exceed the gr avi metr i c capaci ty
befor e r eachi ng the vol umetr i c capaci ty. See Table 1-2 for the uni t wei ght of
speci fi c materi al s.
NOTE: The same material weight will occupy different volumes in
BCY, LCY, and CCY. In an earthmoving operation, the basic unit of
comparison is usually BCY. Also, consider the material in its loose
state (the volume of the load). Tabl e 1-1 gives average material conver-
sion factors for earth-volume changes.
LOAD FACTOR
1-14. Use a l oad factor (see Table 1-2) to convert the vol ume of LCY measured
to BCY mea s u r ed ( ). U s e s i mi l ar f actor s wh en
converti ng materi al to a compacted state. The factor s depend on the degree of
compacti on. Compute the l oad factor as fol l ows:
I n thi s case, the l oad factor for dry cl ay i s 0.72. Thi s means that i f a scraper i s
carryi ng 25 LCY of dry cl ay, i t i s carryi ng 18 BCY (25 x 0.72).
LCY load factor BCY =
If 1 cubic yard of clay (bank state) 1.4 cubic yards of clay (loose state),
then 1 cubic yard of clay (loose state)
1
1.4
-------- or 0.72 cubic yard of clay (bank state). =
=
FM 5-434
1-6 Managing Earthmoving Operations
ZONES OF OPERATION
1-15. The r el ati onsh i p of speci fi c zones of oper ati on to v ar i ous ty pes of
earthmovi ng equi pment i s si gni fi cant when sel ecti ng ear thmovi ng equi pment.
A mass di agr am gr aphi cal l y depi cts how mater i al s shoul d be moved and i s a
good tool for deter mi ni ng the zones of operati on. Mass di agr ams are expl ai ned
i n FM 5-430-00-1. Ther e ar e th r ee zon es of oper ati on to con si der on a
constr ucti on project.
POWER ZONE
1-16. I n the power zone, maxi mum power i s r equi r ed to over come adverse si te
or job condi ti ons. Such condi ti ons i ncl ude r ough ter rai n, steep sl opes, pi oneer
oper ati ons, or extr emel y h eav y l oads. The wor k i n these ar eas r equ i r es
crawl er tr actor s that can devel op hi gh drawbar pul l at sl ow speeds. I n these
adver se condi ti ons, the mor e tracti on a tractor devel ops, the mor e l i kel y i t wi l l
reach i ts ful l potenti al .
SLOW-SPEED HAULING ZONE
1-17. The sl ow-speed haul i ng zone i s si mi l ar to the power zone si nce power ,
mor e than speed, i s the essenti al factor . Si te condi ti ons ar e sl i ghtl y better
than i n the power zone, and the h aul di s tance i s s hor t. Si n ce i mpr oved
condi ti ons gi ve the dozer mor e power , and di stances ar e too shor t for most
scr aper s to bui l d up suffi ci ent momentum to shi ft i nto hi gher speeds, both
machi nes achi eve the same speed. Consi der ati ons that deter mi ne a sl ow-
speed haul i ng zone are as fol l ows:
The ground condi ti ons do not permi t r api d tr avel and the movement
di stance of the mater i al i s beyond economi cal dozi ng operati ons.
The haul di stances are not l ong enough to permi t scr apers to travel at
hi gh speeds.
HIGH-SPEED HAULING ZONE
1-18. I n the hi gh-speed haul i ng zone, constr ucti on has pr ogr essed to wher e
gr ound condi ti ons ar e good, or wher e l ong, wel l -mai ntai ned haul r oads ar e
establ i shed. Achi eve thi s condi ti on as soon as possi bl e. Pr oducti on i ncr eases
when the scr aper i s wor k i ng at i ts maxi mum speed. Consi der ati ons that
determi ne a hi gh-speed haul i ng zone are as fol l ows:
Good haul i ng condi ti ons exi st on both grade and haul -r oad surfaces.
Haul di stances ar e l ong enough to permi t accel er ati on to maxi mum
travel speeds.
Push tractors (al so referr ed to as pusher s) ar e avai l abl e to assi st i n
l oadi ng.
CAUTION
Operate equipment at safe speeds to prevent personal
i nj ury or premature f ai l ure of the machi nes maj or
components. Accomplish hauling operations safely as well
as efficiently.