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Introduction
Relay hardware is becoming even more standardised, to the point at which versions of a relay may differ only by the software they contain. This accurate prediction in the preface to the Third Edition of the Protective Relay Application Guide (PRAG), 1987, has been followed by the rapid development of integrated protection and control devices. The change in technology, together with significant changes in Utility, Industrial and Commercial organisations, has resulted in new emphasis on Secondary Systems Engineering. In addition to the traditional role of protection & control, secondary systems are now required to provide true added value to organisations. When utilised to its maximum, not only can the integration of protection & control functionality deliver the required reduction in life-time cost of capital, but the advanced features available (Quality of Supply, disturbance recording and plant monitoring) enable system and plant performance to be improved, increasing system availability. The evolution of all secondary connected devices to form digital control systems continues to greatly increase access to all information available within the substation, resulting in new methodologies for asset management. In order to provide the modern practising substation engineer with reference material, the Network Protection & Automation Guide provides a substantially revised and expanded edition of PRAG incorporating new chapters on all levels of network automation. The first part of the book deals with the fundamentals, basic technology, fault calculations and the models of power system plant, including the transient response and saturation problems that affect instrument transformers. The typical data provided on power system plant has been updated and significantly expanded following research that showed its popularity. The book then provides detailed analysis on the application of protection systems. This includes a new Chapter on the protection of a.c. electrified railways. Existing chapters on distance, busbar and generator protection have been completely revised to take account of new developments, including improvements due to numerical protection techniques and the application problems of embedded generation. The Chapter on relay testing and commissioning has been completely updated to reflect modern techniques. Finally, new Chapters covering the fields of power system measurements, power quality, and substation and distribution automation are found, to reflect the importance of these fields for the modern Power System Engineer. The intention is to make NPAG the standard reference work in its subject area - while still helping the student and young engineer new to the field. We trust that you find this book invaluable and assure you that any comments will be carefully noted ready for the next edition.

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Fundamentals of Protection Practice

Introduction Protection equipment Zones of protection Reliability Selectivity Stability Speed Sensitivity Primary and back-up protection Relay output devices Relay tripping circuits 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11

Trip circuit supervision 2.12

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Fundamentals of P rotection P ractice

2.1 INTRODUCTION The purpose of an electrical power system is to generate and supply electrical energy to consumers. The system should be designed and managed to deliver this energy to the utilisation points with both reliability and economy. Severe disruption to the normal routine of modern society is likely if power outages are frequent or prolonged, placing an increasing emphasis on reliability and security of supply. As the requirements of reliability and economy are largely opposed, power system design is inevitably a compromise. A power system comprises many diverse items of equipment. Figure 2.2 shows a hypothetical power system; this and Figure 2.1 illustrates the diversity of equipment that is found.

Figure 2.1: Modern power station

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Hydro power station G1 R1 G2 R2

T1

T2

380kV

L2 L1B

L1A

Fundamentals of P rotection P ractice

380kV

C L3

380kV L4

T5

T6

T3

T4

1 10kV Steam power station G3 R3 G4 R4

C'

33kV CCGT power station G5 G6 R5 T7 T8

B'

G7 R6 R7 T9

T10

T11

220kV

L7A T14

380kV

L6

2
L7B T15 T12 T13

Grid substation F

380kV L5

T16 L8

T17

33kV

D'

Grid 380kV

F'

1 10kV

G'

e 2. Figur

Figure 2.2: Example power system

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Figure 2.4: Possible consequence of inadequate protection

2 . 2 P R OT E C T I O N E Q U I P M E N T

a. Protection System: a complete arrangement of protection equipment and other devices required to achieve a specified function based on a protection principal (IEC 60255-20) b. Protection Equipment: a collection of protection devices (relays, fuses, etc.). Excluded are devices such as CTs, CBs, Contactors, etc.
Figure 2.3: Onset of an overhead line fault

Many items of equipment are very expensive, and so the complete power system represents a very large capital investment. To maximise the return on this outlay, the system must be utilised as much as possible within the applicable constraints of security and reliability of supply. More fundamental, however, is that the power system should operate in a safe manner at all times. No matter how well designed, faults will always occur on a power system, and these faults may represent a risk to life and/or property. Figure 2.3 shows the onset of a fault on an overhead line. The destructive power of a fault arc carrying a high current is very great; it can burn through copper conductors or weld together core laminations in a transformer or machine in a very short time some tens or hundreds of milliseconds. Even away from the fault arc itself, heavy fault currents can cause damage to plant if they continue for more than a few seconds. The provision of adequate protection to detect and disconnect elements of the power system in the event of fault is therefore an integral part of power system design. Only by so doing can the objectives of the power system be met and the investment protected. Figure 2.4 provides an illustration of the consequences of failure to provide appropriate protection. This is the measure of the importance of protection systems as applied in power system practice and of the responsibility vested in the Protection Engineer.

c. Protection Scheme: a collection of protection equipment providing a defined function and including all equipment required to make the scheme work (i.e. relays, CTs, CBs, batteries, etc.)

In order to fulfil the requirements of protection with the optimum speed for the many different configurations, operating conditions and construction features of power systems, it has been necessary to develop many types of relay that respond to various functions of the power system quantities. For example, observation simply of the magnitude of the fault current suffices in some cases but measurement of power or impedance may be necessary in others. Relays frequently measure complex functions of the system quantities, which are only readily expressible by mathematical or graphical means. Relays may be classified according to the technology used: a. electromechanical b. static c. digital d. numerical The different types have somewhat different capabilities, due to the limitations of the technology used. They are described in more detail in Chapter 7.

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The definitions that follow are generally used in relation to power system protection:

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In many cases, it is not feasible to protect against all hazards with a relay that responds to a single power system quantity. An arrangement using several quantities may be required. In this case, either several relays, each responding to a single quantity, or, more commonly, a single relay containing several elements, each responding independently to a different quantity may be used. The terminology used in describing protection systems and relays is given in Appendix 1. Different symbols for describing relay functions in diagrams of protection schemes are used, the two most common methods (IEC and IEEE/ANSI) are provided in Appendix 2.

Busbar protection ec

Feeder ed protection (a) CT's on both sides of circuit breaker A Busbar protection e

2 . 3 Z O N E S O F P R OT E C T I O N

Fundamentals of P rotection P ractice

To limit the extent of the power system that is disconnected when a fault occurs, protection is arranged in zones. The principle is shown in Figure 2.5. Ideally, the zones of protection should overlap, so that no part of the power system is left unprotected. This is shown in Figure 2.6(a), the circuit breaker being included in both zones.

Feeder ed protection (b) CT's on circuit side of circuit breaker Figure 2.6: CT Locations

Zone 1

the circuit breaker A that is not completely protected against faults. In Figure 2.6(b) a fault at F would cause the busbar protection to operate and open the circuit breaker but the fault may continue to be fed through the feeder. The feeder protection, if of the unit type (see section 2.5.2), would not operate, since the fault is outside its zone. This problem is dealt with by intertripping or some form of zone extension, to ensure that the remote end of the feeder is tripped also. The point of connection of the protection with the power system usually defines the zone and corresponds to the location of the current transformers. Unit type protection will result in the boundary being a clearly defined closed loop. Figure 2.7 illustrates a typical arrangement of overlapping zones.

Zone 2

Zone 3

2
Zone 5

Zone 4

~ ~
Figure 2.7
Figure 2.7: Overlapping zones of protection systems

Zone 7

Feeder 1

Feeder 2 Zone 6

Feeder 3

Figure 2.5: Division of power system Figure 2.52.6 into protection zones

For practical physical and economic reasons, this ideal is not always achieved, accommodation for current transformers being in some cases available only on one side of the circuit breakers, as in Figure 2.6(b). This leaves a section between the current transformers and

Alternatively, the zone may be unrestricted; the start will be defined but the extent (or reach) will depend on measurement of the system quantities and will therefore be subject to variation, owing to changes in system conditions and measurement errors.

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2.4 RELIABILITY The need for a high degree of reliability is discussed in Section 2.1. Incorrect operation can be attributed to one of the following classifications: a. incorrect design/settings b. incorrect installation/testing c. deterioration in service

2.4.4 Testing Comprehensive testing is just as important, and this testing should cover all aspects of the protection scheme, as well as reproducing operational and environmental conditions as closely as possible. Type testing of protection equipment to recognised standards fulfils many of these requirements, but it may still be necessary to test the complete protection scheme (relays, current transformers and other ancillary items) and the tests must simulate fault conditions realistically.

2.4.1 Design The design of a protection scheme is of paramount importance. This is to ensure that the system will operate under all required conditions, and (equally important) refrain from operating when so required (including, where appropriate, being restrained from operating for faults external to the zone being protected). Due consideration must be given to the nature, frequency and duration of faults likely to be experienced, all relevant parameters of the power system (including the characteristics of the supply source, and methods of operation) and the type of protection equipment used. Of course, no amount of effort at this stage can make up for the use of protection equipment that has not itself been subject to proper design. 2.4.5 Deterioration in Service Subsequent to installation in perfect condition, deterioration of equipment will take place and may eventually interfere with correct functioning. For example, contacts may become rough or burnt owing to frequent operation, or tarnished owing to atmospheric contamination; coils and other circuits may become open-circuited, electronic components and auxiliary devices may fail, and mechanical parts may seize up. The time between operations of protection relays may be years rather than days. During this period defects may have developed unnoticed until revealed by the failure of the protection to respond to a power system fault. For this reason, relays should be regularly tested in order to check for correct functioning. Testing should preferably be carried out without disturbing permanent connections. This can be achieved by the provision of test blocks or switches. The quality of testing personnel is an essential feature when assessing reliability and considering means for improvement. Staff must be technically competent and adequately trained, as well as self-disciplined to proceed in a systematic manner to achieve final acceptance. Important circuits that are especially vulnerable can be provided with continuous electrical supervision; such arrangements are commonly applied to circuit breaker trip circuits and to pilot circuits. Modern digital and numerical relays usually incorporate selftesting/diagnostic facilities to assist in the detection of failures. With these types of relay, it may be possible to arrange for such failures to be automatically reported by communications link to a remote operations centre, so that appropriate action may be taken to ensure continued safe operation of that part of the power system and arrangements put in hand for investigation and correction of the fault.

2.4.2 Settings It is essential to ensure that settings are chosen for protection relays and systems which take into account the parameters of the primary system, including fault and load levels, and dynamic performance requirements etc. The characteristics of power systems change with time, due to changes in loads, location, type and amount of generation, etc. Therefore, setting values of relays may need to be checked at suitable intervals to ensure that they are still appropriate. Otherwise, unwanted operation or failure to operate when required may occur.

2.4.3 Installation The need for correct installation of protection systems is obvious, but the complexity of the interconnections of many systems and their relationship to the remainder of the installation may make checking difficult. Site testing is therefore necessary; since it will be difficult to reproduce all fault conditions correctly, these tests must be directed to proving the installation. The tests should be limited to such simple and direct tests as will prove the correctness of the connections, relay settings, and freedom from damage of the equipment. No attempt should be made to 'type test' the equipment or to establish complex aspects of its technical performance.
9

2.4.6 Protection Performance Protection system performance is frequently assessed statistically. For this purpose each system fault is classed

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as an incident and only those that are cleared by the tripping of the correct circuit breakers are classed as 'correct'. The percentage of correct clearances can then be determined. This principle of assessment gives an accurate evaluation of the protection of the system as a whole, but it is severe in its judgement of relay performance. Many relays are called into operation for each system fault, and all must behave correctly for a correct clearance to be recorded. Complete reliability is unlikely ever to be achieved by further improvements in construction. If the level of reliability achieved by a single device is not acceptable, improvement can be achieved through redundancy, e.g. duplication of equipment. Two complete, independent, main protection systems are provided, and arranged so that either by itself can carry out the required function. If the probability of each equipment failing is x/unit, the resultant probability of both equipments failing simultaneously, allowing for redundancy, is x2. Where x is small the resultant risk (x2) may be negligible. Where multiple protection systems are used, the tripping signal can be provided in a number of different ways. The two most common methods are: a. all protection systems must operate for a tripping operation to occur (e.g. two-out-of-two arrangement) b. only one protection system need operate to cause a trip (e.g. one-out-of two arrangement) The former method guards against maloperation while the latter guards against failure to operate due to an unrevealed fault in a protection system. Rarely, three main protection systems are provided, configured in a two-out-of three tripping arrangement, to provide both reliability of tripping, and security against unwanted tripping. It has long been the practice to apply duplicate protection systems to busbars, both being required to operate to complete a tripping operation. Loss of a busbar may cause widespread loss of supply, which is clearly undesirable. In other cases, important circuits are provided with duplicate main protection systems, either being able to trip independently. On critical circuits, use may also be made of a digital fault simulator to model the relevant section of the power system and check the performance of the relays used.

2.5.1 Time Grading Protection systems in successive zones are arranged to operate in times that are graded through the sequence of equipments so that upon the occurrence of a fault, although a number of protection equipments respond, only those relevant to the faulty zone complete the tripping function. The others make incomplete operations and then reset. The speed of response will often depend on the severity of the fault, and will generally be slower than for a unit system.

2.5.2 Unit Systems It is possible to design protection systems that respond only to fault conditions occurring within a clearly defined zone. This type of protection system is known as 'unit protection'. Certain types of unit protection are known by specific names, e.g. restricted earth fault and differential protection. Unit protection can be applied throughout a power system and, since it does not involve time grading, is relatively fast in operation. The speed of response is substantially independent of fault severity. Unit protection usually involves comparison of quantities at the boundaries of the protected zone as defined by the locations of the current transformers. This comparison may be achieved by direct hard-wired connections or may be achieved via a communications link. However certain protection systems derive their 'restricted' property from the configuration of the power system and may be classed as unit protection, e.g. earth fault protection applied to the high voltage delta winding of a power transformer. Whichever method is used, it must be kept in mind that selectivity is not merely a matter of relay design. It also depends on the correct coordination of current transformers and relays with a suitable choice of relay settings, taking into account the possible range of such variables as fault currents, maximum load current, system impedances and other related factors, where appropriate. 2 . 6 S TA B I L I T Y The term stability is usually associated with unit protection schemes and refers to the ability of the protection system to remain unaffected by conditions external to the protected zone, for example through load current and external fault conditions. 2.7 SPEED

Fundamentals of P rotection P ractice 2

2.5 SELECTIVITY When a fault occurs, the protection scheme is required to trip only those circuit breakers whose operation is required to isolate the fault. This property of selective tripping is also called 'discrimination' and is achieved by two general methods.
10

The function of protection systems is to isolate faults on the power system as rapidly as possible. The main objective is to safeguard continuity of supply by removing each disturbance before it leads to widespread loss of synchronism and consequent collapse of the power system.
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As the loading on a power system increases, the phase shift between voltages at different busbars on the system also increases, and therefore so does the probability that synchronism will be lost when the system is disturbed by a fault. The shorter the time a fault is allowed to remain in the system, the greater can be the loading of the system. Figure 2.8 shows typical relations between system loading and fault clearance times for various types of fault. It will be noted that phase faults have a more marked effect on the stability of the system than a simple earth fault and therefore require faster clearance.

2 . 9 P R I M A R Y A N D B A C K - U P P R OT E C T I O N The reliability of a power system has been discussed earlier, including the use of more than one primary (or main) protection system operating in parallel. In the event of failure or non-availability of the primary protection some other means of ensuring that the fault is isolated must be provided. These secondary systems are referred to as back-up protection. Back-up protection may be considered as either being local or remote. Local back-up protection is achieved by protection which detects an un-cleared primary system fault at its own location and which then trips its own circuit breakers, e.g. time graded overcurrent relays. Remote back-up protection is provided by protection that detects an un-cleared primary system fault at a remote location and then issues a local trip command, e.g. the second or third zones of a distance relay. In both cases the main and back-up protection systems detect a fault simultaneously, operation of the back-up protection being delayed to ensure that the primary protection clears the fault if possible. Normally being unit protection, operation of the primary protection will be fast and will result in the minimum amount of the power system being disconnected. Operation of the back-up protection will be, of necessity, slower and will result in a greater proportion of the primary system being lost. The extent and type of back-up protection applied will naturally be related to the failure risks and relative economic importance of the system. For distribution systems where fault clearance times are not critical, time delayed remote back-up protection may be adequate. For EHV systems, where system stability is at risk unless a fault is cleared quickly, multiple primary protection systems, operating in parallel and possibly of different types (e.g. distance and unit protection), will be used to ensure fast and reliable tripping. Back-up overcurrent protection may then optionally be applied to ensure that two separate protection systems are available during maintenance of one of the primary protection systems. Back-up protection systems should, ideally, be completely separate from the primary systems. For example a circuit protected by a current differential relay may also have time graded overcurrent and earth fault relays added to provide circuit breaker tripping in the event of failure of the main primary unit protection. To maintain complete separation and thus integrity, current transformers, voltage transformers, relays, circuit breaker trip coils and d.c. supplies would be duplicated. This ideal is rarely attained in practice. The following compromises are typical: a. separate current transformers (cores and secondary windings only) are provided. This involves little extra cost or accommodation compared with the use of

Figure 2.8
Phase-earth

Load power

Phase-phase-earth Three-phase

Time Figure 2.8: Typical power/time relationship for various fault types

System stability is not, however, the only consideration. Rapid operation of protection ensures that fault damage is minimised, as energy liberated during a fault is proportional to the square of the fault current times the duration of the fault. Protection must thus operate as quickly as possible but speed of operation must be weighed against economy. Distribution circuits, which do not normally require a fast fault clearance, are usually protected by time-graded systems. Generating plant and EHV systems require protection gear of the highest attainable speed; the only limiting factor will be the necessity for correct operation, and therefore unit systems are normal practice.

2.8 SENSITIVITY Sensitivity is a term frequently used when referring to the minimum operating level (current, voltage, power etc.) of relays or complete protection schemes. The relay or scheme is said to be sensitive if the primary operating parameter(s) is low. With older electromechanical relays, sensitivity was considered in terms of the sensitivity of the measuring movement and was measured in terms of its volt-ampere consumption to cause operation. With modern digital and numerical relays the achievable sensitivity is seldom limited by the device design but by its application and CT/VT parameters.

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Phase-phase

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common current transformers that would have to be larger because of the combined burden. This practice is becoming less common when digital or numerical relays are used, because of the extremely low input burden of these relay types b. voltage transformers are not duplicated because of cost and space considerations. Each protection relay supply is separately protected (fuse or MCB) and continuously supervised to ensure security of the VT output. An alarm is given on failure of the supply and, where appropriate, prevent an unwanted operation of the protection c. trip supplies to the two protections should be separately protected (fuse or MCB). Duplication of tripping batteries and of circuit breaker tripping coils may be provided. Trip circuits should be continuously supervised d. it is desirable that the main and back-up protections (or duplicate main protections) should operate on different principles, so that unusual events that may cause failure of the one will be less likely to affect the other Digital and numerical relays may incorporate suitable back-up protection functions (e.g. a distance relay may also incorporate time-delayed overcurrent protection elements as well). A reduction in the hardware required to provide back-up protection is obtained, but at the risk that a common relay element failure (e.g. the power supply) will result in simultaneous loss of both main and back-up protection. The acceptability of this situation must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.

The majority of protection relay elements have self-reset contact systems, which, if so desired, can be modified to provide hand reset output contacts by the use of auxiliary elements. Hand or electrically reset relays are used when it is necessary to maintain a signal or lockout condition. Contacts are shown on diagrams in the position corresponding to the un-operated or deenergised condition, regardless of the continuous service condition of the equipment. For example, an undervoltage relay, which is continually energised in normal circumstances, would still be shown in the deenergised condition. A 'make' contact is one that closes when the relay picks up, whereas a 'break' contact is one that is closed when the relay is de-energised and opens when the relay picks up. Examples of these conventions and variations are shown in Figure 2.9.
Self reset

Fundamentals of P rotection P ractice

Hand reset `make' contacts (normally open) `break' contacts (normally open)

Time delay on pick up

Time delay on drop-off Figure 2.9: Contact types

2 . 10 R E L AY O U T P U T D E V I C E S In order to perform their intended function, relays must be fitted with some means of providing the various output signals required. Contacts of various types usually fulfil this function.

2
2.10.1 Contact Systems Relays may be fitted with a variety of contact systems for providing electrical outputs for tripping and remote indication purposes. The most common types encountered are as follows: a. Self-reset The contacts remain in the operated condition only while the controlling quantity is applied, returning to their original condition when it is removed b. Hand or electrical reset These contacts remain in the operated condition after the controlling quantity is removed. They can be reset either by hand or by an auxiliary electromagnetic element

A protection relay is usually required to trip a circuit breaker, the tripping mechanism of which may be a solenoid with a plunger acting directly on the mechanism latch or an electrically operated valve. The power required by the trip coil of the circuit breaker may range from up to 50 watts for a small 'distribution' circuit breaker, to 3000 watts for a large, extra-highvoltage circuit breaker. The relay may therefore energise the tripping coil directly, or, according to the coil rating and the number of circuits to be energised, may do so through the agency of another multi-contact auxiliary relay. The basic trip circuit is simple, being made up of a handtrip control switch and the contacts of the protection relays in parallel to energise the trip coil from a battery, through a normally open auxiliary switch operated by the circuit breaker. This auxiliary switch is needed to open the trip circuit when the circuit breaker opens since the protection relay contacts will usually be quite incapable of performing the interrupting duty. The auxiliary switch will be adjusted to close as early as possible in the closing stroke, to make the protection effective in case the breaker is being closed on to a fault.

12

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Where multiple output contacts, or contacts with appreciable current-carrying capacity are required, interposing, contactor type elements will normally be used. In general, static and microprocessor relays have discrete measuring and tripping circuits, or modules. The functioning of the measuring modules is independent of operation of the tripping modules. Such a relay is equivalent to a sensitive electromechanical relay with a tripping contactor, so that the number or rating of outputs has no more significance than the fact that they have been provided. For larger switchgear installations the tripping power requirement of each circuit breaker is considerable, and further, two or more breakers may have to be tripped by one protection system. There may also be remote signalling requirements, interlocking with other functions (for example auto-reclosing arrangements), and other control functions to be performed. These various operations may then be carried out by multicontact tripping relays, which are energised by the protection relays and provide the necessary number of adequately rated output contacts.

2 . 11 T R I P P I N G C I R C U I T S There are three main circuits in use for circuit breaker tripping: a. series sealing b. shunt reinforcing c. shunt reinforcement with sealing These are illustrated in Figure 2.10.
PR 52a TC

(a) Series sealing

PR

52a

TC

(b) Shunt reinforcing

PR

52a

TC

2.10.2 Operation Indicators Protection systems are invariably provided with indicating devices, called 'flags', or 'targets', as a guide for operations personnel. Not every relay will have one, as indicators are arranged to operate only if a trip operation is initiated. Indicators, with very few exceptions, are bi-stable devices, and may be either mechanical or electrical. A mechanical indicator consists of a small shutter that is released by the protection relay movement to expose the indicator pattern. Electrical indicators may be simple attracted armature elements, where operation of the armature releases a shutter to expose an indicator as above, or indicator lights (usually light emitting diodes). For the latter, some kind of memory circuit is provided to ensure that the indicator remains lit after the initiating event has passed. With the advent of digital and numerical relays, the operation indicator has almost become redundant. Relays will be provided with one or two simple indicators that indicate that the relay is powered up and whether an operation has occurred. The remainder of the information previously presented via indicators is available by interrogating the relay locally via a manmachine interface (e.g. a keypad and liquid crystal display screen), or remotely via a communication system.

(c) Shunt reinforcing with series sealing Figure 2.10: Typical relay tripping circuits

For electromechanical relays, electrically operated indicators, actuated after the main contacts have closed, avoid imposing an additional friction load on the measuring element, which would be a serious handicap for certain types. Care must be taken with directly operated indicators to line up their operation with the closure of the main contacts. The indicator must have operated by the time the contacts make, but must not have done so more than marginally earlier. This is to stop indication occurring when the tripping operation has not been completed. With modern digital and numerical relays, the use of various alternative methods of providing trip circuit functions is largely obsolete. Auxiliary miniature contactors are provided within the relay to provide output contact functions and the operation of these contactors is independent of the measuring system, as mentioned previously. The making current of the relay output contacts and the need to avoid these contacts breaking the trip coil current largely dictates circuit breaker trip coil arrangements. Comments on the various means of providing tripping arrangements are, however, included below as a historical reference applicable to earlier electromechanical relay designs.

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2.11.1 Series sealing The coil of the series contactor carries the trip current initiated by the protection relay, and the contactor closes a contact in parallel with the protection relay contact. This closure relieves the protection relay contact of further duty and keeps the tripping circuit securely closed, even if chatter occurs at the main contact. The total tripping time is not affected, and the indicator does not operate until current is actually flowing through the trip coil. The main disadvantage of this method is that such series elements must have their coils matched with the trip circuit with which they are associated. The coil of these contacts must be of low impedance, with about 5% of the trip supply voltage being dropped across them.

is countered by means of a further contact on the auxiliary unit connected as a retaining contact. This means that provision must be made for releasing the sealing circuit when tripping is complete; this is a disadvantage, because it is sometimes inconvenient to find a suitable contact to use for this purpose.

2.12 TRIP CIRCUIT SUPERVISION The trip circuit includes the protection relay and other components, such as fuses, links, relay contacts, auxiliary switch contacts, etc., and in some cases through a considerable amount of circuit wiring with intermediate terminal boards. These interconnections, coupled with the importance of the circuit, result in a requirement in many cases to monitor the integrity of the circuit. This is known as trip circuit supervision. The simplest arrangement contains a healthy trip lamp, as shown in Figure 2.11(a). The resistance in series with the lamp prevents the breaker being tripped by an internal short circuit caused by failure of the lamp. This provides supervision while the circuit breaker is closed; a simple extension gives pre-closing supervision. Figure 2.11(b) shows how, the addition of a normally closed auxiliary switch and a resistance unit can provide supervision while the breaker is both open and closed.
TC

Fundamentals of P rotection P ractice

When used in association with high-speed trip relays, which usually interrupt their own coil current, the auxiliary elements must be fast enough to operate and release the flag before their coil current is cut off. This may pose a problem in design if a variable number of auxiliary elements (for different phases and so on) may be required to operate in parallel to energise a common tripping relay.

2.11.2 Shunt reinforcing Here the sensitive contacts are arranged to trip the circuit breaker and simultaneously to energise the auxiliary unit, which then reinforces the contact that is energising the trip coil. Two contacts are required on the protection relay, since it is not permissible to energise the trip coil and the reinforcing contactor in parallel. If this were done, and more than one protection relay were connected to trip the same circuit breaker, all the auxiliary relays would be energised in parallel for each relay operation and the indication would be confused. The duplicate main contacts are frequently provided as a three-point arrangement to reduce the number of contact fingers.

PR

52a

(a) Supervision while circuit breaker is closed (scheme H4) PR 52a 52b (b) Supervision while circuit breaker is open or closed (scheme H5) PR
A

TC

52a
B

TC

2.11.3 Shunt reinforcement with sealing This is a development of the shunt reinforcing circuit to make it applicable to situations where there is a possibility of contact bounce for any reason. Using the shunt reinforcing system under these circumstances would result in chattering on the auxiliary unit, and the possible burning out of the contacts, not only of the sensitive element but also of the auxiliary unit. The chattering would end only when the circuit breaker had finally tripped. The effect of contact bounce
14

Alarm (c) Supervision with circuit breaker open or closed with remote alarm (scheme H7) Trip Trip Circuit breaker 52a TC 52b

(d) Implementation of H5 scheme in numerical relay Figure 2.11: Trip circuit supervision circuits.

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In either case, the addition of a normally open pushbutton contact in series with the lamp will make the supervision indication available only when required. Schemes using a lamp to indicate continuity are suitable for locally controlled installations, but when control is exercised from a distance it is necessary to use a relay system. Figure 2.11(c) illustrates such a scheme, which is applicable wherever a remote signal is required. With the circuit healthy, either or both of relays A and B are operated and energise relay C. Both A and B must reset to allow C to drop-off. Relays A, B and C are time delayed to prevent spurious alarms during tripping or closing operations. The resistors are mounted separately from the relays and their values are chosen such that if any one component is inadvertently short-circuited, tripping will not take place.

The above schemes are commonly known as the H4, H5 and H7 schemes, arising from the diagram references of the Utility specification in which they originally appeared. Figure 2.11(d) shows implementation of scheme H5 using the facilities of a modern numerical relay. Remote indication is achieved through use of programmable logic and additional auxiliary outputs available in the protection relay.

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The alarm supply should be independent of the tripping supply so that indication will be obtained in case of failure of the tripping supply.

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Fault Calculations
Introduction Three phase fault calculations 4.1 4.2 4.3

Symmetrical component analysis of a three-phase network Equations and network connections for various types of faults Current and voltage distribution in a system due to a fault Effect of system earthing on zero sequence quantities References

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

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Fault Calculations

4.1 INTRODUCTION A power system is normally treated as a balanced symmetrical three-phase network. When a fault occurs, the symmetry is normally upset, resulting in unbalanced currents and voltages appearing in the network. The only exception is the three-phase fault, which, because it involves all three phases equally at the same location, is described as a symmetrical fault. By using symmetrical component analysis and replacing the normal system sources by a source at the fault location, it is possible to analyse these fault conditions. For the correct application of protection equipment, it is essential to know the fault current distribution throughout the system and the voltages in different parts of the system due to the fault. Further, boundary values of current at any relaying point must be known if the fault is to be cleared with discrimination. The information normally required for each kind of fault at each relaying point is: i. maximum fault current ii. minimum fault current iii. maximum through fault current To obtain the above information, the limits of stable generation and possible operating conditions, including the method of system earthing, must be known. Faults are always assumed to be through zero fault impedance.

4 . 2 T H R E E - P H A S E F A U LT C A L C U L AT I O N S Three-phase faults are unique in that they are balanced, that is, symmetrical in the three phases, and can be calculated from the single-phase impedance diagram and the operating conditions existing prior to the fault. A fault condition is a sudden abnormal alteration to the normal circuit arrangement. The circuit quantities, current and voltage, will alter, and the circuit will pass through a transient state to a steady state. In the transient state, the initial magnitude of the fault current will depend upon the point on the voltage wave at which the fault occurs. The decay of the transient condition, until it merges into steady state, is a function of the parameters of the circuit elements. The transient current may be regarded as a d.c. exponential current

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superimposed on the symmetrical steady state fault current. In a.c. machines, owing to armature reaction, the machine reactances pass through 'sub transient' and 'transient' stages before reaching their steady state synchronous values. For this reason, the resultant fault current during the transient period, from fault inception to steady state also depends on the location of the fault in the network relative to that of the rotating plant. In a system containing many voltage sources, or having a complex network arrangement, it is tedious to use the normal system voltage sources to evaluate the fault current in the faulty branch or to calculate the fault current distribution in the system. A more practical method [4.1] is to replace the system voltages by a single driving voltage at the fault point. This driving voltage is the voltage existing at the fault point before the fault occurs. Consider the circuit given in Figure 4.1 where the driving voltages are E and E , the impedances on either side of fault point F are Z1 and Z1 , and the current through point F before the fault occurs is I .

be added to the currents circulating in the system due to the fault, to give the total current in any branch of the system at the time of fault inception. However, in most problems, the load current is small in comparison to the fault current and is usually ignored. In a practical power system, the system regulation is such that the load voltage at any point in the system is within 10% of the declared open-circuit voltage at that point. For this reason, it is usual to regard the pre-fault voltage at the fault as being the open-circuit voltage, and this assumption is also made in a number of the standards dealing with fault level calculations. For an example of practical three-phase fault calculations, consider a fault at A in Figure 3.9. With the network reduced as shown in Figure 4.2, the load voltage at A before the fault occurs is:

Figure 4.2:
1.55 A

2.5 0.39 B 1.2

Figure 4.1:
Z '1 I F Z ''1

0.97E '

0.99E ''

Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s

N E' E'' Figure 4.2: Reduction of typical power system network

V = 0.97 E - 1.55 I
N

Figure 4.1: Network with fault at F

The voltage V at F before fault inception is: V = E - I Z = E + I Z After the fault the voltage V is zero. Hence, the change in voltage is - V . Because of the fault, the change in the current flowing into the network from F is:
' + Z '' Z1 V 1 = V ' '' Z1 Z1 Z1 and, since no current was flowing into the network from F prior to the fault, the fault current flowing from the network into the fault is:

1.2 2.5 V = 0.99 E '' + + 0.39 I 2.5 + 1.2 For practical working conditions, E 1.55 I and E 1.207 I . Hence E E V. Replacing the driving voltages E and E by the load voltage V between A and N modifies the circuit as shown in Figure 4.3(a). The node A is the junction of three branches. In practice, the node would be a busbar, and the branches are feeders radiating from the bus via circuit breakers, as shown in Figure 4.3(b). There are two possible locations for a fault at A; the busbar side of the breakers or the line side of the breakers. In this example, it is assumed that the fault is at X, and it is required to calculate the current flowing from the bus to X. The network viewed from AN has a driving point impedance |Z1| = 0.68 ohms. The current in the fault is V Z1 .

I =

' Z '' Z1 1 By applying the principle of superposition, the load currents circulating in the system prior to the fault may

If

' + Z '' ) Z1 ( 1 = I = V

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Let this current be 1.0 per unit. It is now necessary to find the fault current distribution in the various branches of the network and in particular the current flowing from A to X on the assumption that a relay at X is to detect the fault condition. The equivalent impedances viewed from either side of the fault are shown in Figure 4.4(a).
2.5

Therefore, current in 2.5 ohm branch 1.2 0.563 = 0.183 p.u. 3.7 and the current in 1.2 ohm branch = 2.5 0.563 = 0.38 p.u. 3.7 Total current entering X from the left, that is, from A to X, is 0.437 + 0.183 = 0.62 p.u. and from B to X is 0.38p.u. The equivalent network as viewed from the relay is as shown in Figure 4.4(b). The impedances on either side are: = 0.68/0.62 = 1.1 ohms and 0.68/0.38 = 1.79 ohms The circuit of Figure 4.4 (b) has been included because the Protection Engineer is interested in these equivalent parameters when applying certain types of protection relay.

Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4

1.55 A V 1.2 B

0.39

N (a) Three - phase fault diagram for a fault at node A Busbar Circuit breaker

A X

(b) Typical physical arrangement of node A with a fault shown at X Figure 4.3: Network with fault at node A

4 . 3 S Y M M E T R I C A L C O M P O N E N T A N A LY S I S OF A THREE-PHASE NETWORK
1.21

1.55

N (a) Impedance viewed from node A

1.1

1.79

N (b) Equivalent impedances viewed from node X

The Protection Engineer is interested in a wider variety of faults than just a three-phase fault. The most common fault is a single-phase to earth fault, which, in LV systems, can produce a higher fault current than a threephase fault. Similarly, because protection is expected to operate correctly for all types of fault, it may be necessary to consider the fault currents due to many different types of fault. Since the three-phase fault is unique in being a balanced fault, a method of analysis that is applicable to unbalanced faults is required. It can be shown [4.2] that, by applying the 'Principle of Superposition', any general three-phase system of vectors may be replaced by three sets of balanced (symmetrical) vectors; two sets are three-phase but having opposite phase rotation and one set is co-phasal. These vector sets are described as the positive, negative and zero sequence sets respectively. The equations between phase and sequence voltages are given below: E b = a 2 E1 + aE 2 + E 0 E c = aE1 + a 2 E 2 + E 0 E a = E1 + E 2 + E 0

Figure 4.4: Impedances viewed from fault

The currents from Figure 4.4(a) are as follows: From the right: 1.55 = 0.563 p.u. 2.76 From the left: 1.21 = 0.437 p.u. 2.76 There is a parallel branch to the right of A

Equation 4.1

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1 E1 = E a + aE b + a 2 E c 3 1 2 E2 = E a + a E b + aE c 3 1 E0 = Ea + Eb + Ec 3

( (
(

) )

fault branch changes from 0 to I and the positive sequence voltage across the branch changes from V to V1 ; replacing the fault branch by a source equal to the change in voltage and short-circuiting all normal driving voltages in the system results in a current I flowing into the system, and:
Equation 4.2

where all quantities are referred to the reference phase A. A similar set of equations can be written for phase and sequence currents. Figure 4.5 illustrates the resolution of a system of unbalanced vectors.
Eo a2E2 Eo E2 Ec aE1 E1 Ea

I =

(V V )
1

Z1

Equation 4.3

Figure 4.5

where Z1 is the positive sequence impedance of the system viewed from the fault. As before the fault no current was flowing from the fault into the system, it follows that I1 , the fault current flowing from the system into the fault must equal - I . Therefore: Equation 4.4 V1 = V - I1 Z1 is the relationship between positive sequence currents and voltages in the fault branch during a fault. In Figure 4.6, which represents a simple system, the voltage drops I1 Z1 and I1 Z1 are equal to ( V - V1 ) where the currents I1 and I1 enter the fault from the left and right respectively and impedances Z1 and Z1 are the total system impedances viewed from either side of the fault branch. The voltage V is equal to the opencircuit voltage in the system, and it has been shown that V E E (see Section 3.7). So the positive sequence voltages in the system due to the fault are greatest at the source, as shown in the gradient diagram, Figure 4.6(b).
X

a2E1

Eb

aE2 Eo

Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s

Figure 4.5: Resolution of a system of unbalanced vectors

When a fault occurs in a power system, the phase impedances are no longer identical (except in the case of three-phase faults) and the resulting currents and voltages are unbalanced, the point of greatest unbalance being at the fault point. It has been shown in Chapter 3 that the fault may be studied by short-circuiting all normal driving voltages in the system and replacing the fault connection by a source whose driving voltage is equal to the pre-fault voltage at the fault point. Hence, the system impedances remain symmetrical, viewed from the fault, and the fault point may now be regarded as the point of injection of unbalanced voltages and currents into the system. This is a most important approach in defining the fault conditions since it allows the system to be represented by sequence networks [4.3] using the method of symmetrical components.

Figure 4.6

ZS1

Z '1 I '1 Z '1

F I ''1 I1 V1

Z ''1

E' N (a) System diagram I '1 N X V V '1+I '1Z '1 N' (b) Gradient diagram

E'

I '1 Z '1 F V1

4.3.1 Positive Sequence Network During normal balanced system conditions, only positive sequence currents and voltages can exist in the system, and therefore the normal system impedance network is a positive sequence network. When a fault occurs in a power system, the current in the

Figure 4.6: Fault at F: Positive sequence diagrams

4.3.2 Negative Sequence Network If only positive sequence quantities appear in a power system under normal conditions, then negative sequence quantities can only exist during an unbalanced fault. If no negative sequence quantities are present in the

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fault branch prior to the fault, then, when a fault occurs, the change in voltage is V2 , and the resulting current I2 flowing from the network into the fault is: I2 = V2 Z2

4.4 EQUATIONS AND NETWORK CONNECTIONS FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF FAULTS The most important types of faults are as follows: a. single-phase to earth b. phase to phase c. phase-phase-earth d. three-phase (with or without earth) The above faults are described as single shunt faults because they occur at one location and involve a connection between one phase and another or to earth. In addition, the Protection Engineer often studies two other types of fault: e. single-phase open circuit f. cross-country fault By determining the currents and voltages at the fault point, it is possible to define the fault and connect the sequence networks to represent the fault condition. From the initial equations and the network diagram, the nature of the fault currents and voltages in different branches of the system can be determined. For shunt faults of zero impedance, and neglecting load current, the equations defining each fault (using phaseneutral values) can be written down as follows: a. Single-phase-earth (A-E)

Equation 4.5

The impedances in the negative sequence network are generally the same as those in the positive sequence network. In machines Z1 Z2 , but the difference is generally ignored, particularly in large networks. The negative sequence diagrams, shown in Figure 4.7, are similar to the positive sequence diagrams, with two important differences; no driving voltages exist before the fault and the negative sequence voltage V2 is greatest at the fault point.

Figure 4.7
ZS1

X Z '1 I '2 F I ''2 Z ''1

Z '1

I2 V2

N (a) Negative sequence network F X V2 V2 + I '2Z '1 N (b) Gradient diagram Figure 4.7: Fault at F: Negative sequence diagram

Ib = 0 Ic = 0 Va = 0 b. Phase-phase (B-C) Ib = Ic Vb = Vc c. Phase-phase-earth (B-C-E) Ia = 0 Ia = 0 Vb = 0 Vc = 0 d. Three-phase (A-B-C or A-B-C-E)

Equation 4.7

4.3.3 Zero Sequence Network The zero sequence current and voltage relationships during a fault condition are the same as those in the negative sequence network. Hence: V0 = - I0 Z0 Equation 4.6 Also, the zero sequence diagram is that of Figure 4.7, substituting I0 for I2 , and so on. The currents and voltages in the zero sequence network are co-phasal, that is, all the same phase. For zero sequence currents to flow in a system there must be a return connection through either a neutral conductor or the general mass of earth. Note must be taken of this fact when determining zero sequence equivalent circuits. Further, in general Z1 Z0 and the value of Z0 varies according to the type of plant, the winding arrangement and the method of earthing.

Equation 4.8

Equation 4.9

Ia + Ib + Ic = 0 Va = Vb Vb = Vc Equation 4.10 It should be noted from the above that for any type of fault there are three equations that define the fault conditions.

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When there is a fault impedance, this must be taken into account when writing down the equations. For example, with a single-phase-earth fault through fault impedance Zf , Equations 4.7 are re-written: Ic = 0 Va = I a Z f Ib = 0 Figure 4.8
A B C F Ia Ib Ic N1 Ib =0 Ic =0 Va=0 (a) Definition of fault Figure 4.8: Single-phase-earth fault at F (b) Equivalent circuit V c V b Z1 V Z2 N2 Z0 N0 V a F 1 F 2 F0

V - I1 Z1 = I2 Z2 and substituting for I2 from Equation 4.15: V = I1 ( Z1 + Z2 ) Equation 4.17 The constraints imposed by Equations 4.15 and 4.17 indicate that there is no zero sequence network connection in the equivalent circuit and that the positive and negative sequence networks are connected in parallel. Figure 4.9 shows the defining and equivalent circuits satisfying the above equations.
F Figure 4.9 A B C Ib Ic Ia =0 Ib =-Ic Vb=-Vc (a) Definition of fault (b) Equivalent circuit Figure 4.9: Phase-Phase fault at F N1 Ia V c V b Z1 V Z2 N2 Z0 N0 V a

Equation 4.11

F 1

F 2

F 0

4.4.1 Single-phase-earth Fault (A-E) Consider a fault defined by Equations 4.7 and by Figure 4.8(a). Converting Equations 4.7 into sequence quantities by using Equations 4.1 and 4.2, then: 1 I1 = I 2 = I o = I a Equation 4.12 3 Equation 4.13 V1 = - ( V2 + V0 ) Substituting for V1 , V2 and V0 in Equation 4.13 from Equations 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6: V - I1 Z1 = I2 Z2 + I0 Z0 but, from Equation 4.12, I1 = I2 = I0 , therefore: V = I1 ( Z1 + Z2 + Z3 ) Equation 4.14 The constraints imposed by Equations 4.12 and 4.14 indicate that the equivalent circuit for the fault is obtained by connecting the sequence networks in series, as shown in Figure 4.8(b).

4.4.3 Phase-phase-earth Fault (B-C-E) Again, from Equation 4.9 and Equations 4.1 and 4.2: Equation 4.18 I1 = -( I2 + Io ) and Equation 4.19 V1 = V2 = V0 Substituting for V2 and V0 using network Equations 4.5 and 4.6: I2 Z2 = I0 Z0 thus, using Equation 4.18: I0 = I2 = Z 2 I1 Z0 + Z 2

Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s

Equation 4.20

Z 0 I1 Equation 4.21 Z0 + Z 2 Now equating V1 and V2 and using Equation 4.4 gives: V - I1 Z1 = - I2 Z2 or V = I1 Z1 - I2 Z2 Substituting for I2 from Equation 4.21: Z0 Z 2 V = Z1 + I1 Z0 + Z 2 or I1 = V

4.4.2 Phase-phase Fault (B-C) From Equation 4.8 and using Equations 4.1 and 4.2: Equation 4.15 I1 = - I2 I0 = 0 V1 = V 2 Equation 4.16 From network Equations 4.4 and 4.5, Equation 4.16 can be re-written: V - I1 Z1 = I2 Z2 + I0 Z0

Z1 Z 0 + Z1 Z 2 + Z 0 Z 2

(Z

+ Z2

)
Equation 4.22

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From the above equations it follows that connecting the three sequence networks in parallel as shown in Figure 4.10(b) may represent a phase-phase-earth fault.
A F1 Figure 4.10 Ia Phase-phase-earth fault B C Ib Ic Ia=0 Vb=0 Vc=0 (a) Definition of fault Figure 4.10: Phase-phase-earth fault at F (b) Equivalent circuit V b V c Z1 N1 V F V a

Hence, from Equations 4.2, V0 = 1/3 Va V1 = 1/3 Va V2 = 1/3 Va and therefore: V1 = V 2 = V0 = 1 3 V a I a = I1 + I 2 + I 0 = 0 Equation 4.28 From Equations 4.28, it can be concluded that the sequence networks are connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 4.12(b).
Va P a Q Va'

F2 Z2 N2

F0 Z0 N0

4.4.4 Three-phase Fault (A-B-C or A-B-C-E) Assuming that the fault includes earth, then, from Equations 4.10 and 4.1, 4.2, it follows that: V0 = V a V1 = V 2 and = 0
I1 Equation 4.23 N1
+ve Sequence Network

Vc

Ib Vb' b I Vc' c c

(a) Circuit diagram

P1 1 Q1

I2 N2
-ve Sequence Network

P2 2 Q2

I0 N0
Zero Sequence Network

4.4.6 Cross-country Faults A cross-country fault is one where there are two faults affecting the same circuit, but in different locations and possibly involving different phases. Figure 4.13(a) illustrates this. The constraints expressed in terms of sequence quantities are as follows: a) At point F Ib + Ic = 0 Va = 0 Therefore: I a1 = I a 2 = I a 0 b) At point F I'a = I'c = 0 V 'b = 0 and therefore: I b1 = I b2 = I b0
Equation 4.32

A B C

F Vb Vc
c

Va

F1 Z1 N1 V

F2 Z2 N2

F0 Z0 N0

Equation 4.29

Figure 4.11 I

Ib

Ia

Equation 4.30

Ia+Ib+Ic=0 Va+Vb+Vc=0 (a) Definition of fault Figure 4.11: Three-phase-earth fault at F (b) Equivalent circuit

V a1 + V a 2 + V a 0 = 0

4.4.5 Single-phase Open Circuit Fault The single-phase open circuit fault is shown diagrammatically in Figure 4.12(a). At the fault point, the boundary conditions are: Vb = Vc = 0 Ia = 0

Equation 4.31

Equation 4.27

To solve, it is necessary to convert the currents and voltages at point F to the sequence currents in the same phase as those at point F. From Equation 4.32,

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Equation 4.24 I0 = 0 Substituting V2 = 0 in Equation 4.5 gives: Equation 4.25 I2 = 0 and substituting V1 = 0 in Equation 4.4: 0 = V1 - I1 Z1 or Equation 4.26 V = I1 Z1 Further, since from Equation 4.24 Io = 0 , it follows from Equation 4.6 that Vo is zero when Zo is finite. The equivalent sequence connections for a three-phase fault are shown in Figure 4.11.

P0 0 Q0

(b) Equivalent circuit Figure 4.12: Open circuit on phase A

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F'

a-e

b-e

(a) `A' phase to ground at F and `B' phase to ground at F'

Ia1 F1

I 'a1 F '1

Va1

V 'a1

N1

N '1
2

a I 'a2 F2 Ia2 I 'a2 F '2 1 2 a

Va2 N2

V 'a2 N '2

a V 'a2

Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s

aI 'a0 F0 Ia0 I 'a0 F '0 1 a

Va0 N0 (b) Equivalent circuit Figure 4.13: Cross - country fault - phase A to phase B

V 'a0 N '0

aV 'a0

1 = aI a 2 = I a0 a2 I a or 2 = aI a0 1 = a2I a Ia and, for the voltages V b1 + V b2 +V b0 = 0 Converting: 1 + aV a 2 +V a0 = 0 a2V a or 1 + a2V a 2 + aV a0 = 0 Va

Equation 4.34 Equation 4.33

4.5 CURRENT AND VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION IN A SYSTEM DUE TO A FAULT Practical fault calculations involve the examination of the effect of a fault in branches of network other than the faulted branch, so that protection can be applied correctly to isolate the section of the system directly involved in the fault. It is therefore not enough to calculate the fault current in the fault itself; the fault current distribution must also be established. Further, abnormal voltage stresses may appear in a system because of a fault, and these may affect the operation of the protection. Knowledge of current and voltage distribution in a network due to a fault is essential for the application of protection. The approach to network fault studies for assessing the application of protection equipment may be summarised as follows:
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The fault constraints involve phase shifted sequence quantities. To construct the appropriate sequence networks, it is necessary to introduce phase-shifting transformers to couple the sequence networks. This is shown in Figure 4.13(b).

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a. from the network diagram and accompanying data, assess the limits of stable generation and possible operating conditions for the system NOTE: When full information is not available assumptions may have to be made b. with faults assumed to occur at each relaying point in turn, maximum and minimum fault currents are calculated for each type of fault NOTE: The fault is assumed to be through zero impedance c. by calculating the current distribution in the network for faults applied at different points in the network (from (b) above) the maximum through fault currents at each relaying point are established for each type of fault d. at this stage more or less definite ideas on the type of protection to be applied are formed. Further calculations for establishing voltage variation at the relaying point, or the stability limit of the system with a fault on it, are now carried out in order to determine the class of protection necessary, such as high or low speed, unit or nonunit, etc.

a. single-phase-earth (A-E) I ' a = ( 2 C1 + C 0 ) I 0 I ' b = (C1 C 0 ) I 0 I ' c = (C1 C 0 ) I 0 b. phase-phase (B-C) 2 I ' b = a a C1 I1 I ' c = a a 2 C1 I1 c. phase-phase-earth (B-C-E) I'a = 0

Equation 4.35

( (

) )

Equation 4.36

I ' a = (C1 C 0 ) I 0 Z I ' b = a a 2 C1 0 Z1 Z I ' c = a 2 a C1 0 Z1

( (

) )

a 2 C1 C 0 I 0 aC1 + C 0 I 0
Equation 4.37

d. three-phase (A-B-C or A-B-C-E) I ' b = a 2 C1 I1 I ' c = aC1 I1 Equation 4.38 As an example of current distribution technique, consider the system in Figure 4.14(a). The equivalent sequence networks are given in Figures 4.14(b) and (c), together with typical values of impedances. A fault is assumed at A and it is desired to find the currents in branch OB due to the fault. In each network, the distribution factors are given for each branch, with the current in the fault branch taken as 1.0p.u. From the diagram, the zero sequence distribution factor Co in branch OB is 0.112 and the positive sequence factor C1 is 0.373. For an earth fault at A the phase currents in branch OB from Equation 4.35 are: Ia = (0.746 + 0.112) I0 = 0.858 I0 and I b = I c = -(0.373 + 0.112) I0 = -0.261 I0 I ' a = C1 I1 By using network reduction methods and assuming that all impedances are reactive, it can be shown that Z1 = Z0 = j0.68 ohms. Therefore, from Equation 4.14, the current in fault branch I a = V 0.68

4.5.1 Current Distribution The phase current in any branch of a network is determined from the sequence current distribution in the equivalent circuit of the fault. The sequence currents are expressed in per unit terms of the sequence current in the fault branch. In power system calculations, the positive and negative sequence impedances are normally equal. Thus, the division of sequence currents in the two networks will also be identical. The impedance values and configuration of the zero sequence network are usually different from those of the positive and negative sequence networks, so the zero sequence current distribution is calculated separately. If Co and C1 are described as the zero and positive sequence distribution factors then the actual current in a sequence branch is given by multiplying the actual current in the sequence fault branch by the appropriate distribution factor. For this reason, if I1 , I2 and I0 are sequence currents in an arbitrary branch of a network due to a fault at some point in the network, then the phase currents in that branch may be expressed in terms of the distribution constants and the sequence currents in the fault. These are given below for the various common shunt faults, using Equation 4.1 and the appropriate fault equations:

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Power system A B

O Fault

Load (a) Single line diagram j7.5 j0.9 1.0 0.755 A 0.08

4.5.2 Voltage Distribution The voltage distribution in any branch of a network is determined from the sequence voltage distribution. As shown by Equations 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 and the gradient diagrams, Figures 4.6(b) and 4.7(b), the positive sequence voltage is a minimum at the fault, whereas the zero and negative sequence voltages are a maximum. Thus, the sequence voltages in any part of the system may be given generally as:
j0.4

B j2.6 0 j1.6 0.165 0.112 0.192 j4.8 0.053 (b) Zero sequence network j2.5 0.183

V1' = V I1 Z1

j1.6 1.0 0.422

j0.4 B j0.75 0 j0.45 0.395 0.373 0.556 j18.85 A 0.022

n V 2 ' = I 2 Z1 C1 n Z1 n 1 n V0 ' = I 0 Z 0 C 0 n Z 0 n 1 Equation 4.39

1

C1 n Z1 n

Using the above equation, the fault voltages at bus B in the previous example can be found. From the positive sequence distribution diagram Figure 4.8(c): V '1 = V I1 Z1 j (0.395 0.75 ) + (0.373 0.45 ) V ' 2 = V I1 Z1 j 0.464

(c) Positive and negative sequence networks Figure 4.14: Typical power system

Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s

Assuming that |V | = 63.5 volts, then: 63.5 I0 = 1 Ia = = 31.2 A 3 3 x 0.68 If V is taken as the reference vector, then: I a = 26.8 -90 A I b = I c =8.15 -90 A The vector diagram for the above fault condition is shown in Figure 4.15.

]
}]

From the zero sequence distribution diagram Figure 4.8(b): V ' 0 = I 0 Z 0 j (0.165 2.6 ) + (0.112 1.6 )

Figure 4.15

= I 0 Z 0 j 0.608 For earth faults, at the fault I1 = I2 = I0 = j31.2A, when |V | = 63.5 volts and is taken as the reference vector. Further, Z1 = Z0 = j0.68 ohms. Hence: V1 = 63.5 - (0.216 x 31.2) = 56.76 0 volts V2 = 6.74 180 volts V0 = 2.25 180 volts and, using Equations 4.1: V a = V1 + V2 + V0 = 56.76 -(6.74 + 2.25) Va = 47.8 0 Vb = a2 V1 + aV2 + V0 = 56.76a2 -(6.74a + 2.25) Vb = 61.5 -116.4 volts
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V 'c =61.5-116.4

I 'b =I 'c =8.15-90 V=63.5-0 V 'a =47.8-0

I 'a =26.8-90 V 'b =61.5-116.4

Figure 4.15: Vector diagram: Fault currents and voltages in branch OB due to P-E fault at bus A

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Vc = aV1 + a2V2 + V0 = 56.75a -(6.74a2 + 2.25) Vc = 61.5 116.4 volts These voltages are shown on the vector diagram, Figure 4.15. 4.6 EFFECT OF SYSTEM EARTHING ON ZERO SEQUENCE QUANTITIES It has been shown previously that zero sequence currents flow in the earth path during earth faults, and it follows that the nature of these currents will be influenced by the method of earthing. Because these quantities are unique in their association with earth faults they can be utilised in protection, provided their measurement and character are understood for all practical system conditions. 4.6.1 Residual Current and Voltage Residual currents and voltages depend for their existence on two factors: a. a system connection to earth at two or more points b. a potential difference between the earthed points resulting in a current flow in the earth paths Under normal system operation there is a capacitance between the phases and between phase and earth; these capacitances may be regarded as being symmetrical and distributed uniformly through the system. So even when (a) above is satisfied, if the driving voltages are symmetrical the vector sum of the currents will equate to zero and no current will flow between any two earth points in the system. When a fault to earth occurs in a system an unbalance results in condition (b) being satisfied. From the definitions given above it follows that residual currents and voltages are the vector sum of phase currents and phase voltages respectively. Hence: I R = Ia + Ib + Ic and V R = V ae + V be Also, from Equations 4.2: + V ce

and since Vbn = a2 Van , Vcn =aVan then: VR = 3Vne Equation 4.43 where Vcn - neutral displacement voltage. Measurements of residual quantities are made using current and voltage transformer connections as shown in Figure 4.16. If relays are connected into the circuits in place of the ammeter and voltmeter, it follows that earth faults in the system can be detected.

Ia Ib Ic V ae A

A B C Vbe

V ce

V (a) Residual current Figure 4.16: Measurement of residual quantities (b) Residual voltage

4.6.2 System Z0 / Z1 Ratio The system Z0 / Z1 ratio is defined as the ratio of zero sequence and positive sequence impedances viewed from the fault; it is a variable ratio, dependent upon the method of earthing, fault position and system operating arrangement. When assessing the distribution of residual quantities through a system, it is convenient to use the fault point as the reference as it is the point of injection of unbalanced quantities into the system. The residual voltage is measured in relation to the normal phaseneutral system voltage and the residual current is compared with the three-phase fault current at the fault point. It can be shown [4.4/4.5] that the character of these quantities can be expressed in terms of the system Z0 / Z1 ratio. The positive sequence impedance of a system is mainly reactive, whereas the zero sequence impedance being affected by the method of earthing may contain both resistive and reactive components of comparable magnitude. Thus the express of the Z0 / Z1 ratio approximates to: Z0 X R = 0 j 0 Z1 X1 X1

Equation 4.40

I R = 3I0 V R = 3 V0 It should be further noted that: V ae = V an + V ne V be = V bn + V ne V ce = V cn + V ne

Equation 4.41

Equation 4.44

Equation 4.42

Expressing the residual current in terms of the three phase current and Z0 / Z1 ratio:
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a. Single-phase-earth (A-E) IR 3V = = 2 Z1 + Z 0

3.0

(2 + K )

V Z1
VR and IR as multiples of V and I3

Residual current for Double-Phase-Earth fault 2.5 Residual voltage for Single-Phase-Earth fault 2.0

where K = Z0 / Z1 I3 = Thus: IR = I3 V Z1

1.5

1.0

(2 + K )
3 Z1 = I1 Z1 + Z 0

Residual voltage for Double-Phase-Earth fault

Equation 4.45

0.5 Residual current for Double-Phase-Earth fault 0 1 2 K = Z0 Z1 3 4 5

b. Phase-phase-earth (B-C-E) I R = 3I0 I1 = Hence: IR = 3 V Z1 2 Z1 Z 0 + Z12 V = 2 K + 1 Z1

V Z1 + Z 0 2 Z1 Z 0 +

Z12

Figure 4.17: Variation of residual quantities at fault point

4.6.3 Variation of Residual Quantities

Fa u l t C a l c u l a t i o n s

Therefore: IR 3 = I3 2K +1

The variation of residual quantities in a system due to different earth arrangements can be most readily understood by using vector diagrams. Three examples have been chosen, namely solid fault-isolated neutral, solid fault-resistance neutral, and resistance fault-solid neutral. These are illustrated in Figures 4.18, 4.19 and 4.20 respectively.
X

Equation 4.46

Similarly, the residual voltages are found by multiplying Equations 4.45 and 4.46 by - K V . a. Single-phase-each (A-E) VR =
N

Iab+Iac Iab Iac

A B C Iab Iac

(2 + K )
3K

3K

V
Equation 4.47 Iab+Iac

b. Phase-phase-earth (B-C-E) VR =

(2 K + 1 )

V
Equation 4.48 c n Iab b

(a) Circuit diagram Iac -VcF=Eac a(F) -VbF=Eab VbF VR (c) Residual voltage diagram VcF

The curves in Figure 4.17 illustrate the variation of the above residual quantities with the Z0 / Z1 ratio. The residual current in any part of the system can be obtained by multiplying the current from the curve by the appropriate zero sequence distribution factor. Similarly, the residual voltage is calculated by subtracting from the voltage curve three times the zero sequence voltage drop between the measuring point in the system and the fault.

(b) Vector diagram

Figure 4.18: Solid fault-isolated neutral

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[Link] Solid fault-isolated neutral From Figure 4.18 it can be seen that the capacitance to earth of the faulted phase is short circuited by the fault and the resulting unbalance causes capacitance currents to flow into the fault, returning via sound phases through sound phase capacitances to earth. At the fault point: VaF = 0 and VR = VbF + VcF = -3 Ean

[Link] Solid fault-resistance neutral Figure 4.19 shows that the capacitance of the faulted phase is short-circuited by the fault and the neutral current combines with the sound phase capacitive currents to give Ia in the faulted phase. With a relay at X, residually connected as shown in Figure 4.16, the residual current will be Ian , that is, the neutral earth loop [Link] 4.19 At the fault point: VR = VbF + VcF since VFe = 0 At source: VR = VaX + VbX + VcX From the residual voltage diagram it is clear that there is little variation in the residual voltages at source and fault, as most residual voltage is dropped across the neutral resistor. The degree of variation in residual quantities is therefore dependent on the neutral resistor value. [Link] Resistance fault-solid neutral Capacitance can be neglected because, since the capacitance of the faulted phase is not short-circuited, the circulating capacitance currents will be negligible. At the fault point: VR = VFn + Vbn + Vcn At relaying point X: VR = VXn + Vbn + Vcn

At source: VR = 3Vne = -3Ean since Ean + Ebn + Ecn = 0 Thus, with an isolated neutral system, the residual voltage is three times the normal phase-neutral voltage of the faulted phase and there is no variation between VR at source and VR at fault. In practice, there is some leakage impedance between neutral and earth and a small residual current would be detected at X if a very sensitive relay were employed.
Ia X Iab Iac Ian Ia Iab Iab ZL F A B C

ZS

IF

ZL

(a) Circuit diagram IF Iac

c

A B C IF

(a) Circuit diagram -Vcf -VcX n -VXn -Vbf Iab b -VbX (b) Vector diagram b VR VcX Vbf VR (at fault) VcF VR (at source) VbX VaX Vcn Vbn Vcn Vbn X -IaZL Ian a(F) Ia Iac Iab Vbn c VcF Vcn n VFn VbF (b) Vector diagram VFn VR VXn Van VXn a -IFZS X IF

F -IFZL

(c) Residual voltage diagram Figure 4.19: Solid fault-resistance neutral

(c) Residual voltage at fault

(d) Residual voltage at relaying point

Figure 4.20: Resistance fault-solid neutral

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From the residual voltage diagrams shown in Figure 4.20, it is apparent that the residual voltage is greatest at the fault and reduces towards the source. If the fault resistance approaches zero, that is, the fault becomes solid, then VFn approaches zero and the voltage drops in ZS and ZL become greater. The ultimate value of VFn will depend on the effectiveness of the earthing, and this is a function of the system Z0 / Z1 ratio. 4.7 REFERENCES 4.1 Circuit Analysis of A.C. Power Systems, Volume I. Edith Clarke. John Wiley & Sons. 4.2 Method of Symmetrical Co-ordinates Applied to the Solution of Polyphase Networks. C.L. Fortescue. Trans. A.I.E.E.,Vol. 37, Part II, 1918, pp 1027-40. 4.3 Power System Analysis. J.R. Mortlock and M.W. Humphrey Davies. Chapman and Hall. 4.4 Neutral Groundings. R Willheim and M. Waters, Elsevier. 4.5 Fault Calculations. F.H.W. Lackey, Oliver & Boyd.

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Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

Introduction Synchronous machines Armature reaction Steady state theory Salient pole rotor Transient analysis Asymmetry Machine reactances Negative sequence reactance Direct and quadrature axis values 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.11

Zero sequence reactance 5.10 Effect of saturation on machine reactances 5.12 Transformers 5.13 Transformer positive sequence equivalent circuits 5.14 Transformer zero sequence equivalent circuits 5.15 Auto-transformers 5.16 Transformer impedances 5.17 Overhead lines and cables 5.18 Calculation of series impedance 5.19 Calculation of shunt impedance 5.20 Overhead line circuits with or without earth wires 5.21 OHL equivalent circuits 5.22 Cable circuits 5.23 Overhead line and cable data 5.24 References 5.25

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5 Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

5.1 INTRODUCTION Knowledge of the behaviour of the principal electrical system plant items under normal and fault conditions is a prerequisite for the proper application of protection. This chapter summarises basic synchronous machine, transformer and transmission line theory and gives equivalent circuits and parameters so that a fault study can be successfully completed before the selection and application of the protection systems described in later chapters. Only what might be referred to as 'traditional' synchronous machine theory is covered, as that is all that calculations for fault level studies generally require. Readers interested in more advanced models of synchronous machines are referred to the numerous papers on the subject, of which reference [5.1] is a good starting point. Power system plant may be divided into two broad groups - static and rotating. The modelling of static plant for fault level calculations provides few difficulties, as plant parameters generally do not change during the period of interest following fault inception. The problem in modelling rotating plant is that the parameters change depending on the response to a change in power system conditions.

5.2 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES There are two main types of synchronous machine: cylindrical rotor and salient pole. In general, the former is confined to 2 and 4 pole turbine generators, while salient pole types are built with 4 poles upwards and include most classes of duty. Both classes of machine are similar in so far that each has a stator carrying a three-phase winding distributed over its inner periphery. Within the stator bore is carried the rotor which is magnetised by a winding carrying d.c. current. The essential difference between the two classes of machine lies in the rotor construction. The cylindrical rotor type has a uniformly cylindrical rotor that carries its excitation winding distributed over a number of slots

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around its periphery. This construction is unsuited to multi-polar machines but it is very sound mechanically. Hence it is particularly well adapted for the highest speed electrical machines and is universally employed for 2 pole units, plus some 4 pole units. The salient pole type has poles that are physically separate, each carrying a concentrated excitation winding. This type of construction is in many ways complementary to that of the cylindrical rotor and is employed in machines having 4 poles or more. Except in special cases its use is exclusive in machines having more than 6 poles. Figure 5.1 illustrates a typical large cylindrical rotor generator installed in a power plant.

most common. Two-stroke diesel engines are often derivatives of marine designs with relatively large outputs (circa 30MW is possible) and may have running speeds of the order of 125rpm. This requires a generator with a large number of poles (48 for a 125rpm, 50Hz generator) and consequently is of large diameter and short axial length. This is a contrast to turbine-driven machines that are of small diameter and long axial length.

Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

Two and four pole generators are most often used in applications where steam or gas turbines are used as the driver. This is because the steam turbine tends to be suited to high rotational speeds. Four pole steam turbine generators are most often found in nuclear power stations as the relative wetness of the steam makes the high rotational speed of a two-pole design unsuitable. Most generators with gas turbine drivers are four pole machines to obtain enhanced mechanical strength in the rotor- since a gearbox is often used to couple the power turbine to the generator, the choice of synchronous speed of the generator is not subject to the same constraints as with steam turbines. Generators with diesel engine drivers are invariably of four or more pole design, to match the running speed of the driver without using a gearbox. Four-stroke diesel engines usually have a higher running speed than twostroke engines, so generators having four or six poles are

Weak N

Strong

Weak S

Strong

Direction of rotation (a)

(b) Figure 5.2: Distortion of flux due to armature reaction

Figure 5.1: Modern large synchronous generator

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5 . 3 A R M AT U R E R E A C T I O N Armature reaction has the greatest effect on the operation of a synchronous machine with respect both to the load angle at which it operates and to the amount of excitation that it needs. The phenomenon is most easily explained by considering a simplified ideal generator with full pitch winding operating at unity p.f., zero lag p.f. and zero lead p.f. When operating at unity p.f., the voltage and current in the stator are in phase, the stator current producing a cross magnetising magneto-motive force (m.m.f.) which interacts with that of the rotor, resulting in a distortion of flux across the pole face. As can be seen from Figure 5.2(a) the tendency is to weaken the flux at the leading edge or effectively to distort the field in a manner equivalent to a shift against the direction of rotation. If the power factor were reduced to zero lagging, the current in the stator would reach its maximum 90 after the voltage and the rotor would therefore be in the position shown in Figure 5.2(b). The stator m.m.f. is now acting in direct opposition to the field.

'armature reaction reactance' and is denoted by Xad. Similarly, the remaining side of the triangle becomes ATf /ATe , which is the per unit voltage produced on open circuit by ampere-turns ATf . It can be considered as the internal generated voltage of the machine and is designated Eo .

Et(=V)

I ATe ATar ATf (a) ATf ATe

Et=1=V I ATe

ATar

ATf (b) IXad IX d EL IXL V I (c)

Similarly, for operation at zero leading power factor, the stator m.m.f. would directly assist the rotor m.m.f. This m.m.f. arising from current flowing in the stator is known as 'armature reaction'.

Eo

5 . 4 . S T E A DY S TAT E T H E O R Y The vector diagram of a single cylindrical rotor synchronous machine is shown in Figure 5.3, assuming that the magnetic circuit is unsaturated, the air-gap is uniform and all variable quantities are sinusoidal. Further, since the reactance of machines is normally very much larger than the resistance, the latter has been neglected. The excitation ampere-turns, ATe, produces a flux across the air-gap thereby inducing a voltage, Et, in the stator. This voltage drives a current I at a power factor cos-1 and gives rise to an armature reaction m.m.f. ATar in phase with it. The m.m.f. ATf resulting from the combination of these two m.m.f. vectors (see Figure 5.3(a)) is the excitation which must be provided on the rotor to maintain flux across the air-gap. Rotating the rotor m.m.f. diagram, Figure 5.3(a), clockwise until coincides with Et and changing the scale of the diagram so that ATe becomes the basic unit, where ATe = Et =1, results in Figure 5.3(b). The m.m.f. vectors have thus become, in effect, voltage vectors. For example ATar /ATe is a unit of voltage that is directly proportional to the stator load current. This vector can be fully represented by a reactance and in practice this is called

Figure 5.3: Vector diagram of synchronous machine

The true leakage reactance of the stator winding which gives rise to a voltage drop or regulation has been neglected. This reactance is designated XL (or Xa in some texts) and the voltage drop occurring in it, IXL, is the difference between the terminal voltage V and the voltage behind the stator leakage reactance, EL. IZL is exactly in phase with the voltage drop due to Xad, as shown on the vector diagram Figure 5.3(c). It should be noted that Xad and XL can be combined to give a simple equivalent reactance; this is known as the 'synchronous reactance', denoted by Xd. The power generated by the machine is given by the equation: P = VI cos = VE sin Xd

Equation 5.1

where is the angle between the internal voltage and the terminal voltage and is known as the load angle of the machine.

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Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant 5

ATar ATe

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It follows from the above analysis that, for steady state performance, the machine may be represented by the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 5.4, where XL is a true reactance associated with flux leakage around the stator winding and Xad is a fictitious reactance, being the ratio of armature reaction and open-circuit excitation magneto-motive forces.

When a pole is aligned with the assumed sine wave m.m.f. set up by the stator, a corresponding sine wave flux will be set up, but when an inter-polar gap is aligned very severe distortion is caused. The difference is treated by considering these two axes, that is those corresponding to the pole and the inter-polar gap, separately. They are designated the 'direct' and 'quadrature' axes respectively, and the general theory is known as the 'two axis' theory.

Xad

XL

Eo

Et

Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

Figure 5.4: Equivalent circuit of elementary machine

The vector diagram for the salient pole machine is similar to that for the cylindrical rotor except that the reactance and currents associated with them are split into two components. The synchronous reactance for the direct axis is Xd = Xad + XL, while that in the quadrature axis is Xq = Xaq + XL. The vector diagram is constructed as before but the appropriate quantities in this case are resolved along two axes. The resultant internal voltage is Eo, as shown in Figure 5.6. is the internal In passing it should be noted that E 0 voltage which would be given, in cylindrical rotor theory, by vectorially adding the simple vectors IXd and V. There is very little difference in magnitude between E0 and E0 but a substantial difference in internal angle; the simple theory is perfectly adequate for calculation of excitation currents but not for stability considerations where load angle is significant.

In practice, due to necessary constructional features of a cylindrical rotor to accommodate the windings, the reactance Xa is not constant irrespective of rotor position, and modelling proceeds as for a generator with a salient pole rotor. However, the numerical difference between the values of Xad and Xaq is small, much less than for the salient pole machine.

5 . 5 S A L I E N T P O L E R OTO R The preceding theory is limited to the cylindrical rotor generator. The basic assumption that the air-gap is uniform is very obviously not valid when a salient pole rotor is being considered. The effect of this is that the flux produced by armature reaction m.m.f. depends on the position of the rotor at any instant, as shown in Figure 5.5.
EO IXd E' O

IqXq IdXd

5
Lag Armature reaction M.M.F. Lead

Flux

Flux

Iq

Quadrature axis Quadr

Direct ect axis po pole

Id

Pole axis Figure 5.5: Variation of armature reaction m.m.f. with pole position Figure 5.6: Vector diagram for salient pole machine

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5 . 6 T R A N S I E N T A N A LY S I S For normal changes in load conditions, steady state theory is perfectly adequate. However, there are occasions when almost instantaneous changes are involved, such as faults or switching operations. When this happens new factors are introduced within the machine and to represent these adequately a corresponding new set of machine characteristics is required. The generally accepted and most simple way to appreciate the meaning and derivation of these characteristics is to consider a sudden three-phase short circuit applied to a machine initially running on open circuit and excited to normal voltage E0. This voltage will be generated by a flux crossing the airgap. It is not possible to confine the flux to one path exclusively in any machine, and as a result there will be a leakage flux L that will leak from pole to pole and across the inter-polar gaps without crossing the main air-gap as shown in Figure 5.7. The flux in the pole will be + L.
XL XL

Xad

(a) Synchronous reactance XL

Xad

Xf

(b) Transient reactance

Xad

Xf

Xkd

(c) Subtransient reactance

Figure 5.8: Synchronous machine reactances

It might be expected that the fault current would be given by E0 /(XL+Xad) equal to E0/Xd , but this is very much reduced, and the machine is operating with no saturation. For this reason, the value of voltage used is the value read from the air-gap line corresponding to normal excitation and is rather higher than the normal voltage. The steady state current is given by: Id = Eg Xd

Equation 5.2

Figure 5.7: Flux paths of salient pole machine

where Eg = voltage on air gap line An important point to note now is that between the initial and final conditions there has been a severe reduction of flux. The rotor carries a highly inductive winding which links the flux so that the rotor flux linkages before the short circuit are produced by ( + L). In practice the leakage flux is distributed over the whole pole and all of it does not link all the winding. L is an equivalent concentrated flux imagined to link all the winding and of such a magnitude that the total linkages are equal to those actually occurring. It is a fundamental principle that any attempt to change the flux linked with such a circuit will cause current to flow in a direction that will oppose the change. In the present case the flux is being reduced and so the induced currents will tend to sustain it.

If the stator winding is then short-circuited, the power factor in it will be zero. A heavy current will tend to flow, as the resulting armature reaction m.m.f. is demagnetising. This will reduce the flux and conditions will settle until the armature reaction nearly balances the excitation m.m.f., the remainder maintaining a very much reduced flux across the air-gap which is just sufficient to generate the voltage necessary to overcome the stator leakage reactance (resistance neglected). This is the simple steady state case of a machine operating on short circuit and is fully represented by the equivalent of Figure 5.8(a); see also Figure 5.4.

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For the position immediately following the application of the short circuit, it is valid to assume that the flux linked with the rotor remains constant, this being brought about by an induced current in the rotor which balances the heavy demagnetising effect set up by the shortcircuited armature. So ( + L) remains constant, but owing to the increased m.m.f. involved, the flux leakage will increase considerably. With a constant total rotor flux, this can only increase at the expense of that flux crossing the air-gap. Consequently, this generates a reduced voltage, which, acting on the leakage reactance, gives the short circuit current. It is more convenient for machine analysis to use the rated voltage E0 and to invent a fictitious reactance that will give rise to the same current. This reactance is called the 'transient reactance' Xd and is defined by the equation: Transient current I 'd = Eo X 'd

The damper winding(s) is subjected to the full effect of flux transfer to leakage paths and will carry an induced current tending to oppose it. As long as this current can flow, the air-gap flux will be held at a value slightly higher than would be the case if only the excitation winding were present, but still less than the original open circuit flux . As before, it is convenient to use rated voltage and to create another fictitious reactance that is considered to be effective over this period. This is known as the 'subtransient reactance' X d and is defined by the equation: Eo Sub-transient current I d = X '' d where X '' d =XL + or
Equation 5.4

Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

X ad X f X kd X ad X f + X kd X f + X ad X kd

Xd = XL + Xkd

Equation 5.3

and Xkd = leakage reactance of damper winding(s) Xkd = effective leakage reactance of damper winding(s) It is greater than XL but less than X d and the corresponding equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 5.8(c). Again, the duration of this phase depends upon the time constant of the damper winding. In practice this is approximately 0.05 seconds - very much less than the transient - hence the term 'sub-transient'. Figure 5.9 shows the envelope of the symmetrical component of an armature short circuit current indicating the values described in the preceding analysis. The analysis of the stator current waveform resulting from a sudden short circuit test is traditionally the

It is greater than XL, and the equivalent circuit is represented by Figure 5.8(b) where: X 'd = X ad X f +XL X ad + X f

and X f is the leakage reactance of the field winding The above equation may also be written as: Xd = XL + Xf where Xf = effective leakage reactance of field winding The flux will only be sustained at its relatively high value while the induced current flows in the field winding. As this current decays, so conditions will approach the steady state. Consequently, the duration of this phase will be determined by the time constant of the excitation winding. This is usually of the order of a second or less - hence the term 'transient' applied to characteristics associated with it. A further point now arises. All synchronous machines have what is usually called a damper winding or windings. In some cases, this may be a physical winding (like a field winding, but of fewer turns and located separately), or an effective one (for instance, the solid iron rotor of a cylindrical rotor machine). Sometimes, both physical and effective damper windings may exist (as in some designs of cylindrical rotor generators, having both a solid iron rotor and a physical damper winding located in slots in the pole faces). Under short circuit conditions, there is a transfer of flux from the main air-gap to leakage paths. This diversion is, to a small extent, opposed by the excitation winding and the main transfer will be experienced towards the pole tips.

I ''d =

Eo X ''d

I 'd =

Current
Eo X 'd Id = Eair gap Xd

Time Figure 5.9: Transient decay envelope of short-circuit current

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method by which these reactances are measured. However, the major limitation is that only direct axis parameters are measured. Detailed test methods for synchronous machines are given in references [5.2] and [5.3], and include other tests that are capable of providing more detailed parameter information.

in opposite directions at supply frequency relative to the rotor. So, as viewed from the stator, one is stationary and the other rotating at twice supply frequency. The latter sets up second harmonic currents in the stator. Further development along these lines is possible but the resulting harmonics are usually negligible and normally neglected.

5.7 ASYMMETRY The exact instant at which the short circuit is applied to the stator winding is of significance. If resistance is negligible compared with reactance, the current in a coil will lag the voltage by 90, that is, at the instant when the voltage wave attains a maximum, any current flowing through would be passing through zero. If a short circuit were applied at this instant, the resulting current would rise smoothly and would be a simple a.c. component. However, at the moment when the induced voltage is zero, any current flowing must pass through a maximum (owing to the 90 lag). If a fault occurs at this moment, the resulting current will assume the corresponding relationship; it will be at its peak and in the ensuing 180 will go through zero to maximum in the reverse direction and so on. In fact the current must actually start from zero and so will follow a sine wave that is completely asymmetrical. Intermediate positions will give varying degrees of asymmetry. This asymmetry can be considered to be due to a d.c. component of current which dies away because resistance is present. The d.c. component of stator current sets up a d.c. field in the stator which causes a supply frequency ripple on the field current, and this alternating rotor flux has a further effect on the stator. This is best shown by considering the supply frequency flux as being represented by two half magnitude waves each rotating 5 . 8 M A C H I N E R E A C TA N C E S Table 5.1 gives values of machine reactances for salient pole and cylindrical rotor machines typical of latest design practice. Also included are parameters for synchronous compensators such machines are now rarely built, but significant numbers can still be found in operation. 5.8.1 Synchronous Reactance Xd = XL + Xad The order of magnitude of XL is normally 0.1-0.25p.u., while that of Xad is 1.0-2.5p.u. The leakage reactance XL can be reduced by increasing the machine size (derating), or increased by artificially increasing the slot leakage, but it will be noted that XL is only about 10% of the total value of Xd and cannot exercise much influence. The armature reaction reactance can be reduced by decreasing the armature reaction of the machine, which in design terms means reducing the ampere conductor or electrical (as distinct from magnetic) loading - this will often mean a physically larger machine. Alternatively the excitation needed to generate open-circuit voltage may be increased; this is simply achieved by increasing the machine air-gap, but is only possible if the excitation system is modified to meet the increased requirements. In general, control of Xd is obtained almost entirely by varying Xad, and in most cases a reduction in Xd will mean a larger and more costly machine. It is also worth
Cylindrical rotor turbine generators Air Cooled 0.4-0.6 2.0-2.8 1.8-2.7 0.2-0.3 0.15-0.23 0.16-0.25 0.16-0.23 0.06-0.1 0.6-1.3 6-12 0.013-0.022 0.018-0.03 0.013-0.022 0.026-0.045 Hydrogen Cooled 0.4-0.6 2.1-2.4 1.9-2.4 0.27-0.33 0.19-0.23 0.19-0.23 0.19-0.24 0.1-0.15 0.7-1.0 6-10 0.017-0.025 0.023-0.032 0.018-0.027 0.03-0.05 Hydrogen/ Water Cooled 0.4-0.6 2.1-2.6 2.0-2.5 0.3-0.36 0.21-0.27 0.21-0.28 0.21-0.27 0.1-0.15 0.75-1.0 6-9.5 0.022-0.03 0.025-0.035 0.02-0.03 0.04-0.065 Salient pole generators 4 Pole 0.4-0.6 1.75-3.0 0.9-1.5 0.26-0.35 0.19-0.25 0.19-0.35 0.16-0.27 0.01-0.1 0.4-1.1 3.0-9.0 0.02-0.04 0.035-0.06 0.025-0.04 0.13-0.2 Multi-pole 0.6-0.8 1.4-1.9 0.8-1.0 0.24-0.4 0.16-0.25 0.18-0.24 0.16-0.23 0.045-0.23 0.25-1 1.7-4.0 0.02-0.06 0.03-0.1 0.025-0.08 0.1-0.35

Type of machine Short circuit ratio Direct axis synchronous reactance Xd (p.u.) Quadrature axis synchronous reactance Xq (p.u.) Direct axis transient reactance Xd (p.u.) Direct axis sub-transient reactance Xd (p.u.) Quadrature axis sub-transient reactance Xq (p.u.) Negative sequence reactance X2 (p.u.) Zero sequence reactance X0 (p.u.) Direct axis short circuit transient time constant T d (s) Direct axis open circuit transient time constant T do (s) Direct axis short circuit sub-transient- time constant Td (s) Direct axis open circuit sub-transient time constant Tdo(s) Quadrature axis short circuit sub-transient time constant Tq (s) Quadrature axis open circuit sub-transient time constant Tqo (s) Table 5.1: Typical synchronous generator parameters

Salient pole synchronous condensers 0.5-0.7 1.6-2.0 1.0-1.23 0.3-0.5 0.2-0.4 0.25-0.6 0.25-0.5 0.12-0.16 1.5-2.5 5-10 0.04-0.9 0.07-0.11 0.04-0.6 0.1-0.2 1.0-1.2 0.8-1.0 0.5-0.65 0.2-0.35 0.12-0.25 0.15-0.25 0.14-0.35 0.06-0.10 1.0-2.0 3-7 0.05-0.10 0.08-0.25 0.05-0.6 0.2-0.9

NB all reactance values are unsaturated.

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noting that XL normally changes in sympathy with Xad, but that it is completely overshadowed by it. The value 1/Xd has a special significance as it approximates to the short circuit ratio (S.C.R.), the only difference being that the S.C.R. takes saturation into account whereas Xd is derived from the air-gap line. 5.8.2 Transient Reactance Xd = XL + Xf The transient reactance covers the behaviour of a machine in the period 0.1-3.0 seconds after a disturbance. This generally corresponds to the speed of changes in a system and therefore Xd has a major influence in transient stability studies.

rise to parasitic currents and heating; most machines are quite limited in the amount of such current which they are able to carry, both in the steady state and transiently. An accurate calculation of the negative sequence current capability of a generator involves consideration of the current paths in the rotor body. In a turbine generator rotor, for instance, they include the solid rotor body, slot wedges, excitation winding and end-winding retaining rings. There is a tendency for local over-heating to occur and, although possible for the stator, continuous local temperature measurement is not practical in the rotor. Calculation requires complex mathematical techniques to be applied, and involves specialist software. In practice an empirical method is used, based on the fact that a given type of machine is capable of carrying, for short periods, an amount of heat determined by its thermal capacity, and for a long period, a rate of heat input which it can dissipate continuously. Synchronous machines are designed to be capable of operating continuously on an unbalanced system such that, with none of the phase currents exceeding the rated current, the ratio of the negative sequence current I2 to the rated current IN does not exceed the values given in Table 5.2. Under fault conditions, the machine shall also be capable 2 I 2 and time in of operation with the product of IN seconds (t) not exceeding the values given.

Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

Generally, the leakage reactance XL is equal to the effective field leakage reactance Xf, about 0.1-0.25p.u. The principal factor determining the value of Xf is the field leakage. This is largely beyond the control of the designer, in that other considerations are at present more significant than field leakage and hence take precedence in determining the field design. XL can be varied as already outlined, and, in practice, control of transient reactance is usually achieved by varying XL 5.8.3 Sub-transient Reactance Xd = XL + Xkd The sub-transient reactance determines the initial current peaks following a disturbance and in the case of a sudden fault is of importance for selecting the breaking capacity of associated circuit breakers. The mechanical stresses on the machine reach maximum values that depend on this constant. The effective damper winding leakage reactance Xkd is largely determined by the leakage of the damper windings and control of this is only possible to a limited extent. Xkd normally has a value between 0.05 and 0.15 p.u. The major factor is XL which, as indicated previously, is of the order of 0.1-0.25 p.u., and control of the sub-transient reactance is normally achieved by varying XL. It should be noted that good transient stability is obtained by keeping the value of Xd low, which therefore also implies a low value of Xd. The fault rating of switchgear, etc. will therefore be relatively high. It is not normally possible to improve transient stability performance in a generator without adverse effects on fault levels, and vice versa. 5 . 9 N E G AT I V E S E Q U E N C E R E A C TA N C E

Rotor construction

Rotor Cooling

Machine Type (SN) /Rating (MVA)

Maximum Maximum I2/IN for (I2/IN)2t for continuous operation during operation faults 0.1 0.08 0.1 0.08 0.05 0.08 0.1 0.1 0.08 Note 1 Note 1 0.05 20 20 20 15 15 15 15 10 8 Note 2 5 5

Salient

Cylindrical

motors generators indirect synchronous condensers motors generators direct synchronous condensers indirectly cooled (air) all indirectly cooled (hydrogen) all <=350 351-900 directly cooled 901-1250 1251-1600 I2 S -350 = 0.08- N IN 3 x 104

Note 1: Calculate as

Negative sequence currents can arise whenever there is any unbalance present in the system. Their effect is to set up a field rotating in the opposite direction to the main field generated by the rotor winding, so subjecting the rotor to double frequency flux pulsations. This gives

Note 2: Calculate as

()

I2 2 t = 8-0.00545(SN-350) IN

Table 5.2: Unbalanced operating conditions for synchronous machines (from IEC 60034-1)

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5 . 10 Z E R O S E Q U E N C E R E A C TA N C E If a machine is operating with an earthed neutral, a system earth fault will give rise to zero sequence currents in the machine. This reactance represents the machine's contribution to the total impedance offered to these currents. In practice it is generally low and often outweighed by other impedances present in the circuit. 5.11 DIRECT AND QUADRATURE AXIS VALUES The transient reactance is associated with the field winding and since on salient pole machines this is concentrated on the direct axis, there is no corresponding quadrature axis value. The value of reactance applicable in the quadrature axis is the synchronous reactance, that is, Xq = Xq. The damper winding (or its equivalent) is more widely spread and hence the sub-transient reactance associated with this has a definite quadrature axis value Xq, which differs significantly in many generators from Xd. 5.12 EFFECT OF SATURATION ON MACHINE REACTANCES In general, any electrical machine is designed to avoid severe saturation of its magnetic circuit. However, it is not economically possible to operate at such low flux densities as to reduce saturation to negligible proportions, and in practice a moderate degree of saturation is accepted. Since the armature reaction reactance Xad is a ratio ATar /ATe it is evident that ATe will not vary in a linear manner for different voltages, while ATar will remain unchanged. The value of Xad will vary with the degree of saturation present in the machine, and for extreme accuracy should be determined for the particular conditions involved in any calculation. All the other reactances, namely XL , Xd and Xd are true reactances and actually arise from flux leakage. Much of this leakage occurs in the iron parts of the machines and hence must be affected by saturation. For a given set of conditions, the leakage flux exists as a result of the net m.m.f. which causes it. If the iron circuit is unsaturated its reactance is low and leakage flux is easily established. If the circuits are highly saturated the reverse is true and the leakage flux is relatively lower, so the reactance under saturated conditions is lower than when unsaturated. Most calculation methods assume infinite iron permeability and for this reason lead to somewhat idealised unsaturated reactance values. The recognition of a finite and varying permeability makes a solution extremely laborious and in practice a simple factor of approximately 0.9 is taken as representing the reduction in reactance arising from saturation.

It is necessary to distinguish which value of reactance is being measured when on test. The normal instantaneous short circuit test carried out from rated open circuit voltage gives a current that is usually several times full load value, so that saturation is present and the reactance measured will be the saturated value. This value is also known as the 'rated voltage' value since it is measured by a short circuit applied with the machine excited to rated voltage. In some cases, if it is wished to avoid the severe mechanical strain to which a machine is subjected by such a direct short circuit, the test may be made from a suitably reduced voltage so that the initial current is approximately full load value. Saturation is very much reduced and the reactance values measured are virtually unsaturated values. They are also known as 'rated current' values, for obvious reasons. 5.13 TRANSFORMERS A transformer may be replaced in a power system by an equivalent circuit representing the self-impedance of, and the mutual coupling between, the windings. A twowinding transformer can be simply represented as a 'T' network in which the cross member is the short-circuit impedance, and the column the excitation impedance. It is rarely necessary in fault studies to consider excitation impedance as this is usually many times the magnitude of the short-circuit impedance. With these simplifying assumptions a three-winding transformer becomes a star of three impedances and a four-winding transformer a mesh of six impedances. The impedances of a transformer, in common with other plant, can be given in ohms and qualified by a base voltage, or in per unit or percentage terms and qualified by a base MVA. Care should be taken with multiwinding transformers to refer all impedances to a common base MVA or to state the base on which each is given. The impedances of static apparatus are independent of the phase sequence of the applied voltage; in consequence, transformer negative sequence and positive sequence impedances are identical. In determining the impedance to zero phase sequence currents, account must be taken of the winding connections, earthing, and, in some cases, the construction type. The existence of a path for zero sequence currents implies a fault to earth and a flow of balancing currents in the windings of the transformer. Practical three-phase transformers may have a phase shift between primary and secondary windings depending on the connections of the windings delta or star. The phase shift that occurs is generally of no significance in fault level calculations as all phases are shifted equally. It is therefore ignored. It is normal to find delta-star transformers at the transmitting end of a
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transmission system and in distribution systems for the following reasons: a. at the transmitting end, a higher step-up voltage ratio is possible than with other winding arrangements, while the insulation to ground of the star secondary winding does not increase by the same ratio b. in distribution systems, the star winding allows a neutral connection to be made, which may be important in considering system earthing arrangements c. the delta winding allows circulation of zero sequence currents within the delta, thus preventing transmission of these from the secondary (star) winding into the primary circuit. This simplifies protection considerations 5.14 TRANSFORMER POSITIVE SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS The transformer is a relatively simple device. However, the equivalent circuits for fault calculations need not necessarily be quite so simple, especially where earth faults are concerned. The following two sections discuss the equivalent circuits of various types of transformers.

transformer may be represented by Figure 5.10(b). The circuit in Figure 5.10(b) is similar to that shown in Figure 3.14(a), and can therefore be replaced by an equivalent 'T ' as shown in Figure 5.10(c) where: Z1 = Z11 Z12 Z2 = Z22 Z12 Z3 = Z12

Equation 5.5

Z1 is described as the leakage impedance of winding AA' and Z2 the leakage impedance of winding BB'. Impedance Z3 is the mutual impedance between the windings, usually represented by XM, the magnetizing reactance paralleled with the hysteresis and eddy current loops as shown in Figure 5.10(d). If the secondary of the transformers is short-circuited, and Z3 is assumed to be large with respect to Z1 and Z2, then the short-circuit impedance viewed from the terminals AA is ZT = Z1 + Z2 and the transformer can be replaced by a two-terminal equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 5.10(e). The relative magnitudes of ZT and XM are of the order of 10% and 2000% respectively. ZT and XM rarely have to be considered together, so that the transformer may be represented either as a series impedance or as an excitation impedance, according to the problem being studied. A typical power transformer is illustrated in Figure 5.11. 5.14.2 Three-winding Transformers If excitation impedance is neglected the equivalent circuit of a three-winding transformer may be represented by a star of impedances, as shown in Figure 5.12, where P, T and S are the primary, tertiary and secondary windings respectively. The impedance of any of these branches can be determined by considering the short-circuit impedance between pairs of windings with the third open.
S

Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

5.14.1 Two-winding Transformers The two-winding transformer has four terminals, but in most system problems, two-terminal or three-terminal equivalent circuits as shown in Figure 5.10 can represent it. In Figure 5.10(a), terminals A' and B' are assumed to be at the same potential. Hence if the per unit selfimpedances of the windings are Z11 and Z22 respectively and the mutual impedance between them Z12, the
A Z11 A' Z12 Z22 B

A E

B C
Load

~
A'

B' C '

(a) Model of transformer Z1 =Z11-Z12 Z2=Z22-Z12 A B Z3=Z12 A' Zero bus (c) 'T' equivalent circuit A A' B'

B' Zero bus (b) Equivalent circuit of model r2+jx2 r1+jx1 A B R jXM B'

Zs Zp

Secondary Primary Tertiary

A'

Zero bus (d) '' equivalent circuit B

ZT =Z1+Z2

Zt

B' Zero bus (e) Equivalent circuit: secondary winding s/c Figure 5.10: Equivalent circuits for a two-winding transformer

T Zero bus Figure 5.12: Equivalent circuit for a three-winding transformer

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Figure 5.11: Modern large transformer

5.15 TRANSFORMER ZERO SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS The flow of zero sequence currents in a transformer is only possible when the transformer forms part of a closed loop for uni-directional currents and ampere-turn balance is maintained between windings. The positive sequence equivalent circuit is still maintained to represent the transformer, but now there are certain conditions attached to its connection into the external circuit. The order of excitation impedance is very much lower than for the positive sequence circuit; it will be roughly between 1 and 4 per unit, but still high enough to be neglected in most fault studies. The mode of connection of a transformer to the external circuit is determined by taking account of each winding arrangement and its connection or otherwise to ground. If zero sequence currents can flow into and out of a winding, the winding terminal is connected to the external circuit (that is, link a is closed in Figure 5.13). If zero sequence currents can circulate in the winding without flowing in the external circuit, the winding terminal is connected directly to the zero bus (that is, link b is closed in Figure 5.13). Table 5.3 gives the zero sequence connections of some common two- and threewinding transformer arrangements applying the above rules.
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The exceptions to the general rule of neglecting magnetising impedance occur when the transformer is star/star and either or both neutrals are earthed. In these circumstances the transformer is connected to the zero bus through the magnetising impedance. Where a three-phase transformer bank is arranged without interlinking magnetic flux (that is a three-phase shell type, or three single-phase units) and provided there is a path for zero sequence currents, the zero sequence impedance is equal to the positive sequence impedance. In the case of three-phase core type units, the zero sequence fluxes produced by zero sequence currents can find a high reluctance path, the effect being to reduce the zero sequence impedance to about 90% of the positive sequence impedance. However, in hand calculations, it is usual to ignore this variation and consider the positive and zero sequence impedances to be equal. It is common when using software to perform fault calculations to enter a value of zero-sequence impedance in accordance with the above guidelines, if the manufacturer is unable to provide a value.

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Connections and zero phase sequence currents a

Zero phase sequence network

ZT b Zero bus b a

a b

ZT b Zero bus

a b

ZT b Zero bus

Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

a b

ZT b Zero bus

a b

ZT b Zero bus

a b

ZT b Zero bus

Zero bus

ZT

Zs a b Zero bus Zs Zp a Zt a b b

a b

Zp Zero bus

a Zt a b b

Zs a b Zero bus Zs a b Zero bus Zs a b Zero bus Table 5.3: Zero sequence equivalent circuit connections
58 Network Protection & Automation Guide

Zp

a Zt a b b

Zp

a Zt a b b

Zp

a Zt a b b

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5 . 1 6 A U TO - T R A N S F O R M E R S The auto-transformer is characterised by a single continuous winding, part of which is shared by both the high and low voltage circuits, as shown in Figure 5.14(a). The 'common' winding is the winding between the low voltage terminals whereas the remainder of the winding, belonging exclusively to the high voltage circuit, is designated the 'series' winding, and, combined with the 'common' winding, forms the 'series-common' winding between the high voltage terminals. The advantage of using an auto-transformer as opposed to a two-winding transformer is that the auto-transformer is smaller and lighter for a given rating. The disadvantage is that galvanic isolation between the two windings does not exist, giving rise to the possibility of large overvoltages on the lower voltage system in the event of major insulation breakdown. Three-phase auto-transformer banks generally have star connected main windings, the neutral of which is normally connected solidly to earth. In addition, it is common practice to include a third winding connected in delta called the tertiary winding, as shown in Figure 5.14(b).
b a

ZT 2

ZT 2

Ze

Zero potential bus (a) Two windings

Zp

Zt

Ze b Zero potential bus (b) Three windings b

5.16.1 Positive Sequence Equivalent Circuit The positive sequence equivalent circuit of a three-phase auto-transformer bank is the same as that of a two- or three-winding transformer. The star equivalent for a three-winding transformer, for example, is obtained in the same manner, with the difference that the impedances between windings are designated as follows: 1 (Z scc + Zct Z sct ) 2 1 Z H = (Z scc + Z sct Zct ) 2 1 ZT = (Z sct + Zct Z scc ) 2 ZL =

Figure 5.13: Zero sequence equivalent circuits

IH
H

H T

IH IL L

L IL IL-IH N ZN IT

VH

IL-IH VL

IN

Equation 5.8

where: Zsc-t = impedance between 'series common' and tertiary windings Zsc-c = impedance between 'series common' and 'common' windings Zsc-t = impedance between 'common' and tertiary windings When no load is connected to the delta tertiary, the point T will be open-circuited and the short-circuit impedance of the transformer becomes ZL + ZH = Zsc-c , that is, similar to the equivalent circuit of a two-winding transformer, with magnetising impedance neglected; see Figure 5.14(c).

IH N IL (a) Circuit diagram ZH L IL1 ZT IT1 ZL

(b) Circuit diagram with tertiary winding ZX IH1 H L IL0 ZY ZZ IT0 Zero potential bus (d) Zero sequence equivalent circuit IH0 ZHT T IT0 H IH0 T

T (c) Positive sequence impedance IL0 ZLT

ZLH

Zero potential bus (e) Equivalent circuit with isolated neutral

Figure 5.14: Equivalent circuit of auto-transformer

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5.16.2 Zero Sequence Equivalent Circuit The zero sequence equivalent circuit is derived in a similar manner to the positive sequence circuit, except that, as there is no identity for the neutral point, the current in the neutral and the neutral voltage cannot be given directly. Furthermore, in deriving the branch impedances, account must be taken of an impedance in the neutral Zn, as shown in the following equations, where Zx, Zy and Zz are the impedances of the low, high and tertiary windings respectively and N is the ratio between the series and common windings. N ( N +1) N Z y = Z H 3 Zn ( N +1)2 1 Z z = ZT +3 Zn ( N +1) Z x = Z L +3 Zn

With the equivalent delta replacing the star impedances in the auto-transformer zero sequence equivalent circuit the transformer can be combined with the system impedances in the usual manner to obtain the system zero sequence diagram. 5.17 TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCES In the vast majority of fault calculations, the Protection Engineer is only concerned with the transformer leakage impedance; the magnetising impedance is neglected, as it is very much higher. Impedances for transformers rated 200MVA or less are given in IEC 60076 and repeated in Table 5.4, together with an indication of X/R values (not part of IEC 60076). These impedances are commonly used for transformers installed in industrial plants. Some variation is possible to assist in controlling fault levels or motor starting, and typically up to 10% variation on the impedance values given in the table is possible without incurring a significant cost penalty. For these transformers, the tapping range is small, and the variation of impedance with tap position is normally neglected in fault level calculations. For transformers used in electricity distribution networks, the situation is more complex, due to an increasing trend to assign importance to the standing (or no-load) losses represented by the magnetising impedance. This can be adjusted at the design stage but there is often an impact on the leakage reactance in consequence. In addition, it may be more important to control fault levels on the LV side than to improve motor starting voltage drops. Therefore, departures from the IEC 60076 values are commonplace. IEC 60076 does not make recommendations of nominal impedance in respect of transformers rated over 200MVA, while generator transformers and a.c. traction supply transformers have impedances that are usually specified as a result of Power Systems Studies to ensure satisfactory performance. Typical values of transformer impedances covering a variety of transformer designs are given in Tables 5.5 5.9. Where appropriate, they include an indication of the impedance variation at the extremes of the taps given. Transformers designed to work at 60Hz will have substantially the same impedance as their 50Hz counterparts.
MVA <0.630 0.631-1.25 1.251 - 3.15 3.151 - 6.3 6.301-12.5 12.501- 25.0 25.001 - 200 >200 Z% HV/LV 4.00 5.00 6.25 7.15 8.35 10.00 12.50 X/R 1.5 3.5 6.0 8.5 13.0 20.0 45.0 by agreement Tolerance on Z% 10 10 10 10 10 7.5 7.5

Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

Equation 5.9

Figure 5.14(d) shows the equivalent circuit of the transformer bank. Currents ILO and IHO are those circulating in the low and high voltage circuits respectively. The difference between these currents, expressed in amperes, is the current in the common winding. The current in the neutral impedance is three times the current in the common winding.

5.16.3 Special Conditions of Neutral Earthing With a solidly grounded neutral, Zn = O, the branch impedances Zx, Zy , Zz, become ZL, ZH, ZT, that is, identical to the corresponding positive sequence equivalent circuit, except that the equivalent impedance ZT of the delta tertiary is connected to the zero potential bus in the zero sequence network. When the neutral is ungrounded Zn = and the impedances of the equivalent star also become infinite because there are apparently no paths for zero sequence currents between the windings, although a physical circuit exists and ampere-turn balance can be obtained. A solution is to use an equivalent delta circuit (see Figure 5.14(e)), and evaluate the elements of the delta directly from the actual circuit. The method requires three equations corresponding to three assumed operating conditions. Solving these equations will relate the delta impedances to the impedance between the series and tertiary windings, as follows: Z LH = Z st N2 (1 + N ) Z LT = Z st N N Z HT = Z st (1 + N )

Table 5.4: Transformer impedances - IEC 60076 Equation 5.10

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MVA 7.5 7.5 8 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 12 12 12 15 15 16 16 16 19 30

Primary 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 66 66 33 33 33 33 33

Primary Taps +5.72% -17.16% +5.72% -17.16% +5.72% -17.16% +5.72% -17.16% +5.72% -17.16% +5.72% -17.16% +5.72% -17.16% +4.5% -18% +5% -15% 10% 10% +9% -15% +9% -15% 10% +5.72% -17.16% +5.72% -17.16% +5.72% -17.16% +5.72% -17.16%

Secondary kV 11 11 11 6.6 6.6 11 11 6.6 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11 6.6 11 11

Z% HV/LV 7.5 7.5 8 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 12 12 12 15 15 16 16 16 19 30

X/R ratio 15 17 9 24 24 24 26 24 27 27 25 14 16 16 30 31 37 40

MVA 24 30 30 30 30 40 45 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 65 90 90

Primary kV 33 33 132 132 132 132 132 132 132 132 132 132 132 132 140 132 132

Primary Taps 10% +5.72% -17.16% +10% -20% +10% -20% +10% -20% +10% -20% +10% -20% +10% -20% +10% -20% +10% -20% +10% -20% +10% -20% +9.3% -24% +9.3% -24% +7.5% -15% +10% -20% +10% -20%

Secondary kV 6.9 11 11 11 11 11 33 33 33 33 66 11/11 11/11 11/11 11 33 66

Z% HV/LV 24 30 21.3 25 23.5 27.9 11.8 16.7 17.7 14.5 11 35.5 36 35.9 12.3 24.4 15.1

X/R ratio 25 40 43 30 46 37 18 28 26 25 25 52 75 78 28 60 41

Table 5.5: Impedances of two winding distribution transformers Primary voltage <200kV

MVA 20 20 57 74 79.2 120 125 125 180 255

Primary kV 220 230 275 345 220 275 230 230 275 230

Primary Taps +12.5% -7.5% +12.5% -7.5% 10% +14.4% -10% +10% -15% +10% -15% 16.8% not known 15% +10%

Secondary kV 6.9 6.9 11.8 96 11.6 34.5 66 150 66 16.5

Tertiary kV 7.2 12 11 13 -

Z% HV/LV 9.9 10-14 18.2 8.9 18.9 22.5 13.1 10-14 22.2 14.8

X/R ratio 18 13 34 25 35 63 52 22 38 43

MVA 95 140 141 151 167 180 180 247 250 290 307 346 420 437.8 450 600 716 721 736 900

Primary kV 132 157.5 400 236 145 289 132 432 300 420 432 435 432 144.1 132 420 525 362 245 525

Primary Taps

Secondary kV

Z% HV/LV 13.5 12.7 14.7 13.6 25.7 13.4 13.8 15.2 28.6 15.7 15.3 16.4 16 14.6 14 16.2 15.7 15.2 15.5 15.7

X/R ratio 46 41 57 47 71 34 40 61 70 43 67 81 87 50 49 74 61 83 73 67

Table 5.6: Impedances of two winding distribution transformers Primary voltage >200kV

MVA 100 180 240 240 240 250 500 750 1000 1000 333.3

Primary Primary Secondary Secondary Tertiary Z% kV Taps kV Taps kV HV/LV 66 33 10.7 275 132 15% 13 15.5 400 132 +15% -5% 13 20.2 400 132 +15% -5% 13 20.0 400 132 +15% -5% 13 20.0 400 132 +15% -5% 13 10-13 400 132 +0% -15% 22 14.3 400 275 13 12.1 400 275 13 15.8 400 275 33 17.0 5003 10% 2303 22 18.2

X/R ratio 28 55 83 51 61 50 51 90 89 91 101

10% 11 10% 11.5 5% 15 5% 15 +7.5% -16.5% 15 5% 16 10% 15 +3.75% -16.25% 15.5 +11.2% -17.6% 15 10% 15 +3.75% -16.25% 15.5 +5% -15% 17.5 +5.55% -14.45% 22 +10.8% -21.6% 21 10% 19 11.25% 21 10% 19 +6.25% -13.75% 22 +7% -13% 22 +7% -13% 23 (a) Three-phase units

MVA/ phase 266.7 266.7 277 375 375

Table 5.8: Autotransformer data

Primary Primary Secondary kV Taps kV 432/3 +6.67% -13.33% 23.5 432/3 +6.6% -13.4% 23.5 515/3 5% 22 525/3 +6.66% -13.32% 26 420/3 +6.66% -13.32% 26 (b) Single-phase units

Z% HV/LV 15.8 15.7 16.9 15 15.1

X/R ratio 92 79 105 118 112

Table 5.7: Impedances of generator transformers

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5.18 OVERHEAD LINES AND CABLES In this section a description of common overhead lines and cable systems is given, together with tables of their important characteristics. The formulae for calculating the characteristics are developed to give a basic idea of the factors involved, and to enable calculations to be made for systems other than those tabulated. A transmission circuit may be represented by an equivalent or T network using lumped constants as shown in Figure 5.15. Z is the total series impedance (R + jX)L and Y is the total shunt admittance (G + jB)L, where L is the circuit length. The terms inside the brackets in Figure 5.15 are correction factors that allow for the fact that in the actual circuit the parameters are distributed over the whole length of the circuit and not lumped, as in the equivalent circuits. With short lines it is usually possible to ignore the shunt admittance, which greatly simplifies calculations, but on longer lines it must be included. Another simplification that can be made is that of assuming the conductor configuration to be symmetrical. The self-impedance of each conductor becomes Zp , and the mutual impedance
R G B X R G B X

between conductors becomes Zm. However, for rigorous calculations a detailed treatment is necessary, with account being taken of the spacing of a conductor in relation to its neighbour and earth. 5 . 1 9 C A L C U L AT I O N O F S E R I E S I M P E D A N C E The self impedance of a conductor with an earth return and the mutual impedance between two parallel conductors with a common earth return are given by the Carson equations: De dc Equation 5.11 De Zm = 0.000988 f + j0.0029 f log10 D Z p = R +0.000988 f + j0.0029 f log10 where: R = conductor a.c. resistance (ohms/km) dc = geometric mean radius of a single conductor D = spacing between the parallel conductors f = system frequency De = equivalent spacing of the earth return path

Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

= 216p/f where p is earth resistivity (ohms/cm3)

The above formulae give the impedances in ohms/km. It should be noted that the last terms in Equation 5.11 are very similar to the classical inductance formulae for long straight conductors. The geometric means radius (GMR) of a conductor is an equivalent radius that allows the inductance formula to be reduced to a single term. It arises because the inductance of a solid conductor is a function of the internal flux linkages in addition to those external to it. If the original conductor can be replaced by an equivalent that is a hollow cylinder with infinitesimally thin walls, the current is confined to the surface of the conductor, and there can be no internal flux. The geometric mean radius is the radius of the equivalent conductor. If the original conductor is a solid cylinder having a radius r its equivalent has a radius of 0.779r. It can be shown that the sequence impedances for a symmetrical three-phase circuit are: Z1 = Z2 = Z p Zm Zo = Z p +2 Zm

Series impedance Z = R + jX per unit length Shunt admittance Y = G + jB per unit length (a) Actual transmission circuit

sinh ZY Z ZY
Y 2

Y 2

tanh ZY 2 ZY 2
(b) Equivalent

tanh ZY 2 ZY 2

5
Z 2

tanh ZY 2 ZY 2

Z 2

tanh ZY 2 ZY 2

sinh ZY Y ZY
(c) T Equivalent

Equation 5.12

Note: Z and Y in (b) and (c) are the total series impedance and shunt admittance respectively. Z=(R+jX)L and Y=(G+jB)L where L is the circuit length.
sinh ZY ZY tanh ZY = 1=1+ ZY 6 ZY 12 + + Z2Y2 120 Z2Y2 120 + + Z3Y3 5040 17Z3Y3 20160 + ... + ...

where Zp and Zm are given by Equation 5.11. Substituting Equation 5.11 in Equation 5.12 gives: Z1 = Z2 = R + j0.0029 f log10 D dc
3

ZY

Zo = R +0.00296 f + j0.00869 f log10

De dcD 2
Equation 5.13

Figure 5.15: Transmission circuit equivalents

62

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In the formula for Z0 the expression dcD2 is the geometric mean radius of the conductor group. Where the circuit is not symmetrical, the usual case, symmetry can be maintained by transposing the conductors so that each conductor is in each phase position for one third of the circuit length. If A, B and C are the spacings between conductors bc, ca and ab then D in the above equations becomes the geometric mean 3 distance between conductors, equal to ABC.
3

D a b

Conductor Radius r h

Writing Dc = the sequence impedances in ohms/km at 50Hz become:

3

D'

dcD2,

Earth

5 . 2 0 C A L C U L AT I O N O F S H U N T I M P E D A N C E It can be shown that the potential of a conductor a above ground due to its own charge qa and a charge -qa on its image is: Va = 2 qaloge 2h r

a' Figure 5.16 Geometry of two parallel conductors a and b and the image of a (a')

Equation 5.15

where h is the height above ground of the conductor and r is the radius of the conductor, as shown in Figure 5.16. Similarly, it can be shown that the potential of a conductor a due to a charge qb on a neighbouring conductor b and the charge -qb on its image is:
' = 2 qbloge Va

to the conductor spacing, which is the case with overhead lines, 2h=D. From Equation 5.12, the sequence impedances of a symmetrical three-phase circuit are: Z1 = Z2 = j0.132 log10 Zo = j0.396 log10 D r D' rD 2

D' D

Equation 5.16

Equation 5.18

where D is the spacing between conductors a and b and D is the spacing between conductor b and the image of conductor a as shown in Figure 5.14. Since the capacitance C=q/V and the capacitive reactance Xc =1/C, it follows that the self and mutual capacitive reactance of the conductor system in Figure 5.16 can be obtained directly from Equations 5.15 and 5.16. Further, as leakage can usually be neglected, the self and mutual shunt impedances Zp and Zm in megohm-km at a system frequency of 50Hz are: Z'p = j0.132 log10 2h r D' Z'm = j0.132 log10 D

It should be noted that the logarithmic terms above are similar to those in Equation 5.13 except that r is the actual radius of the conductors and D is the spacing between the conductors and their images. Again, where the conductors are not symmetrically spaced but transposed, Equation 5.18 can be re-written making use of the geometric mean distance between 3 conductors, ABC, and giving the distance of each conductor above ground, that is, ha , h2 , hc , as follows: Z1 = Z2 = j0.132 log10 ABC r 8 ha hbhb Z0 = j0.132 log10 r 3 A2 B2C 2 Equation 5.19
3

Equation 5.17

Where the distances above ground are great in relation

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ABC dc De Zo = ( R +0.148 ) + j0.434 log10 Dc Equation 5.14 Z1 = Z2 = R + j0.145 log10

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3.80

0.50 A 6.0
U n (kV) 3.3 6.6 11 22 33 a (m)

A A=3.5m

0.55 0.67 0.8 1 1.25

R2 R1 W X Y Single circuit Un= 63kV/66kV/90kV Single circuit Un= 90kV

Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

Single circuit

1.75 - K 2.00 - N

3.30 6.6 2 2 a 2.50 2.70 2.50 3.30 d

a b a
a b 3.7 3.8 c 3.0 d 1.4

4.00

3.50

2.8 3.5

2.8 3.5 a
U n (kV) a (m)

Un(kV) a (m)

63 kV(K) 3.0 90 kV (N) 3.1

3.50

3.8 1.85

63 66

1.40 1.40 1.85

R1 W Y Single circuit Un= 63kV/90kV

63 90

1.4 1.85

R1 W Y Double circuit Un= 63kV/90kV 3.0 3.0

90

Double circuit Un= 63kV/66kV/90kV

5
6.60 2 2 2.75 2.75

3.4 a 4.1 b 3.7 3.10 a 4.2

a=3.7m b=4.6m

6.20 3.9 3.9 5.80 4.2 8.0 8.0

R1 W Y Single circuit Un= 110kV

R1 W Y Double circuit Un= 138kV Double circuit Un= 170kV

Figure 5.17: Typical OHL configurations (not to scale)

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8.45 12.2 1.75 5.0 5.0 a 16.4 6.0 b 6.0 c

a b c d

2.5 d 7.5 p 7.50 n1

A 3.5 3.8 4.1 2.8 B 4.2 4.5 4.8 2.8 C 4.2 4.5 4.8 2.8

5.20

n2 n
n 9.5 9.8 n1 n2 p 6.3 6.3

R1 W X
Y

R2 R1 W X Single circuit Un= 245kV

5.0 4.5 5.0 4.8

Double circuit Un= 245kV

Double circuit Un= 245kV

9.74

25.1 7.0 8.5 6.7 11.3 8.5 7.7 R1 7.8 7.8 W X 8.5 7.4 32.4 8.5 7.4 6.7

2.40

9.2

R1 W X Single circuit Un= 245kV

Double circuit Un= 420kV

Double circuit Un= 420kV

7.5
0

20.0
0

10.0 8.0 9.5 9.5 9.5 8.0 12.0 5.0

0 0 0

12.0

16.0 23.0

37.0

Single circuit Un= 550kV

Double circuit Un= 550kV

Single circuit Un= 800kV

Figure 5.17(cont): Typical OHL configurations (not to scale)

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5 . 21 O V E R H E A D L I N E C I R C U I T S WITH OR WITHOUT EARTH WIRES Typical configurations of overhead line circuits are given in Figure 5.17. Tower heights are not given as they vary considerably according to the design span and nature of the ground. As indicated in some of the tower outlines, some tower designs are designed with a number of base extensions for this purpose. Figure 5.18 shows a typical tower.

In some cases, the phase conductors are not symmetrically disposed to each other and therefore, as previously indicated, electrostatic and electromagnetic unbalance will result, which can be largely eliminated by transposition. Modern practice is to build overhead lines without transposition towers to reduce costs; this must be taken into account in rigorous calculations of the unbalances. In other cases, lines are formed of bundled conductors, that is conductors formed of two, three or four separate conductors. This arrangement minimises losses when voltages of 220kV and above are involved. It should be noted that the line configuration and conductor spacings are influenced, not only by voltage, but also by many other factors including type of insulators, type of support, span length, conductor sag and the nature of terrain and external climatic loadings. Therefore, there can be large variations in spacings between different line designs for the same voltage level, so those depicted in Figure 5.17 are only typical examples. When calculating the phase self and mutual impedances, Equations 5.11 and 5.17 may be used, but it should be remembered that in this case Zp is calculated for each conductor and Zm for each pair of conductors. This section is not, therefore, intended to give a detailed analysis, but rather to show the general method of formulating the equations, taking the calculation of series impedance as an example and assuming a single circuit line with a single earth wire. The phase voltage drops Va,Vb,Vb of a single circuit line with a single earth wire due to currents Ia, Ib, Ib flowing in the phases and Ie in the earth wire are: Va = Zaa I a + Zab I b + Zac I c + Zae I e Vb = Zba I a + Zbb I b + Zbc I c + Zbe I e Vc = Zca I a + Zcb I b + Zcc I c + Zce I e 0 = Zea I a + Zeb I b + Z ec I c + Zee I e

Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant 5

Equation 5.20

where: Zaa = R +0.000988 f + j0.0029 f log10 Zab = 0.000988 f + j0.0029 f log10 and so on. The equation required for the calculation of shunt voltage drops is identical to Equation 5.20 in form, except that primes must be included, the impedances being derived from Equation 5.17.
Figure 5.18: Typical overhead line tower

De dc

De D

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Sequence impedance Z00 = (Z00) Z11 = Z22 = (Z11) (Z00 =Z00) Z01 = Z20 = (Z01 = Z20) Z02 = Z10 = (Z02 = Z10) Z12 = (Z12) Z21 = (Z21) (Z11=Z11 = Z22 = Z22) (Z02 = Z02 = Z10 = Z10) (Z02 = Z02 = Z10 = Z10 (Z12 = Z12) (Z21 = Z21)

132kV Single circuit line (400 mm2) 1.0782 7354 0.3947 7854 0.0116 -16652 58 0.0255 -409 0.0256 -1391 -

380kV Single circuit line (400 mm2) 0.8227 7036 0.3712 7557 0.0094 -3928 0.0153 2853 0.0275 14726 0.0275 2729 -

132kV Double circuit line (200 mm2) 1.1838 716 6619 0.6334 712 0.0257 -6325 0.0197 -9458 0.0276 16117 0.0277 3713 0.0114 886 0.0140 -9344 0.0150 -4411 0.0103 14510 0.0106 3056

275kV Double circuit line (400 mm2) 0.9520 7646 0.3354 7435 0.5219 7543 0.0241 -7214 0.0217 -10020 0.0281 14946 0.0282 296 0.0129 8844 0.0185 -9116 0.0173 -772 0.0101 14920 0.0102 2731

Table 5.10: Sequence self and mutual impedances for various lines

From Equation 5.20 it can be seen that: Ie = Zea Z Z I a + eb I b + ec I c Zee Zee Zee

Making use of this relation, the self and mutual impedances of the phase conductors can be modified using the following formula: J nm = Znm For example: J aa = Zaa J ab = Zab and so on. So Equation 5.20 can be simplified while still taking account of the effect of the earth wire by deleting the fourth row and fourth column and substituting Jaa for Zaa, Jab for Zab , and so on, calculated using Equation 5.21. The single circuit line with a single earth wire can therefore be replaced by an equivalent single circuit line having phase self and mutual impedances Jaa , Jab and so on. It can be shown from the symmetrical component theory given in Chapter 4 that the sequence voltage drops of a general three-phase circuit are: V0 = Z00 I 0 + Z01 I1 + Z02 I 2 V1 = Z10 I 0 + Z11 I1 + Z12 I 2 V2 = Z20 I 0 + Z21 I1 + Z22 I 2
2 Zae Zee

Zne Zme Zee

Equation 5.21

Zae Zbe Zee

1 1 Z11 = ( J aa + J bb + J cc ) ( J ab + J bc + J ac ) 3 3 1 2 2 2 Z12 = ( J aa + a J bb + aJ cc ) + (aJ ab + a J ac + J bc ) 3 3 1 2 2 2 Z21 = ( J aa + aJ bb + a J cc ) + (a J ab + aJ ac + J bc ) 3 3 1 1 2 2 Z20 = ( J aa + a J bb + aJ cc ) (aJ ab + a J ac + J bc ) 3 3 1 1 Z10 = ( J aa + aJ bb + a 2 J cc ) (a 2 J ab + aJ ac + Jbc ) 3 3 Z22 = Z11 Z01 = Z20 Z02 = Z10 Z00 = 1 2 J aa + J bb + J cc ) + ( J ab + J bc + J ac ) ( 3 3
Equation 5.23

The development of these equations for double circuit lines with two earth wires is similar except that more terms are involved. The sequence mutual impedances are very small and can usually be neglected; this also applies for double circuit lines except for the mutual impedance between the zero sequence circuits, namely (ZOO = ZOO). Table 5.10 gives typical values of all sequence self and mutual impedances some single and double circuit lines with earth wires. All conductors are 400mm2 ACSR, except for the 132kV double circuit example where they are 200mm2. 5.22 OHL EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS Consider an earthed, infinite busbar source behind a length of transmission line as shown in Figure 5.19(a). An earth fault involving phase A is assumed to occur at F. If the driving voltage is E and the fault current is Ia
67

Equation 5.22

And, from Equation 5.20 modified as indicated above and Equation 5.22, the sequence impedances are:

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F Source Line C

~ ~ ~

distance relay applications because the phase and earth fault relays are set to measure Z2 and are compensated for the earth return impedance (Z0-Z1)/3. It is customary to quote the impedances of a transmission circuit in terms of Z1 and the ratio Z0/Z1 , since in this form they are most directly useful. By definition, the positive sequence impedance Z1 is a function of the conductor spacing and radius, whereas the Z0/Z1 ratio is dependent primarily on the level of earth resistivity . Further details may be found in Chapter 12. 5.23 CABLE CIRCUITS

E (a) Actual circuit S Ic Z1

F C

Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

3E

Ib

Z1
B

Ia

Z1
A

(Z0-Z )/3
E

(b) Equivalent circuit Figure 5.19: Three-phase equivalent of a transmission circuit

then the earth fault impedance is Ze . From symmetrical component theory (see Chapter 4): 3E Ia = Z1 + Z2 + Z0 thus 2 Z +Z Ze = 1 0 3

The basic formulae for calculating the series and shunt impedances of a transmission circuit, Equations 5.11 and 5.17 may be applied for evaluating cable parameters; since the conductor configuration is normally symmetrical GMD and GMR values can be used without risk of appreciable errors. However, the formulae must be modified by the inclusion of empirical factors to take account of sheath and screen effects. A useful general reference on cable formulae is given in reference [5.4]; more detailed information on particular types of cables should be obtained direct from the manufacturers. The equivalent circuit for determining the positive and negative sequence series impedances of a cable is shown in Figure 5.20. From this circuit it can be shown that: X2 Z1 = Z2 = Rc + Rs 2 cs 2 Rs + X s X2 + j X c X s 2 cs 2 Rs + X s

Equation 5.24

since, as shown, Z1 = Z2 for a transmission circuit. From Equations 5.12, Z1=Zp-Zm and ZO=Zp+2Zm. Thus, substituting these values in the above equation gives Ze=Zp. This relation is physically valid because Zp is the self-impedance of a single conductor with an earth return. Similarly, for a phase fault between phases B and C at F: 3E Ib = Ic = 2 Z1 _ where 3E is the voltage between phases and 2Z is the impedance of the fault loop. Making use of the above relations a transmission circuit may be represented, without any loss in generality, by the equivalent of Figure 5.19(b), where Z1 is the phase impedance to the fault and (Z0-Z1)/3 is the impedance of the earth path, there being no mutual impedance between the phases or between phase and earth. The equivalent is valid for single and double circuit lines except that for double circuit lines there is zero sequence mutual impedance, hence Z0=(Z00-Z00). The equivalent circuit of Figure 5.19(b) is valuable in
68

where Rc, Rs are the core and sheath (screen) resistances per unit length, Xc and Xs core and sheath (screen) reactances per unit length and Xcs the mutual reactance between core and sheath (screen) per unit length. Xcs is in general equal to Xs. The zero sequence series impedances are obtained directly using Equation 5.11 and account can be taken of the sheath in the same way as an earth wire in the case of an overhead line. The shunt capacitances of a sheathed cable can be calculated from the simple formula: 1 C = 0.0241 log d + 2 T d F / km

Equation 5.25

where d is the overall diameter for a round conductor, T core insulation thickness and permittivity of dielectric. When the conductors are oval or shaped, an equivalent

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diameter d may be used where d=(1/) x periphery of conductor. No simple formula exists for belted or unscreened cables, but an empirical formula that gives reasonable results is: C= 0.0555 F / km G

Equation 5.26

where G is a geometric factor which is a function of core and belt insulation thickness and overall conductor diameter.

Number of Strands 7 19 37 61 91 127 169 Solid

GMR 0.726r 0.758r 0.768r 0.772r 0.774r 0.776r 0.776r 0.779r

Table 5.11: GMR for stranded copper, aluminium and aluminium alloy conductors (r = conductor radius)

5 . 2 4 O V E R H E A D L I N E A N D C A B L E D ATA The following tables contain typical data on overhead lines and cables that can be used in conjunction with the various equations quoted in this text. It is not intended that this data should replace that supplied by manufacturers. Where the results of calculations are important, reliance should not be placed on the data in these Tables and data should be sourced directly from a manufacturer/supplier. At the conceptual design stage, initial selection of overhead line conductor size will be determined by four factors: a. maximum load to be carried in MVA b. length of line c. conductor material and hence maximum temperature d. cost of losses Table 5.21 gives indicative details of the capability of various sizes of overhead lines using the above factors, for AAAC and ACSR conductor materials. It is based on commonly used standards for voltage drop and ambient temperature. Since these factors may not be appropriate for any particular project, the Table should only be used as a guide for initial sizing, with appropriately detailed calculations carried out to arrive at a final proposal.
Number of Layers 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 Number of Al Strands 6 12 18 24 26 30 32 36 45 48 54 66 72 76 84 GMR 0.5r* 0.75r* 0.776r 0.803r 0.812r 0.826r 0.833r 0.778r 0.794r 0.799r 0.81r 0.827r 0.789r 0.793r 0.801r

* - Indicative values only, since GMR for single layer conductors is affected by cyclic magnetic flux, which depends on various factors.

Table 5.12: GMR for aluminium conductor steel reinforced (ACSR) (r = conductor radius)

Sheath circuit (s) Ic Xcs Per unit length Is Rs'Xs Per unit length V

Core circuit (c)

Rc'Xc Per unit length V is voltage per unit length

Figure 5.20: Equivalent circuit for determining positive or negative impedance of cables

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Stranding area (mm2) 10.6 21.2 26.7 33.6 42.4 53.5 67.4 85.0 107.2 126.6 152.0 177.3 202.7 228.0 253.3 278.7 304.3 329.3 354.7 380.0 405.3 456.0 506.7

Wire 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 19 19 19 19 37 37 37 37 61 61 61 61 61 61

Overall Diameter (mm) 1.38 1.96 2.20 7.00 2.77 3.12 3.50 3.93 4.42 2.91 3.19 3.45 3.69 2.80 2.95 3.10 3.23 2.62 2.72 2.82 2.91 3.09 3.25 (a) ASTM Standards Overall Diameter (mm) 3.73 4.06 4.22 1.63 4.52 4.90 5.46 6.40 2.64 2.95 3.45 9.45 4.22 2.95 4.90 5.46 3.33 (b) BS Standards

RDC Diameter (mm) 4.17 5.89 6.60 7.42 8.33 9.35 10.52 11.79 13.26 14.58 15.98 17.25 18.44 19.61 20.65 21.67 22.63 23.60 24.49 25.35 26.19 27.79 29.26

(20C) (Ohm/km) 1.734 0.865 0.686 0.544 0.431 0.342 0.271 0.215 0.171 0.144 0.120 0.103 0.090 0.080 0.072 0.066 0.060 0.056 0.052 0.048 0.045 0.040 0.036

Designation

Stranding and wire diameter (mm) Aluminium Steel 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 7 1 7 7 7 19 1 7 7 7 19 7 19 7 2.67 3 3.37 3.78 4.25 4.77 2 2.21 3.47 2.92 2.67 2.89 2.16 3.38 2.25 3.28 3.52 2.29 2.85 2.62 2.94

Total Approx. RDC area overall at 20 C 2 (mm ) diameter (Ohm/km) Aluminium Steel (mm) 33.6 42.4 53.5 67.4 85.0 107.2 135.2 152.0 170.5 201.4 241.7 282.0 306.6 322.3 402.8 456.1 523.7 565.0 644.5 805.7 1100.0 5.6 7.1 8.9 11.2 14.2 17.9 22.0 26.9 9.5 46.9 39.2 45.9 69.6 9.0 27.8 59.1 68.1 78.3 44.7 102.4 47.5 39.2 49.5 62.4 78.6 99.2 125.1 157.2 178.9 179.9 248.3 280.9 327.9 376.2 331.2 430.7 515.2 591.8 643.3 689.2 908.1 1147.5 8.01 9 10.11 11.34 12.75 14.31 16.28 17.28 17.35 20.44 21.79 23.55 25.24 23.62 27.03 29.52 31.68 33.35 34.17 39.26 44.07 0.854 0.677 0.536 0.426 0.337 0.268 0.214 0.191 0.169 0.144 0.120 0.103 0.095 0.089 0.072 0.064 0.055 0.051 0.045 0.036 0.027

Sectional area (mm2)

Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

Stranding area (mm2) 11.0 13.0 14.0 14.5 16.1 18.9 23.4 32.2 38.4 47.7 65.6 70.1 97.7 129.5 132.1 164.0 165.2

Wire 1 1 1 7 1 1 1 1 7 7 7 1 7 19 7 7 19

RDC Diameter (mm) 3.25 4.06 4.22 4.88 4.52 4.90 5.46 6.40 7.92 8.84 10.36 9.45 12.65 14.73 14.71 16.38 16.64

(20C) (Ohm/km) 1.617 1.365 1.269 1.231 1.103 0.938 0.756 0.549 0.466 0.375 0.273 0.252 0.183 0.139 0.135 0.109 0.109

Sparrow Robin Raven Quail Pigeon Penguin Partridge Ostrich Merlin Lark Hawk Dove Teal Swift Tern Canary Curlew Finch Bittern Falcon Kiwi

6 6 6 6 6 6 26 26 18 30 26 26 30 36 45 54 54 54 45 54 72

2.67 3 3.37 3.78 4.25 4.77 2.57 2.73 3.47 2.92 3.44 3.72 3.61 3.38 3.38 3.28 3.52 3.65 4.27 4.36 4.41

(a) to ASTM B232

Designation

Stranding and wire diameter (mm) Aluminium 6 2.36 6 2.59 6 3 6 3.35 12 2.79 6 4.72 30 2.36 30 2.59 18 3.35 30 2.79 18 3.61 18 3.86 30 3 54 3.18

Table 5.13: Overhead line conductor - hard drawn copper

Gopher Weasel Ferret Rabbit Horse Dog Tiger Wolf Dingo Lynx Caracal Jaguar Panther Zebra

1 1 1 1 7 7 7 7 1 7 1 1 7 7

Total Approx. RDC area overall at 20 C 2 (mm ) diameter (Ohm/km) Steel Aluminium Steel (mm) 2.36 26.2 4.4 30.6 7.08 1.093 2.59 31.6 5.3 36.9 7.77 0.908 3 42.4 7.1 49.5 9 0.676 3.35 52.9 8.8 61.7 10.05 0.542 2.79 73.4 42.8 116.2 13.95 0.393 1.57 105.0 13.6 118.5 14.15 0.273 2.36 131.2 30.6 161.9 16.52 0.220 2.59 158.1 36.9 194.9 18.13 0.182 3.35 158.7 8.8 167.5 16.75 0.181 2.79 183.4 42.8 226.2 19.53 0.157 3.61 184.2 10.2 194.5 18.05 0.156 3.86 210.6 11.7 222.3 19.3 0.137 3 212.1 49.5 261.5 21 0.136 3.18 428.9 55.6 484.5 28.62 0.067 (b) to BS 215.2

Sectional area (mm2)

Table 5.14: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium conductors steel reinforced (ACSR).

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Designation

Stranding and wire diameter (mm) Aluminium 6 2.7 14 2 6 3.2 26 1.85 26 2.15 12 3.2 12 3.6 26 2.7 30 2.7 26 3 30 3 24 3.74 54 2.68 54 3 54 3.6 48 3.86 45 4.3 72 4.3

Sectional area (mm2)

(c) to DIN 48204

Total Approxi. RDC area overall at 20 C 2 (mm ) diameter (Ohm/km) Aluminium Steel Aluminium Steel (mm) CANNA 59.7 12 2 7 2 37.7 22.0 59.7 10 0.765 CANNA 75.5 12 2.25 7 2.25 47.7 27.8 75.5 11.25 0.604 CANNA 93.3 12 2.5 7 2.5 58.9 34.4 93.3 12.5 0.489 CANNA 116.2 30 2 7 2 94.2 22.0 116.2 14 0.306 CROCUS 116.2 30 2 7 2 94.2 22.0 116.2 14 0.306 CANNA 147.1 30 2.25 7 2.25 119.3 27.8 147.1 15.75 0.243 CROCUS 181.6 30 2.5 7 2.5 147.3 34.4 181.6 17.5 0.197 CROCUS 228 30 2.8 7 2.8 184.7 43.1 227.8 19.6 0.157 CROCUS 297 36 2.8 19 2.25 221.7 75.5 297.2 22.45 0.131 CANNA 288 30 3.15 7 3.15 233.8 54.6 288.3 22.05 0.124 CROCUS 288 30 3.15 7 3.15 233.8 54.6 288.3 22.05 0.124 CROCUS 412 32 3.6 19 2.4 325.7 86.0 411.7 26.4 0.089 CROCUS 612 66 3.13 19 2.65 507.8 104.8 612.6 32.03 0.057 CROCUS 865 66 3.72 19 3.15 717.3 148.1 865.4 38.01 0.040 Designation (d) to NF C34-120 Table 5.14: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium conductors steel reinforced (ACSR).

Stranding and wire diameter (mm)

Sectional area (mm2)

(a) ASTM No. Wire Sectional Overall RDC of Al diameter area diameter at 20C Strands (mm) (mm2) (mm) (Ohm/km) 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 19 19 19 37 37 37 37 37 61 61 1.85 2.08 2.34 2.54 2.95 3.3 3.61 4.04 4.19 4.45 4.65 3.18 3.48 3.76 2.87 3.23 3.53 4.06 4.14 3.5 4.14 (b) BS Table 5.15: Overhead line conductor data - aluminium alloy. 18.8 23.8 30.1 35.5 47.8 59.9 71.6 89.7 96.5 108.9 118.9 150.9 180.7 211.0 239.4 303.2 362.1 479.0 498.1 586.9 821.1 5.6 6.2 7.0 7.6 8.9 9.9 10.8 12.1 12.6 13.4 14.0 15.9 17.4 18.8 20.1 22.6 24.7 28.4 29.0 31.5 28.4 1.750 1.384 1.094 0.928 0.688 0.550 0.460 0.367 0.341 0.302 0.277 0.219 0.183 0.157 0.139 0.109 0.092 0.069 0.067 0.057 0.040

Standard BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242 BS 3242

Designation Box Acacia Almond Cedar Fir Hazel Pine Willow Oak Mullberry Ash Elm Poplar Sycamore Upas Yew Totara Rubus Araucaria

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35/6 44/32 50/8 70/12 95/15 95/55 120/70 150/25 170/40 185/30 210/50 265/35 305/40 380/50 550/70 560/50 650/45 1045/45

1 7 1 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

Steel Aluminium Steel 2.7 34.4 5.7 2.4 44.0 31.7 3.2 48.3 8.0 1.44 69.9 11.4 1.67 94.4 15.3 3.2 96.5 56.3 3.6 122.1 71.3 2.1 148.9 24.2 2.7 171.8 40.1 2.33 183.8 29.8 3 212.1 49.5 2.49 263.7 34.1 2.68 304.6 39.5 3 381.7 49.5 3.6 549.7 71.3 3 561.7 49.5 2.87 653.5 45.3 2.87 1045.6 45.3

Total Approx. RDC area overall at 20 C (mm2) diameter (Ohm/km) (mm) 40.1 8.1 0.834 75.6 11.2 0.652 56.3 9.6 0.594 81.3 11.7 0.413 109.7 13.6 0.305 152.8 16 0.299 193.4 18 0.236 173.1 17.1 0.194 211.8 18.9 0.168 213.6 19 0.157 261.5 21 0.136 297.7 22.4 0.109 344.1 24.1 0.095 431.2 27 0.076 620.9 32.4 0.052 611.2 32.2 0.051 698.8 34.4 0.044 1090.9 43 0.028

Standard ASTM B-397 ASTM B-397 ASTM B-397 ASTM B-397 ASTM B-397 ASTM B-397 ASTM B-397 ASTM B-397 ASTM B-397 ASTM B-397 ASTM B-397 ASTM B-397 ASTM B-397 ASTM B-397 ASTM B-399 ASTM B-399 ASTM B-399 ASTM B-399 ASTM B-399 ASTM B-399 ASTM B-399 ASTM B-399 ASTM B-399 ASTM B-399 ASTM B-399

Designation Kench Kibe Kayak Kopeck Kittle Radian Rede Ragout Rex Remex Ruble Rune Spar Solar -

No. Wire Sectional Overall RDC of Al diameter area diameter at 20C Strands (mm) (mm2) (mm) (Ohm/km) 7 7 7 7 7 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 37 37 19 19 19 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 2.67 3.37 3.78 4.25 4.77 3.66 3.78 3.98 4.14 4.36 4.46 4.7 3.6 4.02 3.686 3.909 4.12 3.096 3.233 3.366 3.493 3.617 3.734 3.962 4.176 39.2 62.4 78.6 99.3 125.1 199.9 212.6 236.4 255.8 283.7 296.8 330.6 376.6 469.6 202.7 228.0 253.3 278.5 303.7 329.2 354.6 380.2 405.2 456.2 506.8 8.0 10.1 11.4 12.8 14.3 18.3 18.9 19.9 19.9 21.8 22.4 23.6 25.2 28.2 18.4 19.6 20.6 21.7 22.6 23.6 24.5 25.3 26.1 27.7 29.2 0.838 0.526 0.418 0.331 0.262 0.164 0.155 0.140 0.129 0.116 0.111 0.100 0.087 0.070 0.165 0.147 0.132 0.120 0.110 0.102 0.094 0.088 0.083 0.073 0.066

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Standard CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87

Design. 10 16 25 40 63 100 125 160 200 250 315 400 450 500 560 630 710 800 900 1000 1120 1250 1400 1500

No. Wire Sectional Overall RDC of Al diameter area diameter at 20C Strands (mm) (mm2) (mm) (Ohm/km) 7 7 7 7 7 19 19 19 19 19 37 37 37 37 37 61 61 61 61 91 91 91 91 91 1.45 1.83 2.29 2.89 3.63 2.78 3.1 3.51 3.93 4.39 3.53 3.98 4.22 4.45 4.71 3.89 4.13 4.38 4.65 4.01 4.25 4.49 4.75 4.91 (c) CSA No. of Wire Sectional Overall RDC Al diameter area diameter at 20C 2 Strands (mm) (mm ) (mm) (Ohm/km) 7 7 7 19 7 19 19 19 37 37 61 61 61 61 1.7 2.1 2.5 1.8 3 2.1 2.5 2.8 2.25 2.5 2.25 2.5 2.89 3.23 (d) DIN 15.9 24.3 34.4 48.4 49.5 65.8 93.3 117.0 147.1 181.6 242.5 299.4 400.1 499.8 5.1 6.3 7.5 9.0 9.0 10.5 12.5 14.0 15.7 17.5 20.2 22.5 26.0 29.1 2.091 1.370 0.967 0.690 0.672 0.507 0.358 0.285 0.228 0.184 0.138 0.112 0.084 0.067 11.5 18.4 28.8 46.0 72.5 115.1 143.9 184.2 230.2 287.7 362.1 460.4 517.9 575.5 644.5 725.0 817.2 920.8 1035.8 1150.9 1289.1 1438.7 1611.3 1726.4 4.3 5.5 6.9 8.7 10.9 13.9 15.5 17.6 19.6 22.0 24.7 27.9 29.6 31.2 33.0 35.0 37.2 39.5 41.9 44.1 46.7 49.4 52.2 54.1 2.863 1.788 1.142 0.716 0.454 0.287 0.230 0.180 0.144 0.115 0.092 0.072 0.064 0.058 0.051 0.046 0.041 0.036 0.032 0.029 0.026 0.023 0.021 0.019

Standard NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125

Designation ASTER 22 ASTER 34-4 ASTER 54-6 ASTER 75-5 ASTER 93,3 ASTER 117 ASTER 148 ASTER 181-6 ASTER 228 ASTER 288 ASTER 366 ASTER 570 ASTER 851 ASTER 1144 ASTER 1600

No. of Wire Sectional Overall RDC Al diameter area diameter at 20C Strands (mm) (mm2) (mm) (Ohm/km) 7 7 7 19 19 19 19 37 37 37 37 61 91 91 127 (e) NF 2 2.5 3.15 2.25 2.5 2.8 3.15 2.5 2.8 3.15 3.55 3.45 3.45 4 4 22.0 34.4 54.6 75.5 93.3 117.0 148.1 181.6 227.8 288.3 366.2 570.2 850.7 1143.5 1595.9 6.0 7.5 9.5 11.3 12.5 14.0 15.8 17.5 19.6 22.1 24.9 31.1 38.0 44.0 52.0 1.497 0.958 0.604 0.438 0.355 0.283 0.223 0.183 0.146 0.115 0.091 0.058 0.039 0.029 0.021

Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87 CSA C49.1-M87

Table 5.15 (cont): Overhead line conductor data - aluminium alloy.

Standard DIN 48201 DIN 48201 DIN 48201 DIN 48201 DIN 48201 DIN 48201 DIN 48201 DIN 48201 DIN 48201 DIN 48201 DIN 48201 DIN 48201 DIN 48201 DIN 48201

Designation 16 25 35 50 50 70 95 120 150 185 240 300 400 500

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Standard

Designation Alloy

Stranding and wire diameter (mm) Steel 2.62 2.97 2.76 3.13 3.08 3.5 3.7 3.66 3.88 4.12 3.26 3.63 3.85 4.34 4.12 4.35 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 2.04 2.31 2.76 2.43 3.08 2.72 2.88 2.2 2.33 2.47 1.98 2.18 2.31 2.6 2.47 2.61 (a) ASTM Stranding and wire diameter (mm) Alloy Steel 1.85 2.15 2.33 2.7 2.7 3 3 3.5 3.74 2.68 3 3.45 3.86 4 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 19 1.44 1.67 2.33 2.1 2.7 2.33 3 2.33 2.49 2.68 3 2.68 3 2.4 (b) DIN Stranding and wire diameter (mm) Alloy Steel 2 2.25 2.25 2.5 2.5 2.8 2.8 3.15 3.15 2.5 2.8 19 19 7 19 7 19 7 19 7 19 37 2 2.25 2.25 2.5 2.5 2.8 2.8 3.15 3.15 2.5 2.8 (c) NF

Sectional area (mm2) Alloy 140.2 180.1 179.5 200.1 223.5 250.1 279.6 315.6 354.7 399.9 450.7 558.9 628.6 798.8 1119.9 1248.4 Steel 22.9 29.3 41.9 32.5 52.2 40.7 45.6 72.2 81.0 91.0 58.5 70.9 79.6 100.9 91.0 101.7

Total area (mm2) 163.1 209.5 221.4 232.5 275.7 290.8 325.2 387.9 435.7 491.0 509.2 629.8 708.3 899.7 1210.9 1350.0

Approximate overall diameter (mm) 7.08 11.08 12.08 13.08 16.08 17.08 19.08 22.08 24.08 26.08 27.08 29.08 30.08 32.08 35.08 36.08

RDC at 20 C (ohm/km) 0.240 0.187 0.188 0.168 0.151 0.135 0.120 0.107 0.095 0.084 0.075 0.060 0.054 0.042 0.030 0.027

Standard

Designation

Sectional area (mm2) Alloy 69.9 94.4 127.9 148.9 171.8 183.8 212.1 230.9 263.7 304.6 381.7 448.7 561.7 678.6 Steel 11.4 15.3 29.8 24.2 40.1 29.8 49.5 29.8 34.1 39.5 49.5 39.5 49.5 86.0

Total area (mm2) 81.3 109.7 157.8 173.1 211.8 213.6 261.5 260.8 297.7 344.1 431.2 488.2 611.2 764.5

Approximate overall diameter (mm) 11.7 13.6 16.3 17.1 18.9 19 21 21 22.4 24.1 27 28.7 32.2 36

RDC at 20 C (ohm/km)

DIN 48206 DIN 48206 DIN 48206 DIN 48206 DIN 48206 DIN 48206 DIN 48206 DIN 48206 DIN 48206 DIN 48206 DIN 48206 DIN 48206 DIN 48206 DIN 48206

70/12 95/15 125/30 150/25 170/40 185/30 210/50 230/30 265/35 305/40 380/50 450/40 560/50 680/85

26 26 30 26 30 26 30 24 24 54 54 48 48 54

0.479 0.355 0.262 0.225 0.195 0.182 0.158 0.145 0.127 0.110 0.088 0.075 0.060 0.049

Standard

Designation

Sectional area (mm2) Alloy 56.5 71.6 119.3 88.4 147.3 110.8 184.7 140.3 233.8 206.2 147.8 Steel 59.7 75.5 27.8 93.3 34.4 117.0 43.1 148.1 54.6 93.3 227.8

Total area (mm2) 116.2 147.1 147.1 181.6 181.6 227.8 227.8 288.3 288.3 299.4 375.6 Approximate overall diameter (mm) 14 15.75 15.75 17.5 17.5 19.6 19.6 22.05 22.05 22.45 26.4 RDC at 20 C (ohm/km) 0.591 0.467 0.279 0.378 0.226 0.300 0.180 0.238 0.142 0.162 0.226

NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125 NF C34-125

PHLOX 116.2 PHLOX 147.1 PASTEL 147.1 PHLOX 181.6 PASTEL 181.6 PHLOX 228 PASTEL 228 PHLOX 288 PASTEL 288 PASTEL 299 PHLOX 376

18 18 30 18 30 18 30 18 30 42 24

Table 5.16: Overhead line conductor data aluminium alloy conductors, steel re-inforced (AACSR)

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Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant 5

ASTM B711 ASTM B711 ASTM B711 ASTM B711 ASTM B711 ASTM B711 ASTM B711 ASTM B711 ASTM B711 ASTM B711 ASTM B711 ASTM B711 ASTM B711 ASTM B711 ASTM B711 ASTM B711

26 26 30 26 30 26 26 30 30 30 54 54 54 54 84 84

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XAC at 50 Hz 66kV Sectional area of aluminium mm2 13.3 15.3 21.2 23.9 26.2 28.3 33.6 37.7 42.4 44.0 47.7 51.2 58.9 63.1 67.4 73.4 79.2 85.0 94.4 105.0 121.6 127.9 131.2 135.2 148.9 158.7 170.5 184.2 201.4 210.6 221.7 230.9 241.7 263.7 282.0 306.6 322.3 339.3 362.6 386.0 402.8 428.9 448.7 456.1 483.4 494.4 510.5 523.7 RDC (20C) RAC at 50Hz @ 20C /km 2.159 1.877 1.356 1.201 1.093 1.025 0.854 0.765 0.677 0.652 0.604 0.564 0.490 0.455 0.426 0.393 0.362 0.338 0.306 0.274 0.237 0.226 0.220 0.214 0.194 0.182 0.170 0.157 0.144 0.137 0.131 0.126 0.120 0.110 0.103 0.095 0.090 0.086 0.081 0.076 0.073 0.068 0.066 0.065 0.061 0.060 0.058 0.057 3.3kV 6.6kV 11kV 22kV 33kV Flat circuit C nF/km 8.7 8.8 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.4 9.4 9.7 9.6 9.9 9.9 10.0 10.1 9.9 10.0 10.3 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.6 10.7 10.7 10.5 10.8 10.7 10.8 10.9 11.0 11.0 11.3 11.2 11.2 11.3 11.3 11.5 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.8 11.5 11.9 12.0 12.0 12.1 12.1 12.1 X /km 0.503 0.499 0.488 0.484 0.482 0.460 0.474 0.435 0.467 0.427 0.427 0.425 0.421 0.454 0.452 0.414 0.447 0.445 0.410 0.438 0.402 0.398 0.397 0.405 0.396 0.400 0.398 0.395 0.388 0.391 0.381 0.384 0.387 0.380 0.382 0.375 0.378 0.373 0.369 0.369 0.368 0.374 0.364 0.365 0.363 0.362 0.360 0.360 C nF/km 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 8.0 8.2 8.1 8.4 8.3 8.5 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.5 8.5 8.8 8.7 8.7 8.8 8.8 9.0 9.0 9.1 9.0 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.3 9.5 9.4 9.4 9.5 9.5 9.7 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.8 9.9 9.7 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.1 10.1 Double vertical X /km 0.513 0.508 0.498 0.494 0.491 0.470 0.484 0.444 0.476 0.437 0.437 0.434 0.430 0.464 0.462 0.423 0.457 0.454 0.420 0.448 0.412 0.407 0.407 0.415 0.406 0.410 0.407 0.405 0.398 0.401 0.391 0.393 0.396 0.389 0.392 0.384 0.387 0.383 0.379 0.379 0.378 0.384 0.374 0.374 0.372 0.372 0.370 0.370

XAC at 50 Hz and shunt capacitance Triangle Double vertical X /km 0.541 0.537 0.527 0.522 0.520 0.498 0.512 0.473 0.505 0.465 0.465 0.463 0.459 0.492 0.490 0.452 0.485 0.483 0.448 0.476 0.440 0.436 0.435 0.443 0.434 0.438 0.436 0.433 0.426 0.429 0.419 0.422 0.425 0.418 0.420 0.413 0.416 0.411 0.408 0.407 0.407 0.413 0.402 0.403 0.401 0.400 0.398 0.398 C nF/km 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.3 7.5 7.5 7.7 7.6 7.8 7.8 7.9 7.9 7.8 7.8 8.1 7.9 7.9 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.2 8.3 8.2 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.4 8.6 8.6 8.5 8.6 8.6 8.7 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.9 8.9 8.7 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.1 9.1 132kV Double triangle X /km 0.528 0.523 0.513 0.509 0.506 0.485 0.499 0.459 0.491 0.452 0.452 0.449 0.445 0.479 0.477 0.438 0.472 0.469 0.435 0.463 0.427 0.422 0.421 0.430 0.420 0.425 0.422 0.420 0.412 0.416 0.406 0.408 0.411 0.404 0.406 0.399 0.402 0.398 0.394 0.393 0.393 0.399 0.389 0.389 0.387 0.387 0.385 0.385 C nF/km 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.5 7.7 7.7 7.9 7.8 8.0 8.1 8.1 8.2 8.0 8.1 8.3 8.2 8.2 8.3 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.5 8.4 8.6 8.5 8.6 8.6 8.8 8.7 8.9 8.9 8.8 8.9 8.9 9.1 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.0 9.3 9.3 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 Flat circuit X /km 0.556 0.552 0.542 0.537 0.535 0.513 0.527 0.488 0.520 0.481 0.480 0.478 0.474 0.507 0.505 0.467 0.500 0.498 0.463 0.491 0.455 0.451 0.450 0.458 0.449 0.453 0.451 0.449 0.441 0.444 0.435 0.437 0.440 0.433 0.435 0.428 0.431 0.426 0.423 0.422 0.422 0.428 0.418 0.418 0.416 0.415 0.413 0.413 C nF/km 6.8 6.9 7.0 7.1 7.1 7.3 7.2 7.4 7.3 7.5 7.6 7.6 7.7 7.5 7.6 7.8 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.8 7.9 8.0 8.0 7.9 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.1 8.3 8.3 8.2 8.3 8.3 8.4 8.4 8.5 8.5 8.6 8.6 8.4 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7

/km 2.1586 1.8771 1.3557 1.2013 1.0930 1.0246 0.8535 0.7647 0.6768 0.6516 0.6042 0.5634 0.4894 0.4545 0.4255 0.3930 0.3622 0.3374 0.3054 0.2733 0.2371 0.2254 0.2197 0.2133 0.1937 0.1814 0.1691 0.1565 0.1438 0.1366 0.1307 0.1249 0.1193 0.1093 0.1022 0.0945 0.0895 0.085 0.0799 0.0747 0.0719 0.0671 0.0642 0.0635 0.0599 0.0583 0.0565 0.0553

/km 0.395 0.391 0.381 0.376 0.374 0.352 0.366 0.327 0.359 0.320 0.319 0.317 0.313 0.346 0.344 0.306 0.339 0.337 0.302 0.330 0.294 0.290 0.289 0.297 0.288 0.292 0.290 0.287 0.280 0.283 0.274 0.276 0.279 0.272 0.274 0.267 0.270 0.265 0.262 0.261 0.261 0.267 0.257 0.257 0.255 0.254 0.252 0.252

/km 0.409 0.405 0.395 0.390 0.388 0.366 0.380 0.341 0.373 0.334 0.333 0.331 0.327 0.360 0.358 0.320 0.353 0.351 0.316 0.344 0.308 0.304 0.303 0.311 0.302 0.306 0.304 0.302 0.294 0.297 0.288 0.290 0.293 0.286 0.288 0.281 0.284 0.279 0.276 0.275 0.275 0.281 0.271 0.271 0.269 0.268 0.266 0.266

/km 0.420 0.415 0.405 0.401 0.398 0.377 0.390 0.351 0.383 0.344 0.344 0.341 0.337 0.371 0.369 0.330 0.363 0.361 0.327 0.355 0.318 0.314 0.313 0.322 0.312 0.316 0.314 0.312 0.304 0.308 0.298 0.300 0.303 0.296 0.298 0.291 0.294 0.289 0.286 0.285 0.285 0.291 0.281 0.281 0.279 0.279 0.277 0.277

/km 0.434 0.429 0.419 0.415 0.412 0.391 0.404 0.365 0.397 0.358 0.358 0.355 0.351 0.385 0.383 0.344 0.377 0.375 0.341 0.369 0.332 0.328 0.327 0.336 0.326 0.330 0.328 0.326 0.318 0.322 0.312 0.314 0.317 0.310 0.312 0.305 0.308 0.303 0.300 0.299 0.299 0.305 0.295 0.295 0.293 0.293 0.291 0.291

X /km 0.445 0.441 0.430 0.426 0.424 0.402 0.416 0.376 0.409 0.369 0.369 0.367 0.362 0.396 0.394 0.356 0.389 0.387 0.352 0.380 0.344 0.340 0.339 0.347 0.338 0.342 0.340 0.337 0.330 0.333 0.323 0.326 0.329 0.321 0.324 0.317 0.320 0.315 0.311 0.311 0.310 0.316 0.306 0.307 0.305 0.304 0.302 0.302

C nF/km 7.4 7.5 7.7 7.8 7.8 8.0 7.9 8.2 8.1 8.3 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.3 8.3 8.6 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.6 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.9 8.9 8.9 9.0 9.1 9.1 9.3 9.2 9.2 9.3 9.3 9.4 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.4 9.7 9.7 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8

X /km 0.520 0.515 0.505 0.501 0.498 0.477 0.491 0.451 0.483 0.444 0.444 0.441 0.437 0.471 0.469 0.430 0.464 0.461 0.427 0.455 0.419 0.414 0.414 0.422 0.413 0.417 0.414 0.412 0.405 0.408 0.398 0.400 0.403 0.396 0.399 0.391 0.394 0.390 0.386 0.386 0.385 0.391 0.381 0.381 0.379 0.379 0.377 0.377

C nF/km 7.3 7.4 7.6 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.8 8.1 7.9 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.3 8.2 8.2 8.5 8.3 8.4 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.7 8.6 8.7 8.7 8.8 8.8 8.9 8.9 9.1 9.0 9.0 9.1 9.1 9.2 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.2 9.5 9.5 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6

Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant 5

Table 5.17: Feeder circuits data - overhead lines

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XAC at 50 Hz 66kV Sectional RDC RAC at area of (20C) 50Hz aluminium @ 20C mm2 13.3 15.3 21.2 23.9 26.2 28.3 33.6 37.7 42.4 44.0 47.7 51.2 58.9 63.1 67.4 73.4 79.2 85.0 94.4 105.0 121.6 127.9 131.2 135.2 148.9 158.7 170.5 184.2 201.4 210.6 221.7 230.9 241.7 263.7 282.0 306.6 322.3 339.3 362.6 386.0 402.8 428.9 448.7 456.1 483.4 494.4 510.5 523.7 /km 2.1586 1.8771 1.3557 1.2013 1.0930 1.0246 0.8535 0.7647 0.6768 0.6516 0.6042 0.5634 0.4894 0.4545 0.4255 0.3930 0.3622 0.3374 0.3054 0.2733 0.2371 0.2254 0.2197 0.2133 0.1937 0.1814 0.1691 0.1565 0.1438 0.1366 0.1307 0.1249 0.1193 0.1093 0.1022 0.0945 0.0895 0.0850 0.0799 0.0747 0.0719 0.0671 0.0642 0.0635 0.0599 0.0583 0.0565 0.0553 /km 2.159 1.877 1.356 1.201 1.093 1.025 0.854 0.765 0.677 0.652 0.604 0.564 0.490 0.455 0.426 0.393 0.362 0.338 0.306 0.274 0.238 0.226 0.220 0.214 0.194 0.182 0.170 0.157 0.145 0.137 0.132 0.126 0.120 0.110 0.103 0.096 0.091 0.086 0.081 0.076 0.074 0.069 0.066 0.065 0.062 0.060 0.059 0.057 3.3kV 6.6kV 11kV 22kV 33kV Flat circuit

XAC at 50 Hz and shunt capacitance Double vertical Triangle Double vertical X C /km nF/km 0.649 0.644 0.632 0.627 0.624 0.598 0.614 0.567 0.606 0.559 0.558 0.555 0.550 0.591 0.588 0.542 0.582 0.579 0.538 0.572 0.528 0.523 0.522 0.532 0.521 0.526 0.523 0.520 0.511 0.515 0.503 0.506 0.510 0.501 0.504 0.495 0.499 0.493 0.489 0.488 0.488 0.495 0.483 0.480 0.481 0.480 0.478 0.478 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.3 7.5 7.5 7.7 7.6 7.8 7.8 7.9 7.9 7.8 7.8 8.1 7.9 7.9 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.2 8.3 8.2 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.4 8.6 8.6 8.5 8.6 8.6 8.7 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.9 8.9 8.7 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.1 9.1 132kV Double triangle Flat circuit

/km 0.474 0.469 0.457 0.452 0.449 0.423 0.439 0.392 0.431 0.384 0.383 0.380 0.375 0.416 0.413 0.367 0.407 0.404 0.363 0.396 0.353 0.348 0.347 0.357 0.346 0.351 0.348 0.345 0.336 0.340 0.328 0.331 0.335 0.326 0.329 0.320 0.324 0.318 0.314 0.313 0.313 0.320 0.308 0.305 0.306 0.305 0.303 0.303

/km 0.491 0.486 0.474 0.469 0.466 0.440 0.456 0.409 0.447 0.400 0.400 0.397 0.392 0.432 0.430 0.384 0.424 0.421 0.380 0.413 0.370 0.365 0.364 0.374 0.362 0.367 0.365 0.362 0.353 0.357 0.345 0.348 0.351 0.343 0.346 0.337 0.341 0.335 0.331 0.330 0.330 0.337 0.325 0.322 0.323 0.322 0.320 0.320

/km 0.503 0.498 0.486 0.481 0.478 0.452 0.468 0.421 0.460 0.413 0.412 0.409 0.404 0.445 0.442 0.396 0.436 0.433 0.392 0.426 0.382 0.377 0.376 0.386 0.375 0.380 0.377 0.374 0.365 0.369 0.357 0.360 0.364 0.355 0.358 0.349 0.353 0.347 0.343 0.342 0.342 0.349 0.337 0.334 0.335 0.334 0.332 0.332

/km 0.520 0.515 0.503 0.498 0.495 0.469 0.485 0.438 0.477 0.429 0.429 0.426 0.421 0.462 0.459 0.413 0.453 0.450 0.409 0.442 0.399 0.394 0.393 0.403 0.392 0.397 0.394 0.391 0.382 0.386 0.374 0.377 0.381 0.372 0.375 0.366 0.370 0.364 0.360 0.359 0.359 0.366 0.354 0.351 0.352 0.351 0.349 0.349

X /km 0.534 0.529 0.516 0.511 0.508 0.483 0.499 0.452 0.490 0.443 0.443 0.440 0.435 0.475 0.473 0.427 0.467 0.464 0.423 0.456 0.413 0.408 0.407 0.416 0.405 0.410 0.408 0.405 0.396 0.400 0.388 0.391 0.394 0.386 0.389 0.380 0.384 0.378 0.374 0.373 0.372 0.380 0.367 0.364 0.366 0.365 0.362 0.363

C nF/km 8.7 8.8 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.4 9.4 9.7 9.6 9.9 9.9 10.0 10.1 9.9 10.0 10.3 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.6 10.7 10.7 10.5 10.8 10.7 10.8 10.9 11.0 11.0 11.3 11.2 11.2 11.3 11.3 11.5 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.8 11.5 11.9 12.0 12.0 12.1 12.1 12.1

X C X /km nF/km /km 0.604 0.598 0.586 0.581 0.578 0.552 0.569 0.521 0.560 0.513 0.513 0.510 0.505 0.545 0.543 0.496 0.536 0.534 0.492 0.526 0.482 0.477 0.476 0.486 0.475 0.480 0.477 0.474 0.466 0.469 0.458 0.460 0.464 0.455 0.458 0.450 0.453 0.448 0.443 0.443 0.442 0.449 0.437 0.434 0.435 0.435 0.432 0.432 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 8.0 8.2 8.1 8.4 8.3 8.5 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.5 8.5 8.8 8.7 8.7 8.8 8.8 9.0 9.0 9.1 9.0 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.3 9.5 9.4 9.4 9.5 9.5 9.7 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.8 9.9 9.7 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.1 10.1 0.615 0.610 0.598 0.593 0.590 0.564 0.580 0.533 0.572 0.525 0.524 0.521 0.516 0.557 0.554 0.508 0.548 0.545 0.504 0.537 0.494 0.489 0.488 0.498 0.487 0.492 0.489 0.486 0.477 0.481 0.469 0.472 0.476 0.467 0.470 0.461 0.465 0.459 0.455 0.454 0.454 0.461 0.449 0.446 0.447 0.446 0.444 0.444

C X nF/km /km 7.4 7.5 7.7 7.8 7.8 8.0 7.9 8.2 8.1 8.3 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.3 8.3 8.6 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.6 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.9 8.9 8.9 9.0 9.1 9.1 9.3 9.2 9.2 9.3 9.3 9.4 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.4 9.7 9.7 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8 0.624 0.619 0.606 0.601 0.598 0.572 0.589 0.541 0.580 0.533 0.533 0.530 0.525 0.565 0.563 0.516 0.556 0.554 0.512 0.546 0.502 0.497 0.496 0.506 0.495 0.500 0.497 0.494 0.486 0.489 0.478 0.480 0.484 0.476 0.478 0.470 0.473 0.468 0.463 0.463 0.462 0.469 0.457 0.454 0.455 0.455 0.452 0.452

C nF/km 7.3 7.4 7.6 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.8 8.1 7.9 8.2 8.2 8.2 8.3 8.2 8.2 8.5 8.3 8.4 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.7 8.6 8.7 8.7 8.8 8.8 8.9 8.9 9.1 9.0 9.0 9.1 9.1 9.2 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.2 9.5 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6

X C X C /km nF/km /km nF/km 0.633 0.628 0.616 0.611 0.608 0.582 0.598 0.551 0.589 0.542 0.542 0.539 0.534 0.574 0.572 0.526 0.566 0.563 0.522 0.555 0.512 0.507 0.506 0.516 0.504 0.509 0.507 0.504 0.495 0.499 0.487 0.490 0.493 0.485 0.488 0.479 0.483 0.477 0.473 0.472 0.472 0.479 0.467 0.463 0.465 0.464 0.462 0.462 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.5 7.7 7.7 7.9 7.8 8.0 8.1 8.1 8.2 8.0 8.1 8.3 8.2 8.2 8.3 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.5 8.4 8.6 8.5 8.6 8.6 8.8 8.7 8.9 8.9 8.8 8.9 8.9 9.1 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.0 9.3 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 0.668 0.662 0.650 0.645 0.642 0.616 0.633 0.585 0.624 0.577 0.576 0.573 0.568 0.609 0.606 0.560 0.600 0.598 0.556 0.590 0.546 0.541 0.540 0.550 0.539 0.544 0.541 0.538 0.529 0.533 0.522 0.524 0.528 0.519 0.522 0.514 0.517 0.511 0.507 0.506 0.506 0.513 0.501 0.498 0.499 0.498 0.496 0.496 6.8 6.9 7.0 7.1 7.1 7.3 7.2 7.4 7.3 7.5 7.6 7.6 7.7 7.5 7.6 7.8 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.8 7.9 8.0 8.0 7.9 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.1 8.3 8.3 8.2 8.3 8.3 8.4 8.4 8.5 8.5 8.6 8.6 8.4 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7

Table 5.17 (cont): Feeder circuits data - overhead lines

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Conductor size mm2 Series Resistance 3.3kV Series Reactance Susceptance Series Resistance 6.6kV Series Reactance Susceptance Series Resistance 11kV Series Reactance Susceptance Series Resistance 22kV Series Reactance Susceptance Series Resistance 33kV Series Reactance Susceptance Series Resistance 66kV* Series Reactance Susceptance Series Resistance 145kV* Series Reactance Susceptance Series Resistance 245kV* Series Reactance Susceptance Series Resistance 420kV* Series Reactance Susceptance R (/km) X (/km) C (mS/km) R (/km) X (/km) C (mS/km) R (/km) X (/km) C (mS/km) R (/km) X (/km) C (mS/km) R (/km) X (/km) C (mS/km) R (/km) X (/km) C (mS/km) R (/km) X (/km) C (mS/km) R (/km) X (/km) C (mS/km) R (/km) X (/km) C (mS/km) 25 0.927 0.097 0.059 0.927 0.121 0.085 0.927 0.128 0.068 35 0.669 0.092 0.067 0.669 0.113 0.095 0.669 0.119 0.074 0.669 0.136 0.053 0.669 0.15 0.042 50 0.494 0.089 0.079 0.494 0.108 0.104 0.494 0.114 0.082 0.494 0.129 0.057 0.494 0.143 0.045 70 0.342 0.083 0.09 0.342 0.102 0.12 0.342 0.107 0.094 0.348 0.121 0.065 0.348 0.134 0.05 95 0.247 0.08 0.104 0.247 0.096 0.136 0.247 0.101 0.105 0.247 0.114 0.072 0.247 0.127 0.055 120 0.196 0.078 0.111 0.196 0.093 0.149 0.196 0.098 0.115 0.196 0.11 0.078 0.196 0.122 0.059 150 0.158 0.076 0.122 0.158 0.091 0.16 0.158 0.095 0.123 0.158 0.107 0.084 0.158 0.118 0.063 185 0.127 0.075 0.133 0.127 0.088 0.177 0.127 0.092 0.135 0.127 0.103 0.091 0.127 0.114 0.068 240 0.098 0.073 0.146 0.098 0.086 0.189 0.098 0.089 0.15 0.098 0.1 0.1 0.098 0.109 0.075 300 0.08 0.072 0.16 0.08 0.085 0.195 0.08 0.087 0.165 0.08 0.094 0.109 0.08 0.105 0.081 *500 0.051 0.088 0.19 0.057 0.088 0.205 0.051 0.089 0.194 0.051 0.096 0.128 0.051 0.103 0.094 0.0387 0.117 0.079 0.0387 0.13 0.053 0.0487 0.0387 0.145 0.137 0.044 0.047 400 0.064 0.071 0.179 0.064 0.083 0.204 0.064 0.084 0.182 0.064 0.091 0.12 0.064 0.102 0.089 *630 0.042 0.086 0.202 0.042 0.086 0.228 0.042 0.086 0.216 0.042 0.093 0.141 0.042 0.1 0.103 0.031 0.113 0.082 0.031 0.125 0.06 0.0310 0.134 0.05 0.0310 0.172 0.04 *800 *1000 *1200 *1600

Equivalent Circuits and Parameters of Power System Plant

0.0254 0.109 0.088 0.0254 0.12 0.063 0.0254 0.128 0.057 0.0254 0.162 0.047

0.0215 0.102 0.11 0.0215 0.115 0.072 0.0215 0.123 0.057 0.0215 0.156 0.05

0.0161 0.119 0.063 0.0161 0.151 0.057

0.0126 0.113 0.072 0.0126 0.144 0.063

For aluminium conductors of the same cross-section, the resistance increases by 60-65 percent, the series reactance and shunt capacitance is virtually unaltered.* - single core cables in trefoil. Different values apply if laid in spaced flat formation. Series Resistance - a.c. resistance @ 90C. Series reactance - equivalent star reactance. Data for 245kV and 420kV cables may vary significantly from that given, dependent on manufacturer and construction. Table 5.18: Characteristics of polyethylene insulated cables (XLPE)

Conductor Size (mm2) Series Resistance 3.3kV Series Reactance Susceptance Series Resistance 6.6kV Series Reactance Susceptance Series Resistance 11kV Series Reactance Susceptance Series Resistance 22kV Series Reactance Susceptance Series Resistance 33kV Series Reactance Susceptance R (/km) X (/km) C (mS/km) R (/km) X (/km) C (mS/km) R (/km) X (/km) C (mS/km) R (/km) X (/km) C (mS/km) R (/km) X (/km) C (mS/km) 10 206 87.7 16 25 35 50 70 95 120 150 185 240 1303 825.5 595 439.9 304.9 220.4 174.5 142.3 113.9 87.6 83.6 76.7 74.8 72.5 70.2 67.5 66.6 65.7 64.7 63.8 206.4 148.8 110 22 21.2 20.4 76.2 19.6 55.1 18.7 43.6 18.3 35.6 17.9 28.5 17.6 21.9 17.1 300 70.8 62.9 17.6 16.9 400 56.7 62.4 14.1 16.5 *500 45.5 73.5 11.3 18.8 *630 37.1 72.1 9.3 18.4 *800 *1000 31.2 27.2 71.2 69.8 7.8 18 6.7 17.8

514.2 326 26.2 24.3 111 9.26 -

0.87 0.63 0.46 0.32 0.23 0.184 0.15 0.12 0.092 0.074 0.059 0.048 0.039 0.033 0.028 0.107 0.1 0.096 0.091 0.087 0.085 0.083 0.081 0.079 0.077 0.076 0.085 0.083 0.081 0.08 17.69 12.75 9.42 2.89 2.71 2.6 4.19 1.16 6.53 2.46 2.9 1.09 4.71 2.36 2.09 1.03 3.74 2.25 3.04 2.19 2.44 2.11 1.87 2.04 1.51 1.97 1.21 1.92 0.96 1.9 0.79 1.84 0.66 1.8 0.57 1.76

0.181 0.147 0.118 0.09 0.073 0.058 0.046 0.038 0.031 0.027 0.107 0.103 0.101 0.097 0.094 0.09 0.098 0.097 0.092 0.089 0.104 0.116 0.124 0.194 0.151 0.281 0.179 0.198 0.22 0.245

Cables are of the solid type, 3 core except for those marked *. Impedances at 50Hz frequency Table 5.19: Characteristics of paper insulated cables

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Conductor size (mm2) 16 25 35 50 70 95 120 150 185 240 300 400 *500 *630 *800 *1000 3 core Copper conductors, 50Hz values. * - single core cables in trefoil Table 5.20: 3.3 kV PVC insulated cables

3.3kV R /km 1.380 0.870 0.627 0.463 0.321 0.232 0.184 0.150 0.121 0.093 0.075 0.060 0.049 0.041 0.035 0.030 X /km 0.106 0.100 0.094 0.091 0.086 0.084 0.081 0.079 0.077 0.076 0.075 0.075 0.089 0.086 0.086 0.084

5.25 REFERENCES 5.1 Physical significance of sub-subtransient quantities in dynamic behaviour of synchronous machines. I.M. Canay. Proc. IEE, Vol. 135, Pt. B, November 1988. 5.2 IEC 60034-4. Methods for determining synchronous machine quantities from tests. 5.3 IEEE Standards 115/115A. IEEE Test Procedures for Synchronous Machines. 5.4 Power System Analysis. [Link] and [Link] Davies (Chapman & Hall, London).

Voltage Level Un kV Um kV

Cross Sectional Area mm2 30 50 90 120 150 1 50 90 120 150 50 90 120 150 90 150 250 250 150 250 250 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 550 550

Conductors per phase 1 1 1 1 1 1.2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 4 2 4 2 3

Surge Impedance Loading MVA 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 44 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.5 2.7 2.7 3.1 3.5 11 11 11 15 44 44 58 56 73 130 184 260 410 582 482 540

Voltage Drop Loading MWkm 11 17 23 27 30 5.8 66 92 106 119 149 207 239 267 827 1068 1240 1790 4070 4960 7160 6274 9057 15600 22062 31200 58100 82200 68200 81200

Indicative Thermal Loading MV A 2.9 3.9 5.1 6.2 7.3 151 7.8 10.2 12.5 14.6 11.7 15.3 18.7 21.9 41 59 77 153 85 115 230 160 320 247 494 988 850 1700 1085 1630 151 204 268 328 383 204 268 328 383 204 268 328 383 268 383 502 1004 370 502 1004 698 1395 648 1296 2592 1296 2590 1650 2475

11

12

24

30

33

36

66

72.5

132

145

220

245

380

420

Table 5.21: OHL capabilities

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Appendix 2 ANSI/IEC Relay Symbols

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Appendix 2 ANSI/IEC Relay Symbols

There are two methods for indicating protection relay functions in common use. One is given in ANSI Standard C37-2, and uses a numbering system for various functions. The functions are supplemented by letters where amplification of the function is required. The other is given in IEC 60617, and uses graphical symbols. To assist the Protection Engineer in converting from one system to the other, a select list of ANSI device numbers and their IEC equivalents is given in Figure A2.1.
Description Overspeed relay ANSI 12 IEC 60617 > Description Inverse time earth fault overcurrent relay Definite time earth fault overcurrent relay Voltage restrained/controlled overcurrent relay Power factor relay Overvoltage relay Neutral point displacement relay Earth-fault relay Directional overcurrent relay ANSI 51G IEC 60617 I >

Underspeed relay

14

<

51N

>

Distance relay Overtemperature relay Undervoltage relay Directional overpower relay Underpower relay Undercurrent relay

21 26 27 32

< > U< P>

>

51V 55 59 59N 64

U I>

cos > U> Ursd > I >

>

37 37

P< I<

67

I>
>

Negative sequence relay Negative sequence voltage relay Thermal relay Instantaneous overcurrent relay Inverse time overcurrent relay

46 47 49 50 51

I2 > U2 >

Directional earth fault relay

67N

>

Phase angle relay Autoreclose relay

78 79 81U 81O

> f< f>

I >> I>

Underfrequency relay Overfrequency relay

Differential relay

87

Id>

Figure A2.1 ANSI number/IEC symbol comparison

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Appendix 3 A p p l i c a t i o n Ta b l e s

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Appendix 3 Application Tables

Table A3.1 contains a list of protection, control and monitoring devices available from ALSTOM. Due to space limitations, the functionality of some products is summarised. The list is accurate at the time of compilation, but new products are continually being developed. For a current list of products for a particular application, availability of older products not listed here, or full details of the functionality of a specific product, please contact your local ALSTOM representative, or view details on-line at [Link].

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Application N Single-phase sensing X X X X X X X X N N N

Product

21

P120

Dis tan ce p r o Che tec ck tion syn c h Un ron d e isin r vol g tag Rev e er s e pow Pha er se und e r N cur e utr ren al u t nd N e r e c gat urr ive ent se Bro q u enc ken eo con ve d r Ne c u urr cto gat ent r ive s e The q uen rm ce al o v e rvo C B ltag fail ure e Ins tan tan e o Ins u sp tan has tan e e o o v T u e i s m rcu neu ed rren ela tra t ye lo T d v i m e p rcu has ed rren ela eo ye ve t Vol d r c neu urr tag ent tra ed lo e p v Ove e e nde rcu rvo nt rren ltag ov t e e r Res c urr idu ent al o v erv Res olta tric ge te d / sen Wa siti ttm ve e t e a rth Pow ric fau er s lt wi n g A u blo tor cki ecl ng ose Ove r f r equ enc Un y de r f r equ enc Cur y ren td i f f VT e ren s u tial p erv isio CT n s u per visi CT on vec tor g r VT o up/ vec rat tor io g c rou om Trip p pen / C r ircu atio s it S com ation CB up p c e e ont r nsa visi rol/ tion on m Me o nito as u r ring em ent Eve s n t rec ord D ing i s tur ban ce P r r e o cor gra der m ma Set ble tin sc h g e Gro me ups log ic

Appendix 3

A3

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25

27

32P 37P 37N

46 46BC 47

49 50BF 50P 50N 51P 51N 51V

59

59N

64 67W 78

79

81O 81U

87

VTS CTS X 1

Page 470

P121 P122 P123

P124

X X X X

X X

X X

X X

1 2 2 1

Plain Feeder Overcurrent Protection

470

P125 P126 P127 P139 P141 P142

P143

X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X

1 2 2 4 4 4 4 2 2 4 4 4 4 6

P521 P522

P523

P541

Plain Feeder Differential Protection

P542

P543

P544

Network Protection & Automation Guide

P545 N: non-directional

N N N N N N N N N N N N 3P X N N N N Self powered version. Dual powered version also includes negative sequence overcurrent, broken conductor detection, cold load pickup N+D N+D N+D N+D X X X X X X X N N+D N N+D X X 3P X X X X X X N+D N+D N+D N+D X X X 3P X X X X X X N+D N+D N+D N+D X X X X 3P X X X X X X X X X X X X N+D N+D N+D N+D X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X N+D N+D N+D N+D X X X X X 3P X X X X X X X X X X X X X N+D N+D N+D N+D X X X X X 3P X X X X Additional features: live line working, sequence co-ordination with downstream reclosing equipment X X X N N N N X Compact case version of P521, reduced I/O X X X N+D N+D N+D N+D X X 3P X X X X With magnetising inrush restraint - suitable for transformer feeders X X X N N N N X X Suitable for 2 and 3 terminal lines, and transformer feeders X X X N N N N 3P X X Suitable for 2 and 3 terminal lines, and transformer feeders X X X X X X X N+D N+D N+D N+D X X 1P/3P Suitable for 2 and 3 terminal lines X X X N+D N+D N+D N+D X X X X X Suitable for 2 and 3 terminal lines, and two breaker configurations As P543, with increased I/O N+D: directional/non-directional C: Control only M: Monitoring only 1P: Single pole 3P: Three pole

Appendix 3-468-475

21/06/02

Application

Product

21

P546 X X

11:05

Network Protection & Automation Guide

P547

Dis tan ce p r o Che tec ck tion syn c h Un ron d e isin r vol g tag Rev e er s e pow Pha er se und e r N cur e utr ren al u t nd N e r e c gat urr ive ent s equ Bro enc ken e c o o v n e duc rcu Ne gat rren tor ive t s e The q uen rm ce al o v e rvo C B ltag fail ure e Ins tan tan e o Ins u sp tan has tan eo e o v T u e i s m rcu neu ed rren ela tra t yed lo T v i m e p rcu has ed rren ela eo ye ve t Vol d r c neu urr tag ent tra ed lo e p v Ove e e nde rcu rvo nt rren ltag ov t e e r Res c urr idu ent al o v e Res rvo tric ltag te e d / sen Wa siti ttm ve e t e a rth Pow ric fau er s lt wi n g A u blo tor cki ecl ng ose Ove r f r equ enc Un y de r f r equ enc Cur y ren td i f f VT e ren s u tial p erv isio CT n s u per visi CT on vec tor g r VT o up/ vec rat tor io g c rou om Trip p pen / C r ircu atio s it S com ation CB up p c e e ont r nsa visi rol/ tion on m Me o nito as u r ring em ent Eve s n t rec ord D ing i s tur ban ce P r r e o cor gra der m ma Set ble tin sc h g e Gro me ups log ic

25

27

32P 37P 37N

46 46BC 47

49 50BF 50P 50N 51P 51N 51V

59

59N

64 67W 78

79

81O 81U

87

VTS CTS

Page 471

Plain Feeder Differential Protection

P591 P592 P593 P594

As P544 with increased I/O X X N N N N X Phase Comparison differential protection, using Power Line Carrier communications Fibre-optic to G703 interface for MiCOM P54x series relays Fibre-optic to V35 interface for MiCOM P54x series relays Fibre-optic to X21 interface for MiCOM P54x series relays GPS time synchronising module for up to 4 MiCOM products

MHOA/B/C

MHOR4

471

MBCI

P631

X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X

4 4 4 4 2 4 4

Transformer Protection

P632

P633

P634

P523

P541

Transformer Feeder Overcurrent /Differential Protection

P542

MBCI

Busbar Protection

P740 MCAG14

X Pilot wire differential protection for 2 or 3 terminal lines. Recommended only where compatibility with existing TRANSLAY electromechanical relays is required X Pilot wire differential protection X Pilot wire differential protection. Recommended for metallic pilot wire protection up to 2.5k, isolation up to 15kV X X X N N N N X X Suitable for 2 winding transformers. Harmonic/overfluxing/CT saturation restraint X X X X N N N N X X X X X X Suitable for 2 winding transformers. Harmonic/overfluxing/CT saturation restraint, additional PT100 input X X X X N N N N X X X X X X Suitable for 3 winding transformers. Harmonic/overfluxing/CT saturation restraint, additional PT100 input X X X X N N N N X X X X X X Suitable for 4 winding transformers. Harmonic/overfluxing/CT saturation restraint, additional PT100 input X X X N+D N+D N+D N+D X X 3P X X X X X X With magnetising inrush restraint - suitable for transformer feeders X N N N N X X X X Suitable for 2 and 3 terminal lines, and transformer feeders X N N N N 3P X X X X Suitable for 2 and 3 terminal lines, and transformer feeders X Translay 'S' pilot wire differential protection. Recommended for metallic pilot wire protection up to 2.5k, isolation up to 15kV X N N N N X X X X High-impedance relay for Frame-Earth (Howard) protection

N: non-directional

N+D: directional/non-directional C: Control only M: Monitoring only 1P: Single pole 3P: Three pole

Appendix 3 A3

Appendix 3-468-475

11:05

Application X X X N N

Product

21

P430

Page 472

P433

P435

Distance Protection

P437

P439

472

P441

P442

P444

System Interconnection

P341

P342

Generator Protection

P343

MX31PG2A +X2/IPG2A

P940

Generator + Generator Transformer Protection

P342/343 + P630 series

Network Protection & Automation Guide

N: non-directional

Dis tan ce p r o Che tec ck tion syn c h Un ron d e isin r vol g tag Rev e er s e pow Pha er se und e r N cur e utr ren al u t nd N e r e c gat urr ive ent s equ Bro enc ken e c o o v n e duc rcu Ne gat rren tor ive t s e The q uen rm ce al o v e rvo C B ltag fail ure e Ins tan tan e o Ins u sp tan has tan eo e o v T u e i s m rcu neu ed rren ela tra t yed lo T v i m e p rcu has ed rren ela eo ye ve t Vol d r c neu urr tag ent tra ed lo e p v Ove e e nde rcu rvo nt rren ltag ov t e e r Res c urr idu ent al o v e Res rvo tric ltag te e d / sen Wa siti ttm ve e t e a rth Pow ric fau er s lt wi n g A u blo tor cki ecl ng ose Ove r f r equ enc Un y de r f r equ enc Cur y ren td i f f VT e ren s u tial p erv isio CT n s u per visi CT on vec tor g r VT o up/ vec rat tor io g c rou om Trip p pen / C r ircu atio s it S com ation CB up p c e e ont r nsa visi rol/ tion on m Me o nito as u r ring em ent Eve s n t rec ord D ing i s tur ban ce P r r e o cor gra der m ma Set ble tin sc h g e Gro me ups log ic

Appendix 3

A3

21/06/02

25

27

32P 37P 37N

46 46BC 47

49 50BF 50P 50N 51P 51N 51V

59

59N

64 67W 78

79

81O 81U

87

VTS CTS X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

N N X X 3P X X X C Also includes Switch-on-to-Fault protection X X X X N N N+D N+D X X X 3P X X X PT100 input X X X X N N N+D N+D X X X X 1P/3P X X X PT100 input X X X N N N+D N+D X X X 1P/3P X X X Zone extension facility for single-phase to ground faults X X X X X N N N+D N+D X X 3P X X X X One-box' solution, including bay control/monitoring of up to 6 switching devices, 200 pre-programmed bay types, Switch-on-to-Fault detection, PT100 RTD input X X X X X N+D N+D N+D N+D X X 3P X X X X Includes Switch-on-to-Fault/Trip-on-Fault function and Stub Bus protection X X X X N+D N+D N+D N+D X X 1P/3P X X X X Includes Switch-on-to-Fault/Trip-on-Fault function and Stub Bus protection X X X X N+D N+D N+D N+D X X 1P/3P X X X X Increased number of digital I/O compared to P442 X X X X X X N+D N+D N+D N+D X X X X X X X X X X Includes ROCOF and Voltage Vector Shift protection functions. 64 function is either directional/non-directional SEF, or REF X X X X X X X N N N N X X X X X X X X X X M Also includes loss of excitation, overfluxing, stator winding temperature using PT100 RTD's. 64 function is either directional/non-directional SEF, or REF X X X X X X X N N N N X X X X X X X X X X X M Also includes 100% stator winding earth fault, loss of excitation, overfluxing, inadvertent energisation at standstill, stator winding temperature using PT100 RTD's, and enhanced pole-slipping protection. 64 function is either directional/non-directional SEF, or REF Rotor earth fault detection X Includes generator abnormal frequency protection See details of individual relays for functions provided X X

X X

X X

X X X

2 4

N+D: directional/non-directional C: Control only M: Monitoring only 1P: Single pole 3P: Three pole

Appendix 3-468-475

21/06/02

Application M X

Product

21

11:05

P438

P436

A.C. Electrified Railway Protection

P138

Page 473

P638

P921 P922

Under/Over Voltage/ Frequency

P923

473

MVAG

Load Shedding

P940 series

P841

Auto-reclose

P842

P210

P211

P220

Motor Protection

P225

P226

P241

Instantaneous operation. Multiple heavy-duty output contacts X X X X X Frequency protection includes ROCOF and frequency supervision characteristics. Load restoration function also available X 1P/3P X X X High speed 1P/3P auto-reclose/3P delayed auto-reclose relay for 2/3 CB's in breaker-and-a-half substations X 3P X X X Delayed auto-reclose of 2/3 CB's in mesh-connected substation, including auto-isolation of circuit disconnectors X X X Basic LV motor protection relay, with PT100 inputs for winding temperature measurement/protection X X X N N X LV motors only. Also includes motor winding temperature measurement/tripping using PT100 inputs. DIN rail mounted X X X N N X X X Also includes protection against excessive start time, locked rotor, winding temperature measurement/trip, speed switch input. Facilities for number of starts limitation and re-acceleration X X X X X N N N N X X X X X Also includes protection against excessive start time, locked rotor, stalling, reverse power, anti-backspin. Facilities for number of starts limitation, winding temperature measurement/trip, speed switch input and re-acceleration Compact case version of P225 X X X X X N N N N X X N+D X X X X X X Also includes protection against excessive start time, locked rotor, stalling, reverse power. Facilities for number of starts limitation, winding temperature measurement/trip using PT100 RTD's speed switch input and re-acceleration. Out of step protection for synchronous motors

N: non-directional

Dis tan ce p r o Che tec ck tion syn c h Un ron d e isin r vol g tag Rev e er s e pow Pha er se und e r N cur e utr ren al u t nd N e r e c gat urr ive ent s equ Bro enc ken e c o o v n e duc rcu Ne gat rren tor ive t s e The q uen rm ce al o v e rvo C B ltag fail ure e Ins tan tan e o Ins u sp tan has tan eo e o v T u e i s m rcu neu ed rren ela tra t yed lo T v i m e p rcu has ed rren ela eo ye ve t Vol d r c neu urr tag ent tra ed lo e p v Ove e e nde rcu rvo nt rren ltag ov t e e r Res c urr idu ent al o v e Res rvo tric ltag te e d / sen Wa siti ttm ve e t e a rth Pow ric fau er s lt wi n g A u blo tor cki ecl ng ose Ove r f r equ enc Un y de r f r equ enc Cur y ren td i f f VT e ren s u tial p erv isio CT n s u per visi CT on vec tor g r VT o up/ vec rat tor io g c rou om Trip p pen / C r ircu atio s it S com ation CB up p c e e ont r nsa visi rol/ tion on m Me o nito as u r ring em ent Eve s n t rec ord D ing i s tur ban ce P r r e o cor gra der m ma Set ble tin sc h g e Gro me ups log ic

25

27

32P 37P 37N

46 46BC 47

49 50BF 50P 50N 51P 51N 51V

59

59N

64 67W 78

79

81O 81U

87

VTS CTS X 1

M M X X X

X X X X X

X X X X X

1 1 1 2 2

Network Protection & Automation Guide

X X X

X X N N X X X Catenary Protection for 25, 50, 60Hz systems. Includes switch-on-to fault and defrost protection, train start-up restraint, wrong phase coupling As P438, for 16 2/3Hz systems X N N N N X Busbar/feeder protection. Applicable for all system frequencies X X N N N N X X Transformer protection. Includes Buchholz, tank-earth and overfluxing protection. Applicable for all system frequencies X X X X X X X X X X X X Includes ROCOF protection

X X X X X X X 4 4 4 1 1 X X X X 2 2

N+D: directional/non-directional C: Control only M: Monitoring only 1P: Single pole 3P: Three pole

Appendix 3 A3

Appendix 3-468-475

11:05

Application

Product

21

Tap Change Control

Time Delay Relays Heavy duty electromechanical control/CB tripping/intertripping relays, available in a variety of configurations

KVGC202 MVTT

Page 474

Control/Tripping Relays

MVAJ

Interposing Relays

Auxiliary Relays

474

Test Blocks/Plugs

Substation Automation

MVAW Prima MVAA MVUA MVAZ04 MMLB MMLG P991 P992 P993 PACiS SPACE 2000 PSCN3020 C232

C434

Bay Controllers

C264/8

C452/4/6 BM9100 BM9200 S900 C122 C952/4/6

RTU

C922

Network Protection & Automation Guide

C964/6

N: non-directional

Dis tan ce p r o Che tec ck tion syn c h Un ron d e isin r vol g tag Rev e er s e pow Pha er se und e r N cur e utr ren al u t nd N e r e c gat urr ive ent se Bro q u enc ken eo con ve d r Ne c u urr cto gat ent r ive s e The q uen rm ce al o v e rvo C B ltag fail ure e Ins tan tan e o Ins u sp tan has tan e e o o v T u e i s m rcu neu ed rren ela tra t ye lo T d v i m e p rcu has ed rren ela eo ye v t e Vol d r c neu urr tag ent tra ed lo e p v Ove e e nde rcu rvo nt rren ltag ov t e e r Res c urr idu ent al o v erv Res olta tric ge te d / sen Wa siti ttm ve e t e r a ic rth Po w fau er s lt win g A u b tor loc ecl kin ose g Ove r f r equ enc Un y de r f r equ enc Cur y ren td i f f VT e ren s u tial p erv isio CT n s u per visi CT on vec tor g r VT o up/ vec rat tor io g c rou om Trip p pen / C r ircu atio s it S com ation CB up p c e e ont r nsa visi rol/ tion on m Me o nito as u r ring em ent Eve s n t rec ord D ing i s tur ban ce Pro r e cor gra der m ma Set ble tin sc h g e Gro me ups log ic

Appendix 3

A3

21/06/02

25

27

32P 37P 37N

46 46BC 47

49 50BF 50P 50N 51P 51N 51V

59

59N

64 67W 78

79

81O 81U

87

VTS CTS

Tap change controller, including line drop compensation, circulating current control, tap changer maintenance monitor and tap change failure detection, tap position indicator, measurements and event recording Digital time delay relay - either delay on pick-up or drop-off

X X X

X X

1 1

Electromechanical interposing relays for remote control of CB's, etc. Insensitive to a.c. voltages. Hand reset flag available Compact electromechanical auxiliary relays in hand, electrical and self reset versions, with or without flag Electromechanical auxiliary relays in hand, electrical and self reset versions, with or without flag. Greater current carrying/breaking capacity than Prima relays Time delayed version of the MVAA relay Relay for switching protection relay elements in/out of service Test plug for use with MMLG test blocks. Single or multi-finger design Test block for use with all varieties of protection relays, particularly Midos series relays Test Block for use with all varieties of protection relays Multi-finger test plug for use with P991. Visible automatic shorting of CT circuits on insertion into test block Single finger test plug for use with P991. For CT circuit monitoring - isolated voltage output. Distributed digital substation control system, expandable from a single bay to a complete substation These products provide a comprehensive range of control, measurement and automation facilities, and are customised according to specific requirements. Contact the local Alstom sales office for further details of these products Compact Bay Controller for up to 6 switching devices, mimic, metering, optional communications facilities X X 1P/3P X X For up to 24 switchgear units, including user-defined bay types, tap change controller, and PT100 inputs X X 1P/3P X X X Comprehensive Bay Controller facilities, including energy and harmonics measurment, Power Quality monitoring, load profiling, Gateway to higher level communication networks Compact bay controller, for control of single bays, with mimic diagram. Wide variety of communications protocols for interfacing Bay Controller with mimic display, local/remote control, communications facilities, GPS time synchronisation, in-built logic facilities. Suitable for control of small networks Compact version of BM9100, reduced I/O capability and no mimic diagram RTU for acquisition of substation information and transmission to a SCADA system. Can act as a Sequence of Events Recorder RTU for Distribution System Automation Applications Compact RTU controlling up to 35 switching devices. Programmable logic, synchronism check and tap change control facilities X X X Suitable for LV/MV networks. Includes tap changer control and logic for autoreclose, auto-sectionalising, auto-restoration and source transfer X X X X Comprehensive RTU, including multi-bay monitoring/control, load profiling, Power Quality measurements, under-frequency load shedding, transformer management, tap changer control

N+D: directional/non-directional C: Control only M: Monitoring only 1P: Single pole 3P: Three pole

Appendix 3-468-475

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Application

Product

21

11:05

Disturbance Recorder

M830

M840 Stand-alone Power Quality meters for all voltage levels and Power Quality measurements, with remote upload facilities

Power Quality Monitoring

M720 range

Network Protection & Automation Guide

Page 475

M870 range

I400 range M300 range

Measurement Centres

M230

Battery Alarm

M220 M210 M100 Battery Alarm 300

Power Factor Controller

Novar 315

Programmable Logic Controller

C622

C664/6

N: non-directional

Dis tan ce p r o Che tec ck tion syn c h Un ron d e isin r vol g tag Rev e er s e pow Pha er se und e r N cur e utr ren al u t nd N e r e c gat urr ive ent se Bro q u enc ken eo con ve d r Ne c u urr cto gat ent r ive s e The q uen rm ce al o v e rvo C B ltag fail ure e Ins tan tan e o Ins u sp tan has tan e e o o v T u e i s m rcu neu ed rren ela tra t ye lo T d v i m e p rcu has ed rren ela eo ye v t e Vol d r c neu urr tag ent tra ed lo e p v Ove e e nde rcu rvo nt rren ltag ov t e e r Res c urr idu ent al o v erv Res olta tric ge te d / sen Wa siti ttm ve e t e r a ic rth Po w fau er s lt win g A u b tor loc ecl kin ose g Ove r f r equ enc Un y de r f r equ enc Cur y ren td i f f VT e ren s u tial p erv isio CT n s u per visi CT on vec tor g r VT o up/ vec rat tor io g c rou om Trip p pen / C r ircu atio s it S com ation CB up p c e e ont r nsa visi rol/ tion on m Me o nito as u r ring em ent Eve s n t rec ord D ing i s tur ban ce Pro r e cor gra der m ma Set ble tin sc h g e Gro me ups log ic

25

27

32P 37P 37N

46 46BC 47

49 50BF 50P 50N 51P 51N 51V

59

59N

64 67W 78

79

81O 81U

87

VTS CTS

Compact multi-function stand-alone disturbance recorder, with analogue and digital inputs, comprehensive triggering and sampling rates and upload facilities. Also includes phase-phase and phase-ground overvoltage protection, neutral voltage displacement and negative sequence voltages, and phase-phase and phase-ground undervoltage protection Multi-function stand-alone disturbance recorder, with analogue and digital inputs, comprehensive triggering and sampling rates and upload facilities

475

High performance measurement of power system parameters (voltage, current, power, demand, energy). Harmonics/THD measurement. Programmable by user. UCA v2/IEC 61850 communications available. Some models include event/disturbance recording, overcurrent protection, and measurements to tariff metering standards. Measurement of power system parameters (voltage, current power, energy), with accuracy to tariff metering standards. Harmonic measurement. Programmable by user. DIN rail mounting Measurement of power system parameters (voltage, current, power, power factor, frequency, energy), with accuracy to tariff metering standards. Harmonic measurement. Panel or DIN rail mounting Measurement of power system parameters (voltage, current, power, power factor, frequency, energy, maximum demand), with accuracy to tariff metering standards. Harmonic measurement. Compact case/panel mounting Measurement of power system parameters (voltage, current, power, power factor, frequency, energy, max demand). Energy measurements to 1% accuracy. DIN rail mounting Measurement of power system parameters (voltage, current, power, energy). Energy measurements to 1% accuracy. DIN rail mounting Energy measurements (kWh, kvarh) to 1% accuracy. DIN rail mounting Battery monitor for under- and over-voltage, high internal impedance, earth faults Power factor correction capacitor control. 6 stages, 8 switching sequences. Monitor/alarm for under/over voltage and harmonics PLC for power applications. Built-in sequences for tap changer control, trip circuit supervision. Suitable for implementing interlocks on CB's, Isolators, etc. PLC for power applications. Built-in sequences for tap changer control, load shedding, auto-reclose, check synchronisation, trip circuit supervision. Suitable for implementing interlocks on CB's, Isolators, etc.

N+D: directional/non-directional C: Control only M: Monitoring only 1P: Single pole 3P: Three pole

Table A3.1: ALSTOM Equipment Application List

Appendix 3 A3

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25

Distribution System Automation

Introduction Factors influencing the application of automation to distribution networks Primary distribution system automation Secondary distribution networks urban areas Secondary distribution networks rural areas Communications Distribution system automation software tools 25.1

25.2 25.3

25.4

25.5 25.6

25.7

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25 Distribution System Automation

25.1 INTRODUCTION Distribution systems are generally considered to be supply networks operating at 132kV and below, and to which consumers are normally connected. Within a distribution system, a division into primary and secondary distribution systems is often made, with primary distribution systems having voltages above 22kV and secondary distribution systems voltage below this value. Automation of distribution systems has existed for many years. The extent to which automation has been applied has been determined by a combination of technology and cost. For many years the available technology limited the application of automation to those parts of the distribution system where loss of supply had an impact on large numbers of consumers. Technology was not available to handle the large amount of geographically dispersed data required for automation of distribution systems in rural areas. Even when developments in technology began to overcome these problems, the cost of applying the technology was large in relation to the benefits gained. Often, there was no financial incentive to apply automation in rural distribution systems, and consumers were not entitled to compensation for loss of supply. As relatively few consumers would be affected by a fault on a rural distribution system, compared to a similar fault in an urban distribution system, the number of customer complaints received was not a sufficiently important factor to justify investment in network reliability. Interruptions to consumers in rural areas were treated as being inevitable. Recent developments such as privatisation started to focus attention on the cost to the consumer of a loss in supply. Interruptions in supply began to be reflected in cost penalties (directly or indirectly) to the Utility, thus providing a financial incentive to improve matters. Rural consumers gradually became more aware of the disparity in the number of supply interruptions between rural and urban distribution networks. This led, in conjunction with an increasing emphasis on Power Quality issues (see

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Chapter 23), to pressure on Utilities to improve the situation. In addition, the population in rural areas became more dependent on electrical equipment, and thus the consequences of a supply outage were more significant. The term automation conjures up the use of microprocessors, maybe linked together over a communications network and running special purpose software to execute a sequence of actions automatically. While such technology is employed and forms part of distribution system automation, the term automation may imply nothing more than the ability to close or open a switch remotely in addition to local (hand) control. It may involve nothing more than the addition of an

actuator, and simple on/off remote control facilities. Technology has been applied to reduce the cost of such devices, thus improving the economics of their application. Therefore, the field of distribution system automation is a very broad one, and the solution applied to any particular problem will reflect the particular circumstances of problem and regulatory regime of the Utility concerned. Figure 25.1 shows typical distribution systems that form the subject of this chapter, complete with the elements of the distribution system to which automation techniques are applied. The remaining sections of this chapter describe the various automation techniques available, together with typical applications.

Transmission system

Distribution System Automation

110kV

110kV

110/ 11kV

110/ 33kV 110kV

110/ 33kV

110/ 11kV

Large consumers

33kV

RMU

RMU

RMU

25

33/11kV Urban distribution network Load

33/11kV

33/11kV

Load

Load

33kV

RMU

RMU

RMU

33/11kV Urban Distribution Network Load Spur lines Main circuit Rural distribution network Figure 25.1: Elements of a distribution system

33/11kV

33/11kV

Load

Load Spur lines

Normally open point

444

Network Protection & Automation Guide

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25.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE APPLICATION OF AUTOMATION TO DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS Cost is the main driving factor in the application of an automation scheme to a distribution network. Regulatory pressure may also influence the decision. The cost may arise in many different ways. Savings from implementing distribution system automation result from reducing: a. revenue foregone during outages b. cost of handling customer complaints c. cost of control/maintenance staff d. cost of compensation to consumers for outages Less tangible benefits can also be identified, such as deferral of system enhancement (i.e. deferral of capital expenditure) through better knowledge of network performance. The financial advantage to the Utility of such benefits may be more difficult to calculate, but should be incorporated in any financial comparison for a proposed scheme. There are inevitably costs incurred through use of an automation scheme: a. cost of implementation (capital cost) b. cost of operation c. cost of maintenance and clearly the total costs saved must be in excess of the total costs of implementation and use to make a scheme viable. For many years, automation has been implemented at voltages above 22kV, simply due to the number of consumers inconvenienced by a supply outage and the resulting costs (in whatever form). However, in recent years, the traditional balance of cost/benefit has been changed, due to: 1. increasing dependence by communities/industry on electricity 2. privatisation (in some countries) 3. the spread of electricity supply to ever more remote areas 4. the cost of training and retaining skilled staff 5. increasing emphasis on Power Quality issues This change has been in favour of increased automation of the distribution system, including system voltages down to LV. Regulatory pressure to improve the reliability and quality of electricity supply to end-users produces an outcome that the associated costs are only acceptable if technology is applied to automate the secondary distribution system. Therefore, automation of the secondary distribution system has become more

widespread. At the same time, overhead lines in rural areas suffer many more faults leading to consumer supply loss than urban cable networks. These findings are not surprising rural distribution networks are commonly in the form of radial feeders whereas urban networks are often in the form of ring or meshed networks to minimise the chances of supply loss to large groups of consumers. Similarly, overhead lines are normally more prone to faults than underground cables. Because the fault incidence on EHV overhead lines is significantly lower than for those on distribution systems, it is also arguable that the technical standards relating to overhead lines on distribution networks also require review. Therefore, developments in distribution system automation have concentrated largely on applications to the secondary distribution system.

25.3 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM AUTOMATION

Bulk transmission network

110kV

To Primary distribution substation

Large consumers

110/50kV

50kV

Feeders to secondary distribution system 50kV

Feeders to secondary distribution system Figure 25.2: Primary distribution system

Network Protection & Automation Guide

445

Distribution System Automation 25

The primary distribution system is generally accepted as comprising those elements of the distribution system operating at voltages above 22kV. Distribution uses both cable and overhead lines, and the power levels involved will enable either a large group of domestic consumers, or several industrial plants to be served. Very large industrial plants may justify their own dedicated feeders from the primary distribution substation (Figure 25.2).

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Automation of the primary distribution system is well established, due to the impact of supply loss on the many and diverse consumers that it serves. In addition, the distribution system is usually interconnected, so that loss of supply to consumers in the event of a circuit outage is minimised. The circuit breakers and protection systems used in the system will already be capable of remote control/monitoring. However, status information on a circuit may be confined to simple on/off/open/closed/tripped indications, and determination of the cause of a trip will still require despatch of a maintenance crew to the equipment concerned. Only after the cause of a trip has been determined can fault location and rectification take place. Hence modern network automation techniques can be usefully applied. Application of such techniques brings the following advantages: a. ability to control a much larger area b. provision of detailed network performance information c. reduction in space requirements d. reduction in staffing

voltage variations can also be stored and downloaded at regular intervals and provides two main benefits. Firstly, monitoring of Power Quality can be undertaken and hence customer complaints readily investigated. Sufficient information may well be available to establish the short-term actions required to correct or minimise the problem, resulting in fewer customer complaints, and a possible reduction in financial penalties. Secondly, a review of the loading profile of circuits against time can be undertaken. Using appropriate plant thermal ageing models, the rating of circuits can be reviewed and adjusted. This may result in an enhanced rating being given to circuits, and hence the postponement of capital expenditure.

25.3.3 Space Requirements Many countries have significant pressure on land-use for infrastructure requirements. A modern microprocessor relay can now undertake the functions previously requiring several discrete relays, and of measurement devices, thus eliminating numerous VTs and CTs, measurement transducers/indicators, auxiliary contacts on circuit breakers, etc. Wiring between plant items is much reduced. Use of modern communications techniques such as data transmission by mobile radio networks can similarly reduce wiring requirements to/from the Control Centre. The space requirements in a substation for housing the relays associated with the circuits of a distribution network can be reduced, giving a significant reduction in expenditure on the buildings associated with the substation. Benefits can also be obtained from eliminating separate metering devices, reducing space provision and hence cost.

Distribution System Automation

25.3.1 Control Area Size The modern electric power network has tight coupling between the various elements - a problem in one area may have knock-on effects over a wide area. Hence, traditional distribution control rooms serving a limited geographical area are being replaced by fewer (perhaps only one for a Utility serving up to 10,000km2 area) and in these cases older automation systems may not be able to handle the total I/O count. Either the upper limit on I/O points will have been reached, or response times to an event become too slow to be of practical use. Use of a modern automation system permits a reduction in the number of control centres used, with each centre able to oversee a much wider geographical area. Thus, incidents that have an impact outside of the immediate area can be dealt with more effectively and hence result in a better response to the incident and fewer customer complaints.

25.3.4 Staffing Levels The reduction in the number of Control Centres leads naturally to a reduction in the staffing requirement for such places. More importantly, the ability of intelligent relays to report their settings and measured values to a Control Centre, and to accept revised settings downloaded from the control centre can lead to significant improvements in the quality of supply, while at the same time reducing the staffing required compared to a manual system. Distribution systems are subject to regular changes in configuration and loading, and these may require changes to protection relay settings. Manual means of determining protection relay settings involve site surveys at the substations concerned to record existing settings, followed by further visits to carry out changes as required. Pressures on staffing may mean that such exercises are carried out at extended intervals. A modern automated distribution system eliminates much of the manual effort by automation of

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25.3.2 Detailed Network Performance Information Modern microprocessor-based relays can store a wealth of information relating to the cause of a trip and transmit such data, when requested, to a Control Centre. Hence, the nature and possibly the location of a fault can be identified. The maintenance/repair crew can be provided with better information, thus shortening circuit downtime and enhancing distribution network availability. Data relating to network loading and

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the reporting and downloading of relay settings. While scope still exists for introducing errors into relay setting values, the incidence of these is reduced. Regular comparison of settings against desired values increases the possibility of incorrect settings being identified and corrected, thus minimising the resulting disruption.

25.4 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS URBAN AREAS A high level of interconnection, either ring or mesh, to ensure a high degree of availability of supply to the consumer, characterises secondary distribution networks in urban areas. Domestic, industrial and commercial consumers will suffer great inconvenience through only a relatively short loss in supply of only a few hours, with business likely to suffer considerable financial loss if an interruption is longer than 2-4 hours. For domestic consumers, loss of supply for between 4-8 hours is largely an inconvenience, though loss may result from spoilage of freezer contents, etc. and in cold weather may place vulnerable sections of the community at risk. Such hazards for a privatised Utility give rise to the potential for significant financial loss, through claims for compensation.

A typical urban secondary distribution system is shown in Figure 25.3. There is a large proportion of underground cable, and final feeders to LV distribution substations take the form of feeders from Ring Main Units (RMUs). Several RMUs are connected in a loop fed from one or more substations, the loop normally being open at some point. The open point is normally chosen to equalise loading at both ends of the ring as far as possible. The cables forming the ring and all associated switchgear, etc., are sized for single-end feeding of the whole ring, to allow for an outage affecting the ring between a substation and the first RMU, or at the substation itself. The arrangement of an individual RMU is shown in Figure 25.4(a). For many years, only local operation and indications (trip/healthy) were provided, so that switching operations required a visit from field staff. Trips at an RMU resulting in loss of supply to consumers were annunciated through customer complaints, no direct indication to the control room was provided.

Ring Primary distribution network

Ring

Ring Main Unit Spur 33kV (a) Basic Ring Main Unit

To Secondary distribution 33/11kV substation

33/11kV

Ring 11kV Remote interface M M I>

Ring

RMU 11/0.4kV RMU 11/0.4kV

RMU 11/0.4kV RMU

M Ring Main Unit Spur (b) Automated Ring Main Unit

11/0.4kV Final distribution

RMU 11/0.4kV RMU RMU

RMU 11/0.4kV RMU 11/0.4kV

Figure 25.4: Ring Main Unit

11/0.4kV

11/0.4kV

Final distribution Figure 25.3: Typical urban secondary distribution system

The individual items of plant have developed over many years and are generally reliable, taken individually. Major failures of a complete distribution system are rare, and usually stem from inadequate specification of the original equipment, or failure to monitor the condition of

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equipment with time. This is especially the case where loading and/or environmental conditions have changed. However, once a fault occurs (and sooner or later this is inevitable), location, repair and restoration of normal supply can take time. In particular, repair of faults in underground cables may take some time, as the location must first be identified to within a few metres, and then the ground excavated to effect the repair. In the centre of a large city, excavation is not popular and will be expensive. Traffic congestion will ensure that the response time for a repair crew to arrive at a substation after a fault has been reported is not trivial, especially where (in some privatised Utilities), penalties may be imposed for loss of supply to consumers lasting more than 60 minutes. The application of automation techniques has therefore many advantages. This will usually require the provision of extra features to an RMU. The most common features added are:

compensation paid can be justification in itself. Interrogation of relays/(FPIs) can then determine the feeder circuit on which the fault has occurred, thus enabling restoration of supply to customers unaffected by the fault to begin immediately. In some cases, it may be possible to devise automatic sequences for this, thus relieving the control room operator of this duty and enabling concentration on the task of precise fault location and repair. Equipment that is used rarely may fail to operate when called upon to do so. Much effort has been paid in protection relay design to avoid this problem, and digital and numerical relays generally have a self-checking function that runs regularly and is arranged to alarm if the function detects an internal fault. However, circuit breakers and other switching devices that may not operate for a considerable period can get stuck in their normal position and thus fail to operate when commanded to. A number of major system collapses have been known to occur because of such problems, it being not always possible to provide backup protection that will operate in sufficient time. One solution to this problem is to exercise such equipment on a regular basis. This can be done at little cost to the Utility if carried out remotely, but is prohibitively expensive if carried out on a local manual basis. Finally, through an improved knowledge of network performance, network enhancements may be able to be postponed or eliminated, which is a substantial bonus as the costs of installing new cables in urban areas can be very high. Figure 25.5 shows a modern RMU suitable for installation indoors practice varies between countries in such matters, with outdoor installation also being common.

Distribution System Automation

a. capability for remote operation addition of actuators for open/close operation of the various devices that are capable of being operated from a remote location b. provision of remote indications of status of the various devices c. addition of Fault Passage Indicators (FPIs). An FPI is a sensor that detects passage of current in excess of a defined value, and therefore provides an indication that the fault is further from the supply point (for a radial-fed system) than the FPI d. addition of a protection relay for phase/earth faults Note that once it has been decided to provide remote control or indication, some form of communications interface is also required and the incremental cost of providing both remote control and indication instead of one or the other is very small A typical configuration for an RMU with all options fitted is shown in Figure 25.4(b). Traditional manual operation of RMUs can be replaced by remote control. Many existing designs of RMU can be adapted in this way, while all new designs have this feature as standard. The remote communications feature provides the following features: 1. issuing of commands to open/close the circuit breaker, etc. 2. provision of status availability) etc. 3. voltage and current data Provision of remote indication of status to a Control Centre enables the response time to a fault to be reduced. The reduction in customer complaints and information (position,

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Figure 25.5: Modern indoor RMU

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25.5 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS RURAL AREAS The challenges in network automation for rural areas are similar to those in urban areas, however the network topology may be very different. A typical conventional network topology is shown in Figure 25.6. Due to relatively sparse population, feeders are generally radial, often with spur lines, and can be quite lengthy 60km length of main feeder at 11kV being possible. The feeders are usually conventional overhead lines with uninsulated conductors, and fault rates for these lines are high in comparison with cables or EHV overhead lines. In some countries, lightly insulated conductors are used, and these reduce the fault rates experienced.

25.5.1 Circuit Breaker Remote Control/Monitoring This provides a small advantage in alerting the operator to a loss of supply, and a larger one in minimising restoration time. Most OHL faults are transient in nature, and therefore circuit breaker reclosure after a short time interval is likely to result in supply being restored. The operator may therefore attempt a manual closure of the circuit breaker to restore supply. Use of an auto-reclose scheme (see Chapter 14) may further reduce the disconnection time and relieve the control room operator of workload, especially in conditions of poor weather when many distribution feeders may suffer transient faults.

25.5.2 Automatic Sectionalisers An automatic sectionaliser is a switching device that detects the flow of current in excess of a set value and opens a switch to disconnect the network downstream of the device. Because such devices are usually polemounted, in locations remote from a suitable electricity supply, the sensing and switching mechanism is arranged to be self-powered. The expense of a transformer, etc. to provide such a supply from the supply side of the line is not justified and adds additional complication. By placing automatic sectionalisers at intervals along the line, it is possible to disconnect only the faulted section of line and those beyond it. The number of consumers affected by a permanent fault is minimised, and a more precise indication of the location is possible. For circuits that have more than one feed and a normally open point (Figure 25.7), loss of supply until the fault is repaired can be limited to the section in which the fault lies. The sectionaliser at point B opens automatically and the operator can take action to open the one at point C. The faulted section is thus isolated and (subject to system conditions being satisfactory) the sectionaliser at the normally open point may be closed.

A Sectionaliser operates B C

Normally open point

Normally open point

NB: Consumer connections not shown Figure 25.6: Rural distribution network

Response times for location and repair of faults may be lengthy, as the only indication of a fault having occurred may be customer complaints of loss of supply due to the source circuit breaker having tripped. In this case, all consumers fed by the line will suffer loss of supply, and determining the location of the fault may take a considerable time. Many possible enhancements taking advantage of automation techniques to the basic feeder topology are possible to improve the situation: a. add remote control/monitoring to the circuit breaker b. add automatic sectionalisers

Fault

Normally open point

NB: Consumer connections not shown Figure 25.7: Automatic sectionaliser operation

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However, there can be drawbacks as well. Grading of the feeder circuit breaker with the sectionalisers may be difficult and result in longer fault clearance times for faults in the section between the circuit breaker and first sectionaliser. The circuit breaker must be rated for the resulting fault duty. Consumers situated in healthy sections of line may suffer extended voltage dips, which may give rise to problems with equipment. An illustration of the device is given in Figure 25.8. A development of the automatic sectionaliser is the automatic recloser. This device opens when a fault is sensed, and subsequently re-closes according to a preset sequence. It can be thought of as the distribution network equivalent to an auto-reclose scheme applied to circuit breakers on an EHV transmission line. It overcomes the disadvantage of a sectionaliser in that transient faults do not result in loss of supply to consumers downstream of the device.

RTU * * RTU * RTU * RTU

RTU
*

RTU RTU * RTU * RTU * * RTU

Normally open * point

* RTU RTU *

Normally open point

* RTU

* RTU

* RTU

Distribution System Automation

NB: Consumer connections not shown * CB's/reclosers/sectionalisers fitted with transducers for volts/amps and Fault Passage Indicator CB's/reclosers fitted with overcurrent/ earth fault relay and automatic reclosing device. Figure 25.9: Automated rural distribution network

The benefits provided are: a. rapid restoration of supply to all consumers following transient faults b. disconnection of the minimum number of consumers following a permanent fault c. indication of network performance to the control centre, including fault location and network loading d. reduced requirement of field crews to carry out manual switching e. reduced fault location time In common with other distribution systems, intelligent devices such as circuit breakers and sectionalisers fitted with remote control and current/power sensing devices can be used to gather information on network operating conditions and hence be used as inputs when network enhancement is being considered. With existing equipment, such information may not be available at all unless a field measurement exercise is undertaken. The information can be used not only to identify constraints in the network, but also to determine spare capacity much more accurately (in terms of permissible shortterm overloads possible without excessive temperature rises occurring). Network re-inforcement may then possibly be postponed or even eliminated, resulting in

Figure 25.8: Modern automatic sectionaliser

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The first automatic reclosure operates a short time after opening and will usually be successful if the fault is a transient one. Should a fault still be detected upon the first reclosure, the recloser deliberately remains closed for a significant time to try and clear the fault by using the arc energy to burn out the cause of the fault. The recloser then opens, and closes after a pre-set dead time. Should the fault still exist, a further burn time/open/reclose cycle is carried out, after which a final open/lockout operation is performed if the fault still exists. The usual remote control and indication facilities are provided. Some form of condition monitoring may be used, so that maintenance is requested only when required, and not on the usual basis of the number of switching operations carried out. Figure 25.9 shows the distribution network of Figure 25.6 after application of full automation as described above.

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reduced capital expenditure requirements. There is also the potential for improved thermal modelling of plant, to produce a more accurate thermal loss-of life indication.

25.6 COMMUNICATIONS Perhaps the most difficult task in automating a distribution network is selection of the appropriate communications technique for implementation of the remote control/reporting facilities. Several techniques are available, as follows: a. hard-wired b. Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) c. mobile radio (packet switched data) d. conventional or low-powered radio (including Microwave) e. Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) Trials to date appear to indicate that the choice of communications medium is critical. Therefore, extensive investigations in this area are required. Not all of the possibilities are suitable for all types of distribution system or geographical area, and this needs to be kept in mind.

properly specified. Reported experience on schemes in operation suggest that call set-up times may be slow, and line quality (even in densely populated urban areas) may not be high, leading to slow data rates and hence restrictions in the amount of data that can be transmitted in a reasonable time.

25.6.3 Mobile Radio Mobile radio is a quite attractive option. Many companies offer packet-switched data techniques to business users. Field experience reported to date indicates that this method is well suited to both urban and rural areas. The main problem in urban areas appears to be shielding of the required antennas by other buildings or parked vehicles a problem shared by all communications techniques involving radio. In rural areas, investment may be required to provide the necessary area of cover, and this may take time to achieve, depending on the priorities of the telecomms provider involved. However, mobile telecomms service providers are usually keen to expand service coverage and sites for the required masts may conveniently be located along the right-of-way of the distribution system lines.

25.6.1 Hard-Wired Communication Hard-wired communication is generally not a viable option, as the infrastructure will not be available. The costs of installing the required cabling will be large, and it will normally be found that there are less expensive solutions available. However, in cases where there is infrastructure already available, this solution will be attractive. All cabling suffers from the possibility of faults, and therefore an alternate route, maybe sourced from a telecomms provider, may be required as backup.

25.6.4 Conventional Radio Use of radio as a telecomms medium is well established amongst Utilities. Low powered radio has been used in a number of trial installations of distribution system automation schemes without significant problems. The requirements for base stations are similar to those for mobile telecomms, together with the same possible hazards. One possible drawback to greater adoption of such techniques is that low-powered radio is not subject to regulation in some countries. There is no guarantee that interference from systems operating on the same or nearby frequencies will not occur, nor is there any mechanism available to ensure that a frequency, once chosen, is reserved solely for the user in that area. The regulatory situation could be expected to change if wider use of such techniques occurred.

25.6.2 Use of PSTN Network Use of the existing fixed public telecomms infrastructure will normally be feasible for urban distribution networks. For rural networks, the required infrastructure probably does not exist. Line quality will be of critical importance and equipment to ensure detection of errors in transmission, and request repeat transmission of data, will probably be required. Similarly, as substations are areas of high electrical interference, appropriate measures to protect the required hardware in substations will be required. Technical solutions to these problems readily exist, but appropriate data on the probable interference levels, especially those occurring transiently under fault conditions or due to lightning strikes on overhead lines are required to ensure that equipment is

25.6.5 Microwave Transmission Microwave transmission is a possibility, although severely handicapped by the fact that it relies on lineofsight communications. Numerous repeater stations may therefore be required in hilly terrain. It does not appear to have been used in trials reported on to date so the practical performance cannot be judged. However, given appropriate terrain, it still merits consideration.

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25.6.6 PLC Communications Power Line Carrier is a technique that is well known to Utilities and makes extensive use of existing Utilityowned infrastructure. However, additional equipment is needed at each substation to ensure that the signal only travels along the desired path and is prevented from travelling along others and causing unwanted interference. The additional equipment required can make a new installation expensive, and retrofit on existing distribution systems at lower voltages probably prohibitively so. Space provision for the required line traps and coupling transformers is required, which may be difficult to find at many locations. At higher distribution voltage levels (e.g. 66kV/110/132kV), it is more attractive, especially as it may already have been installed for other reasons. Data rates may be limited and transmission failure may occur under fault conditions, just at the time when it is most needed. Whichever communications medium is chosen, care is also needed in the choice of communications protocol. The common IEC 60870-5-103 master/slave protocol used by many protection/measurement devices is not wholly appropriate for such techniques. It requires polling by the master station of the slave devices on a regular basis, whereas initiation by field devices is ideally required, in order to limit the communications bandwidth required. Protocol converters may be required in the field, making one additional source of unreliability. At the Control Centre, a protocol converter will almost certainly be required, to interface to the SCADA system in use. Each element in the scheme must be reliable in operation and not be prone to false operation in any way, otherwise credibility is rapidly lost. Not only will the scheme fall rapidly into disuse, but also the experience will colour the assessment of future schemes for many years to come. More information on data transmission protocols is to be found in Chapter 24.

development and can be expected to be available soon, producing further enhancements in distribution network performance.

25.7.1 Topology Analysis In its simplest form, topology analysis can be simply an operator display of the distribution network, using colours to differentiate between the various states in the network. The network may be displayed in terms of its state (energised/non-energised), voltage level, or source of supply. More advanced software tools may involve state estimation of the network, using historical or assumed data. This is used to fill in gaps in the known network topology, due perhaps to communications failures or use of legacy equipment without communications facilities on some parts of the network. The results of the analyses are displayed and are used as inputs to other software tools.

Distribution System Automation

25.7.2 Power System Calculations These involve load flow and fault level calculations to determine network loading, possible overloads on equipment and to ensure equipment is operated within fault level ratings. Special requirements may exist in implementing solution techniques due to the radial nature of the network. It may also be necessary to predict network performance in the future by assuming loads, or to assume data where it is lacking, by use of state estimation techniques. The losses in the distribution system, or any part of it, can be evaluated to determine the efficiency of the network and as an input to intelligent configuration tools to assist the operator in selecting the most appropriate configuration as network conditions change.

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25.7 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM AUTOMATION SOFTWARE TOOLS To assist the operator of a distribution network, there are a number of software tools that can be used to assist in making decisions and implementing them. They are: a. topology analysis b. power system calculations c. power quality management d. system configuration management The tools may be available as on-line interactive tools, to assist in decision-making, or as off-line tools to study the impact of decisions (what-if scenarios). Some of the technology is available now, especially in off-line form, but all features described are under active

25.7.3 Power Quality Management Power Quality has been covered in Chapter 23. Software can be used for calculating various performance indices relating to Power Quality. The results, whether obtained off-line or in real-time, can be used to influence the operation of the network to minimise either one or several of the performance indicators. There may be economic benefits for the Utility through more efficient use of the network and avoidance of financial penalties where performance targets are not met. The tool will use inputs from the Topology Analysis and Power System Calculation tools in order for the functions to be carried out. Typical user outputs are tap changer and capacitor switching schedules, energy losses for the whole or selected parts of the network for defined periods of time, harmonic levels, data relating to supply interruptions

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(Customer Minutes Lost, etc), and reliability indices for the network. The data relating to losses can be split into those that are load related and those that are independent of load. This data can be input into tools relating to Asset Management, as the choice of feeder type/rating and design of transformers, etc. can be influenced by such factors.

25.7.4 System Configuration Tool This tools can be used either off-line to examine the impact of proposed changes to the network, or on-line to suggest changes to a network to yield optimal results, according to a number of user-specified criteria. The impact of proposed switching sequences is also analysed, to ensure that the duty imposed is within rating. The user-specified criteria may include those relating to Power Quality, while required inputs are the outputs from the Topology and Power System Calculation tools. A further function of this tool is to calculate the optimal order of switching in a network to restore supplies after an incident, while maintaining safety. Alternative sequences that can be adopted in the event of failure of a device to respond to a command are also available.

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Substation Control and Automation

Introduction Topology and functionality Hardware implementation Communication protocols Substation automation functionality System configuration and testing Examples of substation automation 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5 24.6 24.7

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24 Substation Control and Automation

24.1 INTRODUCTION The sometimes complex interlocking and sequence control requirements that are to be found in a substation of any significant size lend themselves naturally to the application of automation. These requirements can be readily expressed in mathematical logic (truth tables, boolean algebra, etc.) and this branch of mathematics is well-suited to the application of computers and associated software. Hence, computers have been applied to the control of electrical networks for many years, and examples of them being applied to substation control/automation were in use in the early 1970s. The first applications were naturally in the bulk power transmission field, as a natural extension of a trend to centralised control rooms for such systems. The large capital investment in such systems and the consequences of major system disruption made the cost of such schemes justifiable. In the last ten years or so, continuing cost pressures on Utilities and advances in computing power and software have led to the application of computers to substation control/ automation on a much wider basis. This Chapter outlines the current technology and provides examples of modern practice in the field.

24.2 TOPOLOGY AND FUNCTIONALITY The topology of a substation control system is the architecture of the computer system used. The functionality of such a system is the complete set of functions that can be implemented in the control system but note that a particular substation may only utilise a subset of the functionality possible. All computer control systems utilise one of two basic topologies: a. centralised b. distributed and the basic concepts of each are illustrated in Figure

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24.1. Early examples of substation automation used the centralised concept, due to limitations in technology, both of processor power and communication techniques. Latest examples use a distributed architecture, in that a number of Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) such as microprocessor based relays may be linked via a multidrop serial link to a local processor. The local processor may control one or more bays in a substation. All of the local processors are, in turn, connected to a Human Machine Interface (or HMI), and possibly also to a local or remote SCADA system for overall network monitoring/control.

I/O may include digital and analogue I/O (for interfacing to discrete devices such as CB close/trip circuits, isolator motors, non-microprocessor based protection relays) and communications links (serial or parallel as required) to IEDs c. Human Machine Interface (HMI). This is the principal user interface and would normally take the form of a computer. The familiar desktop PC is commonly used, but specialised computers are also possible, while normally unmanned substations may dispense with a permanently installed HMI and rely on operations/maintenance staff bringing a portable computer equipped with the appropriate software with them when attendance is required. It is usual to also provide one or more printers linked to the HMI in order to provide hard-copy records of various kinds (Sequence of Events recorder, alarm list, etc.) d. A communications bus or busses, linking the various devices. In a new substation, all of the elements of the automation system will normally use the same bus, or at most two busses, to obtain cost-effectiveness. Where a substation automation system is being retrofitted to an existing substation, it may be necessary to use existing communications busses to communicate with some existing devices. This can lead to a multiplicity of communications busses within the automation system e. A link to a remote SCADA system. This may be provided by a dedicated interface unit, be part of the HMI computer or part of an IED. It perhaps may not be provided at all though since one of the benefits of substation automation is the capability of remote control/ monitoring, this would be highly unusual. It may only occur during a staged development of an automation scheme at a time when the bay operations are being automated but the substation is still manned, prior to implementing remote control capability

Control Centre

Substation Control and Automation

Outstations (a) Centralised topology

Outstation Control centre Outstation

Control centre

Outstation Outstation Outstation

Control centre

Outstation (b) Distributed topology

Figure 24.1: Basic substation automation system topologies

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24.2.1 System Elements The main system elements in a substation control system are: a. IEDs, implementing a specific function or functions on a circuit or busbar in a substation. The most common example of an IED is a microprocessor based protection relay, but it could also be a microprocessor based measurement device, interface unit to older relays or control, etc. b. Bay Module (or controller). This device will normally contain all of the software required for the control and interlocking of a single bay (feeder, etc.) in the substation, and sufficient I/O to interface to all of the required devices required for measurement/protection/control of the bay. The

24.2.3 System Requirements A substation control/automation scheme will normally be required to possess the following features: a. control of all substation electrical equipment from a central point b. monitoring of all substation electrical equipment from a central point c. interface to remote SCADA system d. control of electrical equipment in a bay locally e. monitoring of electrical equipment in a bay locally

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f. status monitoring of all connected substation automation equipment g. system database management h. energy management i. condition monitoring of substation electrical equipment (switchgear, transformers, relays, IEDs) The system may be required to be fault-tolerant, implying that redundancy in devices and communication paths is provided. The extent of fault-tolerance provided will depend on the size and criticality of the substation to the operator, and the normal manning status (manned/ unmanned). Many of the functions may be executed from a remote location (e.g. a System Control Centre) in addition to the substation itself. Certain of the above functions will be required even in the most elementary application. However, the selection of the complete set of functions required for a particular application is essentially the responsibility of the enduser (Utility, etc.). Due to a modular, building block approach to software design, it is relatively easy to add functionality at a later stage. This often occurs through changing operators needs and/or electrical network development. Compatibility of the underlying database of network data must be addressed to ensure that historical data can still be accessed.

control will be possible if the computer fails for any reason. Such a topology is therefore only suited to small MV substations where the consequences of computer failure (requiring a visit from a repair crew to remedy) are acceptable. Bay Modules are not used, the software for control and interlocking of each substation bay runs as part of the HMI computer software.

SCADA interface

Master clock (GPS, radio)

Remote HMI

HMI Station bus

Telecontrol or bus interface

Internet or PSTN Bus interface I/O, devices CT, VT

Bus interface IED's

Legacy bus

Computer IED's

The HMI, telecontrol interface, and the bus interface could be: separate equipment integrated into the same PC

Figure 24.2: HMI-based hardware topology

24.3.2 RTU-based Topology 24.3 HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION To form a substation control system, the various elements described above must be assembled into some form of topology. Three major hardware topologies can be identified as being commonly used, as follows: This topology is an enhancement of the HMI topology and is shown in Figure 24.3. A microprocessor-based RTU is used to host the automation software, freeing the HMI computer for operator interface duties only. The HMI computer can therefore be less powerful and usually takes the form of a standard PC, or for not-normallymanned substations, visiting personnel can use a portable PC.
SCADA interface HMI Internet or PSTN
Telecontrol or bus interface

24.3.1 HMI-based Topology This takes the form of Figure 24.2. The software to implement the control/automation functions resides in the HMI computer and this has direct links to IEDs using one or more communications protocols. The link to a remote SCADA system is normally also provided in the HMI computer, though a separate interface unit may be provided to offload some of the processor requirements from the HMI computer, especially if a proprietary communications protocol to the SCADA system is used. For this topology, a powerful HMI computer is clearly required if large numbers of IEDs are to be accommodated. In practice, costs usually dictate the use of a standard PC, and hence there will be limitations on substation size that it can be applied to because of a resulting limit to the number of IEDs that can be connected. The other important issue is one of reliability and availability there is only one computer that can control the substation and therefore only local manual

RTU Bus interface

Master clock (GPS, radio)

Legacy bus IED's

I/O, devices CT, VT The RTU, telecontrol interface and the bus interface could be: separate equipment integrated into the same computer

Figure 24.3: RTU-based topology

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The RTU is purpose designed and can house one or more powerful microprocessors. A greater number of I/O points can be accommodated than in the HMI topology, while the possibility exists of hosting a wider variety of communication protocols for IEDs and the remote SCADA connection. Bay Modules are not required, the associated software for interlocking and control sequences is part of the RTU software.

HMI computer

Bay Modules Bay Modules Bay Modules

Bay Modules

24.3.3 Decentralised Topology This topology is illustrated in Figure 24.4. In it, each bay of the substation is controlled by a Bay Module, which houses the control and interlocking software, interfaces to the various IEDs required as part of the control and protection for the bay, and an interface to the HMI. It is possible to use an HMI computer to take local control of an individual bay for commissioning/testing and fault finding purposes. The amount of data from the various substation I/O points dictates that a separate SCADA interface unit is provided (often called an RTU or Gateway), while it is possible to have more than one HMI computer, the primary one being dedicated to operations and others for engineering use. Optionally, a remote HMI computer may be made available via a separate link. It is always desirable in such schemes to separate the realtime operations function from engineering tasks, which do not have the same time-critical importance.
SCADA interface Master clock (GPS, radio) HMI Telecontrol or bus interface Computer Remote HMI

(a) Star connection of bay modules HMI computer

Bay Modules

Bay Modules

Substation Control and Automation

Bay Modules

Bay Modules

(b) Ring connection of Bay Modules Figure 24.5: Methods of hardware interconnection

Of course, it is possible to overcome the first problem by duplicating links and running the links in physically separate routes. However, this makes the I/O port problem worse, while additional design effort is required in ensuring cable route diversity. An alternative is to connect the Bay Modules, HMI computer and SCADA gateway in a ring, as shown in Figure 24.5(b). By using a communication architecture such as found in a LAN network, each device is able to talk to any other device on the ring without any message conflicts. A single break in the ring does not result in loss of any facilities. The detection of ring breakage and re-configuration required can be made automatically. Thus, the availability and fault tolerance of the network is improved. Multiple rings emanating from the HMI computer can be used if the number of devices exceeds the limit for a single ring. It can be easier to install on a step-by-step basis for retrofit applications, but of course, all these advantages have a downside. The cost of such a topology is higher than that of the other solutions, so this topology is reserved for situations where the highest reliability and availability is required - i.e. HV and EHV transmission substations. Redundancy can also be provided at the individual device level. Relays and other IEDs may be duplicated, though this would not be usual unless required for other reasons (e.g. EHV transmission lines may be required to have duplicate main protections this is not strictly speaking

Internet or PSTN Station bus Computer

Bus interface Bay Module

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Legacy bus

The Bay Module and bus interface could be: separate equipments integrated into the Bay Module

IED's

I/O, devices CT, VT Figure 24.4: Decentralised topology

The connection between the various Bay Modules and the HMI computer is of some interest. Simplest is the star arrangement of Figure 24.5(a). This is the least-cost solution but suffers from two disadvantages. Firstly, a break in the link will result in loss of remote control of the bay affected; only local control via a local HMI computer connected to the bay is then possible. Secondly, the number of communication ports available on the HMI computer will limit the number of Bay Modules.

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duplication of individual devices - which would require each individual main protection to have two identical relays voting on a 1 out of 2 basis). It is usual to have more than one operators HMI, either for operational reasons or for fault-tolerance. The system computer may be duplicated on a hot-standby or dual-redundant basis, or tasks may be normally shared between two or more system computers with each of them having the capability of taking over the functions of one of the others in the event of a failure. The total I/O count in a major substation will become large and it must be ensured that the computer hardware and communication links have sufficient performance to ensure prompt processing of incoming data. Overload in this area can lead to one or more of the following: a. undue delay in updating the system status diagrams/events log/alarm log in response to an incident b. corruption of system database, so that the information presented to the operator is not an accurate representation of the state of the actual electrical system c. system lockup As I/O at the bay level, both digital and analogue will typically be handled by intelligent relays or specialised IEDs, it is therefore important to ensure that these devices have sufficient I/O capacity. If additional IEDs have to be provided solely for ensuring adequate I/O capacity, cost and space requirements will increase. There will also be an increase in the number of communication links required. A practical specification for system response times is given in Table 24.1. Table 24.2 gives a typical specification for the maximum I/O capacities of a substation automation system.

A significant problem to be overcome in the implementation of communication links is the possibility of electromagnetic interference. The low voltage levels that are used on most types of communication link may be prone to interference as a result. Careful design of the interfaces between the devices used and the communication bus, involving the use of opto-couplers and protocol converters, is required to minimise the risk. Care over the arrangement of the communication cables is also required. It may also help to use a communication protocol that incorporates a means of error detection/correction. While it may not be possible to correct all errors, detection offers the opportunity to request re-transmission of the message, and also for statistics to be gathered on error rates on various parts of the system. An unusually high error rate on a part of the communication system can be flagged to maintenance crews for investigation.

24.4 COMMUNICATION METHODS Digital communication between items of hardware is divided into three elements: a. the protocol, consisting of the hardware, such as connectors, connector pin functions, and signal levels b. the format, consisting of the control of the flow of data c. the language, or how the information in the data flow is organised Each of these areas is covered so that an appreciation of the complexities of digital communications is understood.

24.4.1 Communication Protocols and Formats Anyone trying to connect up the various elements of a Hi-Fi system if they have purchased them from different manufacturers will be aware of the number of different protocols in use. The situation is the same in the industrial field. Manufacturers of devices are often tempted to utilise a proprietary protocol, for no better reason sometimes than to encourage the sole use of their devices. Users, of course, have the opposite interest; they would like every manufacturer to use the same protocol so that they have the widest choice. In practice, protocols have evolved over time, and some protocols are more appropriate to some communication requirements than others. The protocol used is also linked to the format used, since the number of conductors required may depend on the format used. There are two basic formats in use for data communications: a. serial b. parallel

Signal Type Digital Input Analogue Input Digital Output Disturbance Record File

Response Time to/from HMI 1s 1s 0.75s 3s

Table 24.1: Practical system response times for a substation automation scheme

I/O Type Capacity Digital Input 8196 Digital Output 2048 Analogue Input 2048 Analogue Output 512 Table 24.2: Typical I/O capacities for a substation automation system

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Serial format involves sending the data one bit at a time along the communication channel. Parallel format involves sending several bits simultaneously. Clearly, parallel communication requires more wires than serial communication (a disadvantage) but can transmit a given amount of data faster. In practice, parallel communication is limited to communication over a few metres, and hence the majority of communications use serial format. There are a number of popular serial communication protocols in common use in the substation automation field. [Link] RS232C Protocol The RS232C protocol allows for full duplex communications between two devices. The basic specification is given in Table 24.3. The hardware specification can vary nine conductors are the minimum required for a full implementation, while a 25 pin connector is commonly encountered. If flow control of data is not required, only three signals are required (data transmit/receive and ground). Being limited to communication between two devices, this protocol is not useful in substation automation schemes. However, it is described, because it is regularly encountered in remote communication applications, such as those between a small substation and a control centre using modems to transfer the data over a telephone line.
Max. number of transmitters Max. number of receivers Connection type Mode of operation Maximum distance of transmission Maximum data rate Transmitter voltage Receiver sensitivity Driver slew rate Table 24.3: RS232C specification 1 1 25 core shielded DC coupling 15m 20kbit/s 5V min, 15V max 3V 30V/sec

Thus devices can be located throughout a substation without causing communications problems and significant amounts of data can be transmitted rapidly. The main drawback is that it is a half-duplex system, so that communications use a kind of question and answer technique known as polling. The equipment that needs the data (e.g. a substation computer or bay controller) must ask each device in turn for the data requested and then wait for the response prior to moving on to the next device.

Master station IED IED IED IED

Terminating resistor IED IED

Substation Control and Automation

Figure 24.6: Daisy-chain connection of RS485 devices

Where devices connected to the communications channel may need to flag alarm conditions, this dictates continual polling of all devices connected to the communications channel. If more than 31 devices need to be connected, more than one RS485 communications link can be provided. [Link] IEC 60870-5 Protocols The two commonly used protocols are IEC 60870-5-101 and IEC 60870-5-103. IEC 60870-5-101 is used for communications between devices over long distances. A typical application would be communications between a substation and a Central Control Room (CCR). A bit serial communication technique is used, and transmission speeds of up to 64kbit/s are possible, depending on the transmission protocol selected from those specified in the standard. Modems can be used, and hence there is no practical limitation of the distance between devices. IEC60870-5-103 specifies a communication protocol between a master station and protection devices (e.g. protection relays). The standard is based on, and is a superset of, the German VDEW communication protocol. Either fibre optic transmission or an RS485 link can be used, and transmission speeds are either 9600kbit/s or 19200kbit/s. Maximum transmission distance is 1000m using fibre-optic transmission . Communication is on a master/slave basis, in which the master station continually polls the slaves (relays) to determine if any information is ready to be sent by the slaves. While some messages are defined by the standard, these are of

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[Link] RS485 Protocol This protocol is detailed in Table 24.4, and is much more useful for substation automation schemes. This is because, many devices can be attached to one data channel, the maximum distance over which communications can take place is quite large, and the maximum bit rate is quite high. It only requires a simple twisted pair connection, with all devices daisy-chained on the link, as shown in Figure 24.6.
Max. number of transmitters Max. number of receivers Connection type Mode of operation Maximum distance of transmission Maximum data rate Transmitter voltage Receiver sensitivity Table 24.4: RS485 specification 32 32 Shielded Twisted Pair Differential 1200m 10Mbit/s 1.5V min 300mV

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limited functionality. In addition, the standard allows the use of manufacturer-specific private messages. These permit much greater functionality, but at the same time hinder interoperability of equipment from different manufacturers because there is no need for the format of such messages to be made public. This is arguably the greatest drawback of the standard, since extensive use of private messages by manufacturers of devices essentially turns the standard into several proprietary ones.

OSI Layer Physical

Telephone Call Analogy Conversion of voice into electrical signals. Defines type of connector, no. of pins, signal levels, etc. Optical fibres and wires that make up the physical telephone network Message transmission, error control and conferencing facilities. Words not clearly received are requested to be re-transmitted, using agreed procedures. For conferencing, defines how control passes from one person to the next. Call routing, by specifying the method of allocating telephone numbers and provision of dialling facilities. Includes operator facilities for routing to extensions. If the message is from several sheets of paper, ensures that all sheets have been received and are in the correct order. Monitors transmission quality and implements procedures if quality is unaceptable - e.g. requests both parties to hang up and one to re-dial. Also provides a mechanism to ensure that the correct persons are communicating, and searches for them (e.g. uses telephone directory) if not. Provides facilities for automatically making calls at pre-defined times, and ensures that the correct persons are present when the call is made. A session may be interrupted and re-established later, using the same or a different network/transport connection. As calls are half-duplex, provides flow control procedures e.g one person says 'over' to invite the other to speak.

Data Link

Network

24.4.2 Network Protocols So far, the protocols described are useful for implementing communications over a relatively restricted geographical area. A substation automation scheme may extend over a very wide area, and hence suitable protocols are needed for this situation. The most common protocols in use conform to the ISO 7layer model of a network. This model is internationally recognised as the standard for the requirements for communications between data processing systems. [Link] ISO 7-layer model The ISO 7-layer model is shown in Figure 24.7. It represents a communications system as a number of layers, each layer having a specific function. This approach ensures modularity, and hence assists in ensuring that products from different vendors that comply with the standard will work together. The functions of each layer are best described by making an analogy with a telephone call, as given in Table 24.5.
Transport

Session

Presentation

Application

Specifies the format in which a message will be sent when used in a specific application- e.g. if the application is to convey information about meetings attended by a person, will define the format used for the place, time, and purpose of the meeting.

Table 24.5: OSI 7-layer model Telephone call analogy

Selects appropriate service for application Provides code conversion, data reformatting Co-ordinates interaction between end application processes Provides for end-to-end data integrity and quality of service Switches and routes information Transfers unit of information to other end of physical link Transmits bit stream to medium

Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical

The same data item may be stored at different addresses within different devices, and hence re-programming of the client that receives the information is necessary when one device is replaced by a different one, even if the functionality is unchanged. It can easily be seen how a substation equipped with a variety of devices from different manufacturers and maybe using different protocols for communication makes the problem of applying an automation system very difficult and expensive. The major cost in such cases is developing the software translation routines for protocol conversion and building of the required database specifying where each item of data to be acquired is held. [Link] Utility Communications Architecture protocol A recent protocol, the Utility Communications Architecture v2.0 (UCA v2.0), seeks to overcome these handicaps by adopting an object-oriented approach to the data held in a measurement/control device, plus an internationally recognised protocol (ISO 9506) in the application layer. Data objects and services available within a device follow a specified naming system. The client can extract a description of the data objects that a device can supply, and services that it can perform, so that it is easier to program the client. Scaling factors and units for data items are built into the self-description, so that the effort required during commissioning is reduced. Devices are not interchangeable, in the sense that a device from one

Figure 24.7: OSI 7-layer interconnection model

There are a number of network protocols that are compliant with the OSI model, such as TCP/IP, Modbus, DNP. This does not mean that the devices using different protocols are interchangeable, or even that devices using the same protocol are interchangeable.

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Removes language difficulties by ensuring that the same language is spoken by both parties, or provides translation facilities. Also provides encryption facilities for confidential calls.

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manufacturer cannot be removed and replaced by a device of similar functionality from another vendor. Rather, this protocol ensures interoperability; that is the ability for devices from different suppliers and of different functionality to communicate successfully with each other. The transport protocol has been separated from the application protocol, so problems with register addresses, etc. no longer exist. All that has to be addressed is the transport protocols used, and clients will normally be able to communicate with devices using one of a number of common transport protocols. This standard has an IEC equivalent, IEC 61850. To begin with, IEC 61850 covers only the field of substation automation, but will gradually be extended to cover the same fields as UCA v2.0. Manufacturers are increasingly moving away from protocols with a proprietary element in them to UCA v2.0/IEC 61850. It is likely that within a short time, most protection and control devices will use one or other of these standards for communications. One important reason guiding this change is that these standards permit the use of the XML language for exchange of data between databases. As the information stored in an automation system or control centre comprises a series of databases, information exchange is therefore facilitated.

protocol, is to define the language very precisely at a high level, and require such details to be included as a part of each message so that the recipient can interpret the message without the need for any translator software.

24.5 SUBSTATION AUTOMATION FUNCTIONALITY The hardware implementation provides the physical means to implement the functionality of the substation automation scheme. The software provided in the various devices is used to implement the functionality required. The software may be quite simple or extremely complex Table 24.6 illustrates the functionality that may be provided in a large scheme. The description of the electrical network and the characteristics of the various devices associated with the network are held within the computer as a database or set of databases. Within each database, data is organised into tables, usually on a per device basis that reflects the important characteristics of the device and its interrelationship with other devices on the network. Electrical system configuration changes require modification of the database using an appropriate software tool supplied by the automation system vendor. The tool is normally a high level, user-friendly interface, so that modifications to the one-line can be drawn directly on-screen, with pick-andplace facilities for relays, IEDs, etc. This work would normally be done offline on the Engineers workstation, if available, or as a background task on the control computer if not. Careful and extensive checking of the data is required, both before and after entry into the database, to ensure that no errors have been made. Full testing on the new configuration using a simulator is recommended prior to use of the new database on the main control computer to ensure that there is minimal possibility of errors. The software is written as a set of well-proven, standard modules, so there is little or no need for new modules to be written and tested for a particular substation. The required data for the calculations performed by the

24.4.3 Languages A communications language is the interpretation of the data contained in a message. The communications language normally forms part of the overall communications protocol. Obviously, it is necessary for both transmitter and recipient of the message to use the same language. While a number of communications standards attempt to specify the language used, there is often flexibility provided, leading to manufacturerspecific implementations. A popular work-around is for a number of organisations to agree common standards and set up a certifying body to check for compliance against these standards. Thus, equipment that complies becomes to large degree, interoperable. However, the latest trend, as exemplified by the UCA v2.0/IEC 61850

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Functional area Interlocking CB's Tripping sequences CB failure Switching sequences Automatic transformer changeover Load management Load shedding Transformer supervision OLTC control Energy monitoring Import/export control Switchgear monitoring AIS monitoring Equipment status Relay status Parameter setting Relays Access control HMI functionality Trend curves Interface to SCADA Table 24.6: Typical substation automation functionality

Functionality Isolators Contactors Intertripping Automatic busbar changeover Restoration of supply following fault Load restoration Generator despatch Load management Energy management Power factor control GIS monitoring CB status Isolator status Transformers Switching sequences One-line views System views Harmonic analysis Remote access Alarm processing 512

Simultaneous trips Network re-configuration

IED configuration Event logging Disturbance analysis

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software is held in the network database. This means that adding functionality later is not difficult, so long as the database design has considered this possibility. There may be problems if the electrical system configuration is altered or additional functionality added in reading historical data prior to the change. Training of operations personnel will inevitably be required in operation of the system, configuration management and automation system maintenance. Automation system suppliers will be able to provide configuration management and system maintenance services under contract if required, often with defined cost schedules and response times so financial management of the automation scheme once installed is well-defined. The issuing of commands to switching devices in the system has to be carefully structured, in order to prevent commands that would cause a hazard from being issued. A hierarchical structure is commonly used as shown in Figure 24.8, beginning with the requirement for an operator wishing to issue a command to switching devices to log-in to the system using a password.
Operator/ authorised person Senior authorised person Select user Engineer System engineer Administrator Password Password Password Password Password List of available functions

executed. At this stage, prior to execution, the operation is checked against: a. devices locked out (i.e. prevented from operation) b. interlocking of devices/switching sequences to ensure that the command issued is safe to carry out. The action is cancelled and operator informed if it is not safe to proceed, otherwise the action is carried out and the operator informed when it is complete. In a number of systems, some routine switching operations (e.g. transfer of a feeder from one busbar to the other in a double-bus substation) are automated in software. The operator need only request the bustransfer action to be carried out on a particular feeder, and the software is able to work out the correct switching sequence required. This minimises the possibility of operator error, but at the expense of some extra complexity in the software and more extensive checking at the factory test stage. However, since software is modular in nature, substation electrical topology is restricted to a small number of configurations and such sequences are very common, the software development is essentially a one-off activity for any particular substation control system. The development cost can be spread over the sale of a number of such systems, and hence the cost to any individual user is small compared with the potential benefits.

24.5.1 Future Developments The functionality of a substation automation system is still evolving, with new applications being steadily added. Expansion of the functionality of such systems is proceeding in many areas, but two main areas currently are attracting significant interest. These are condition monitoring and web-access. Condition monitoring packages are already implemented in automation systems for switchgear, while stand-alone packages are available for transformers (Chapter 16). Under development are similar packages for generators, CTs, VTs, and batteries. It can be expected that all of these facilities will be offered as part of a comprehensive condition monitoring package in substation automation schemes in the near future. The advantage for the user is that the condition monitoring package can then form a component of the Asset Management policy, in order to determine the schedule for maintenance and replacement, plus the acquisition of statistics on failure rates. These can then be used in conjunction with manufacturers to enhance the design to improve availability. There has already been discussion on the various communication techniques available. Use of the Internet

Figure 24.8: Hierarchical command structure

Different levels of authority, allowing for restrictions on the type and/or location of switching commands capable of being issued by a particular operator may be implemented at this stage. The next level in the hierarchy is to structure the issuing of commands on an issue/confirm/execute basis (Figure 24.9), so that the operator is given an opportunity to check that the command entered is correct prior to execution.
Interlocking

Device select

List of available actions

Action select

Action confirm

Action execute

Cancel

Figure 24.9: Device selection/operation

The final level in the hierarchy is implemented in software at the bay level and is actioned after the operator confirms that the switching action is to be

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communication techniques for communications to/from a substation offers a cheap, well-proven, widely accessible route for this function. It also enables access to the data from a broader community, which may be useful in some circumstances. However, great emphasis must be placed on the use of secure Internet communications techniques, such as those used in the financial sphere, as the opportunity for unauthorised malicious access leading to major incidents or loss of confidential data is much greater. As cost is the main driver, it can be expected that automation systems using such communications techniques will appear in the future, using secure communications techniques, and that users will have to become more aware of the threats involved in order to apply suitable countermeasures.

and the data to be displayed d. operator security access levels, alarm texts, etc. e. external constraints data addresses for external database access Once all the data has been defined, the configurator tools can define the hardware configuration to provide the required functions at least cost, and the data required for implementation of the automation scheme.

24.6.2 System Testing The degree of testing to be carried will be defined by the customer and encapsulated in a specification for system testing. It is normal for testing of the complete functionality of the scheme to be required prior to despatch from the manufacturer. The larger and more complex the automation scheme, the more important for all parties that such testing is carried out. It is accepted wisdom that the earlier problems are discovered, the cheaper and quicker it is to fix them. Remediation of problems on-site during commissioning is the most expensive and time-consuming activity. Manual testing of a network automation scheme is only practical for small networks, due to the cost of testing. Simulation tools are necessary for all other automation schemes. These tools fall into two categories: a. simulator tools that re-create the network to be controlled by the automation system. b. test management tools

24.6 SYSTEM CONFIGURATION AND TESTING

Substation Control and Automation

These tasks, along with project management, are the most time consuming tasks in the process of realising a control and monitoring system for an electrical network. The strategies available for dealing with these problems vary between manufacturers, but typical approaches are as follows.

24.6.1 System Configuration Software tools exist that assist in configuring a modern substation or network automation system. The extent to which the task is automated will vary, but all require as a minimum the details of the network to be controlled, extending to the individual device level (circuit breaker, isolator, disconnector, etc.). Where communication to an existing SCADA system is required, data on the logical addresses expected by the SCADA system and devices controlled remotely from the SCADA system will also be part of the data input. Use can also be made of existing databases that cover pre-defined network configurations for example the interlocking equations for a substation bay. Software tools will check the data for consistency, prior to creation of: a. the required equipment that forms the automation scheme, together with the required interconnections b. the databases for each individual device The data will be divided into domains, according to the use made of the data: a. process CB/isolator position, interlocking equation, values of current/voltage b. system number of bay computers, hardware configuration of each bay computer, automated sequences c. graphical the links between each mimic display

[Link] Simulator tools Simulator tools are dedicated to the network being tested. They will normally be provided with a simulation language that the test team can use to play scenarios, and hence determine how the automation system will react to various stimuli. Process simulator tools may be hardware and/or software based and emulate the response of the various devices to be controlled (CBs/isolators/VTs/protection relays, etc). They must be capable of closely following the dynamic response of such devices under multiple and cascade fault conditions. Specific tools and libraries are developed as required, including the use of complex software such as EMTP for simulation of the response to impulse-type phenomena and the dynamic response of protection algorithms. They may simulate the response of equipment within the control span of the automation equipment, or that of equipment outside of the span of control, in order that the response of the automation system can be tested. Communications simulator tools are used both to load the internal communications network within the

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automation system to ensure that all devices are communicating correctly and that performance of the overall automation system is within specification during periods of high communications traffic. These simulators are standardised and a single simulator may be able to emulate several items of equipment. External communications simulators test the communications with an external system, such as a remote control centre. These will normally be customer-specific, but some standard simulators may be possible if a standard communications protocol such as IEC 60870-5-101 is used.

The control of personnel working in the system test area is also of importance, to ensure tests are unbiased. To meet this objective, test team personnel are normally independent of those of the design team. If incremental testing is used, it is sound practice that the final integration test team is also independent of the test team(s) that carried out the incremental tests.

24.7 EXAMPLES OF SUBSTATION AUTOMATION A significant advantage to an asset-owner of using a substation automation system is the space-savings that result. Space costs money, and hence minimisation of space enables new substations to occupy a smaller physical space. Alternatively, expansion of an existing substation can be undertaken making use of currently spare bays, but where there is a problem in tightly packed relay rooms in accommodating the extra equipment.

24.6.3 Test Strategy The strategy adopted for the testing of the automation system must naturally satisfy client requirements, and generally follow one of two approaches: a. a single test is carried out when all equipment for the scheme has been assembled, b. incremental tests are carried out as the automation system is built up, with simulator used to represent missing equipment. The former solution is quickest and cheapest, but can give rise to problems where it is not easy to locate problems down to the device level. It is therefore used principally when an upgrade to an existing system is being carried out. It is usual for all of the functionality to be tested, including that specified for normal conditions and specified levels of degradation within the automation system. This leads to a large number of tests being required. Over 500 separate tests may be required for an automation system of average size in order to demonstrate compliance with the specification.

Wall mimic RTU Sequence of events

Control room Marshalling cabinets

Protection 1

Protection 1

Protection 2 Cubicles Auxiliary relaying 3 cubicles/bay

Protection 2

Auxiliary relaying

24.6.4 Management of System Tests The large number of tests required to demonstrate the compliance of an automation system with specification makes manual techniques for management of the tests cumbersome and time consuming. The end result is increased cost and timescale. Moreover, each test may result in a large amount of data to be analysed. The results of the analysis need to be presented in an easily understood form and stored for some time. If changes are made to software for any reason over the lifetime of the equipment, the different versions must be stored, together with a record of what the changes between versions were, and why they were made. The management of this becomes very complex, and software tools are normally used to address the issues of test schedules, test result presentation, software version control, and configuration management.

(a): Current situation

Wall mimic New RTU Control room Marshalling cabinets Sequence of events

Protection 1 Cubicles

Protection 1

Protection 2

Protection 2

Auxiliary relaying 3 cubicles/bay

Auxiliary relaying

(b): Step 1: RTU Renovation (HW obsolescence & new SCADA protocol)

Figure 24.10: Upgrade path for an existing substation

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A common need is to update an existing substation, presently based on electromechanical or electronic relays, with modern devices. Figure 24.10 illustrates how the transition to use of a substation automation system may be managed of course, there are other possibilities depending on the priority assigned by the asset-owner.

.......... ..........

.......... ..........

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New RTU

New SOE

Substation control HMI

Control room Marshalling cabinets

was installed, using an ALSTOM PSCN3020 substation automation system. The simplified 33/11kV one-line diagram is shown in Figure 24.11. Total generation capacity amounts to over 170MW. Not shown on the diagram is an extensive LV network and a number of 3.3kV switchboards feeding motors.

Protection 1 Cubicles

Protection 2

Auxiliary relaying 3 cubicles/bay (c): Step 2: SOE Renovation and wall mimic change

New RTU

New SOE

Control room Marshalling cabinets

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Protection 1

Cubicles

Protection 2 2 cubicles/bay (d): Step 3: Progressive decentralisation and protection integration

Control room

Bay computer

Protection 1

Cubicles

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Protection 2 2 cubicles/bay (e): Step 4: Full decentralisation Protection 2

Figure 24.10 (cont): Upgrade path for an existing substation

Examples of automation systems on order or installed are given in the following sections.

24.7.1 Industrial Network Automation Project A large industrial network was significantly expanded due to the addition of extra processing facilities. As part of the expansion, a new substation automation system

..........
Protection 1 Protection 2 Auxiliary relaying Substation control HMI

..........

..........

.......... .......... ..........

132kV network

33kV

11kV
Protection 1

Protection 2 Auxiliary relaying

11kV

Substation control HMI

11kV Figure 24.11: HV Single-line diagram: industrial system substation automation example

Bay computer

Protection 1

The system has two features that make it unusual from a control point of view. Firstly, the generation within the system is distributed, and this results in the possibility of several island networks being created in the event of a major electrical incident, each of which are to be run independently until such time as paralleling of the islands becomes possible. Secondly, the grid system is weak, so that import has to be limited to a maximum of 40MW, even under transient disturbances such as the simultaneous loss of two generators, each of over 30MW capacity. As a result of these requirements, the standard software was enhanced to allow simultaneous control of up to 3 autonomous islands within the overall network, each island having the full range of control facilities including circuit/device switching, active/reactive power control of generators, voltage and frequency control of each island and load shedding. Due to the restrictions on grid import, a fast load shedding algorithm was developed, as studies indicated that conventional under-frequency

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load shedding did not provide the required performance. The fast load shedding scheme involves continuous calculation of the amount of load to be shed in the event of loss of one or more generators and/or the grid connection, and determination of which loads should be shed, based on operator-set priorities and actual power consumption. In the event of generation loss, load that is at least equal to the amount of lost generation is disconnected immediately, after which a conventional under-frequency/grid import load shedding strategy is invoked to cater for any further generation/load imbalance occurring. The substation automation configuration is shown in Figure 24.12, while a sample operator display captured during system testing is shown in Figure 24.13.

Figure 24.12: System architecture: industrial system substation automation example

Communication from the Master Station to the Bay Modules is by a dual-redundant fibre-optic ring (EFI.P). Time synchronisation uses a GPS interface to the Master Station. Remote control/monitoring facilities are provided, both from a Remote Control Room and a remote Network Control Centre. The latter uses the DNP3.0 protocol, so that the complete scheme uses 4 different communication protocols. Figure 24.14 illustrates the system architecture, while Figures 24.15/16 show part of the 345kV and 138kV busbars respectively.

24.7.3 Substation Control for an Electrified Railway A high-speed (auto-transformer fed) railway has a route length of 500km. A total of 8 traction supply substations and 41 auto-transformer substations are required to provide traction power and auxiliary supplies to the rail line. All of the forty-nine substations are interconnected by means of an Ethernet OPC fibre-optic network, forming the communications spine of the system. Each substation has a proprietary EFI.P fibre-optic ring (3.5Mbit/s) that interconnects the Bay Modules with the communications spine and local operator workstations. The ring is composed of dual fibre-optic cables in a single sheath, thus providing two communications channels. Figure 24.17 illustrates the network involved.

Figure 24.13: Sample operator display: industrial system substation automation example

24.7.2 Utility Substation Automation Project This project concerns a 345/138/20kV substation. The substation consists of two 345kV lines, 2 x 345/138kV transformers and 2 x 345/20kV/20kV transformers. Each of the 345kV and 138kV busbars is of conventional double-bus configuration, with bus couplers connecting

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the main and reserve busbars. Each 345kV bus is split into 4 sections, with bus section CBs linking the sections. Similarly, the 138kV busbars are split into 3 sections. The 20kV busbar is also of double bus configuration. An ALSTOM PSCN3020 substation automation system has been installed to provide local and remote control and monitoring of the switchgear at all voltage levels. For the 138kV and 20kV busbars, monitoring is provided by MiCOM M301 Measurement Centres, communicating with BM9100 or BM9200 Bay Modules using K-Bus proprietary communications link. Control is exercised directly from the Bay Modules. Protection relays are generally from ALSTOMs K-series and EPAC range, also communicating with the Bay Modulus using K-Bus. However, line differential and transformer differential relays are from another manufacturer, and communicate with the same Bay Modules using the IEC 60870-5-103 protocol, thus illustrating the use of Bay Modules to provide more than one communications protocol. For the 345kV busbars, existing electromechanical-type relays were in use, and monitoring of these is by use of contacts on the relays wired back to the Bay Modules.

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Local control room Modem

EOP-1 EOP-2 Hot stand by

Modem Gateway

Remote control room

HUB

GPS

Data acquisition

Network control centre es: Cambuci 1 & 2 2 X BM9100

345kV Line: Cabo Norte 1 & 2

345/138kV Transformers: Lado de Alta 4 X BM9100

K-bus MiCOM M301 EPAC relays

K-series relays

Substation Control and Automation

K-bus MiCOM M301 345/20/20kV Transformers 2 X BM9100 K-bus MiCOM M301 345/138kV Transformers K-bus MiCOM M301 K-series relays 345kV: Bus section 1 1 X BM9100 345/138kV Earthing transformers 2 X BM9200

K-bus MiCOM M301 345kV: Bus section 1 1 X BM9100

IEC 60870-5-103 Relay PQ741 345/138kV Transformers: Lado de Baixa 2 X BM9100

EFI.P Dual redundant Fibre optic ring

K-bus K-bus 345kV: Bus section 2 1 X BM9100 MiCOM M301 K-series relays 138kV Lines: Wilson 1 & 2 2 X BM9100 345kV: Reactor 1 1 X BM9100 K-bus K-bus MiCOM M301 345kV: Bus coupler 1 X BM9100 138kV Lines: Ipiranga 1 & 2 2 X BM9100 MiCOM M301 EPAC relays K-bus MiCOM M301 K-series relays K-series relays 20kV Busbar 2 X BM9100 MiCOM M301 K-series relays 345kV: Bus coupler 2 X BM9100

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K-bus 138kV Bus section 2 1 X BM9100 MiCOM M301

K-bus MiCOM M301 K-bus MiCOM M301 EPAC relays

K-bus K-series relays MiCOM M301 K-series relays Figure 24.14: System architecture: Utility substation automation project

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345kV Busbar (Future) Line: Cabo Norte 1

Transformer 1 345/88/138kV

Line: Cabo Norte 2

Section 2D Section D Section 1D 345KV

Section 2C Section C Section 1C

Earthing transformers

Reactor 1

1B

1A

2B

2A

Figure 24.15: Single line diagram: Utility substation 345kV busbar (part)

Transformer 3 345/88/138kV

138kV Busbar

Transformer 2 345/88/138kV (future)

Section 3A Section 4A

Section A

Section B

138kV

Section 3B Section 4B

138kV Line: 138kV Line: Mariana 2 Brigadeiro 2 (future) (future)

138kV Line: Ipiranga 2 (future)

138kV Line Wilson 2 Earthing transformer 2

138kV Line: Ipiranga 1 (future)

Figure 24.16: Single line diagram: Utility substation 138kV busbar (part)

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Transformer 1 345/20/20kV

Transformer 2 345/20/20kV

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Traction Substations 8 off Maintenance Control Centre x3

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BM9200

EFI.P ring

BM9200

Bus s P921

BM9200

BM9200

Bus se e P921
xxx

Dual redundant PC: inter-substation automation

BM9200

55kV line b c filter e

P438

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Gateway T103/OPC

Track feeder isolators l

BM9200

Portable PC for site maintenance staff

Catenary/feeder

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Ethernet Network

Intermediate I termediate Autotransformer Autotra sformer Substations 34 off 4-5 4 5 per tractio traction substation substatio

Final Autotransformer Substation 7 off

GPS
OPC server PC OPC server PC
xxx

GPS GPS
OPC server PC

Intermediate Autotransformer Substation OPC server Traction autotransformer PC

GPS

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BM9200

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x xxx

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BM9200

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action ransformer Traction P

Auxiliary transformer Auxiliary transformer Auxiliary transformer Auxiliary

P632 mer

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ring BM9200 BM9200

Bus section

Track catenary/feeder

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Track catenary/feeder Track catenary/feeder

BM920 BM9200

BM9200

Harmonic filter

Isolators for track catenary/feeder

Isolators for track catenary/feeder

BM9200 BM9100

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Figure 24.17 Substation automation scheme High-speed railway line

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The substation automation scheme used is the ALSTOM PSCN3020. Traction substations have an incoming supply at either 225kV or 400kV, transformed down to 27.5kV for traction and lower voltages for auxiliary supplies. Redundancy in control and supervision is provided through the operator at each substation being able to view and control those substations immediately adjacent as well. There is an overall Control Centre to monitor the complete system, using a Gateway on the Ethernet spine. Approximately 500 Bay Modules are used, providing control and measurement facilities and also acting as interfaces to the protection relays. The significant aspect of this application is the distance over which the automation scheme is applied using a standard substation automation scheme. The overall

length of 500km is large for a substation automation scheme and illustrates the geographical span now possible. Figure 24.18 shows the topology of the substation automation equipment at a traction substation, while Figures 24.19-21 show the different levels of detail available to a substation controller via the HMI. Operator functions include control and monitoring of the substations, remote setting of all relays and automatic retrieval of disturbance recordings from relays for remote analysis. Data is refreshed at approximately 1 second intervals. A notable automation feature is the automatic reconfiguration of the power distribution network during faults or other outages to maintain continuity of traction power supplies.

Figure 24.18: Configuration of a traction substation

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Substation Control and Automation

Figure 24.19: Overview of traction power supplies

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Figure 24.20: Autotransformer one-line diagram

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Figure 24.21: Incoming supplies at a traction substation

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23

Power Quality
Introduction Power Quality classification Causes and impact of Power Quality problems Power Quality monitoring Remedial measures Examples 23.1 23.2

23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6

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23 Power Quality

23.1 INTRODUCTION Over the last thirty years or so, the amount of equipment containing electronics has increased dramatically. Such equipment can both cause and be affected by electromagnetic disturbances. A disturbance that affects a process control computer in a large industrial complex could easily result in shutdown of the process. The lost production and product loss/recycling during start-up represents a large cost to the business. Similarly, a protection relay affected by a disturbance through conduction or radiation from nearby conductors could trip a feeder or substation, causing loss of supply to a large number of consumers. At the other end of the scale, a domestic user of a PC has to re-boot the PC due to a transient voltage dip, causing annoyance to that and other similarly affected users. Therefore, transporters and users of electrical energy have become much more interested in the nature and frequency of disturbances in the power supply. The topic has become known by the title of Power Quality.

23.2 CLASSIFICATION OF POWER SYSTEM DISTURBANCES To make the study of Power Quality problems useful, the various types of disturbances need to be classified by magnitude and duration. This is especially important for manufacturers and users of equipment that may be at risk. Manufacturers need to know what is expected of their equipment, and users, through monitoring, can determine if an equipment malfunction is due to a disturbance or problems within the equipment itself. Not surprisingly, standards have been introduced to cover this field. They define the types and sizes of disturbance, and the tolerance of various types of equipment to the possible disturbances that may be encountered. The principal standards in this field are IEC 61000, EN 50160, and IEEE 1159. Standards are essential for manufacturers and users alike, to define what is

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reasonable in terms of disturbances that might occur and what equipment should withstand. Table 23.1 provides a broad classification of the disturbances that may occur on a power system, some typical causes of them and the potential impact on equipment. From this Table, it will be evident that the electricity supply waveform, often thought of as composed of pure sinusoidal quantities, can suffer a wide variety of disturbances. The following sections of this Chapter describe the causes in more detail, along with methods of measurement and possible remedial measures.
Category Causes Local and remote faults Inductive loading Switch on of large loads Impacts Tripping of sensitive equipment Resetting of control systems Motor stalling/tripping Tripping of sensitive equipment Damage to insulation and windings Damage to power supplies for electronic equipment Problems with equipment that requires constant steady-state voltage Mal-operation of sensitive equipment and relays Capacitor fuse or capacitor failures Telephone interference Negligible most of time Motors run slower De-tuning of harmonic filters Flicker in: Fluorescent lamps Incandescent lamps

Table 23.2 lists the limits given in Standard EN 50160 and notes where other standards have similar limits.
Type of Voltage disturbance Level Voltage 230V Variation Voltage Dips 230V Rapid voltage changes Short Interruptions Long Interruptions Transient Overvoltage Voltage unbalance Undervoltage Voltage surge Voltage fluctuations Frequency variation Harmonics 230V 1kV-35kV 230V 230V 230V 230V <-10% Not specified <150% of 230V nominal voltage Not specified 230V 3% +/- 1% +4%, -6% THD<8% up to 40th 10 min 230V >1 min >200ms <200ms IEEE 1159 IEEE 1159 IEC 60827 Limits from EN50160 +/- 10% Measurement Typical Other applicable period duration standards 95% of 1 week 10-1000/year 10ms 1sec IEEE 1159 Several Short per day duration Short Per day IEEE 1159 duration 20-200 Up to 3 mins EN61000-4-11 per year 10-50 >3 mins IEEE 1159 per year Not specified <1ms IEEE 1159

5% to 10% <6% >99% >99% Generally <6kV

Voltage dips

Voltage surges

Capacitor switching Switch off of large loads Phase faults

95% of 1 week Not specified Measured over 10s 100% of 1 week Not specified Measured over 10s 95% of Not specified 1 week

Overvoltage

Load switching Capacitor switching System voltage regulation Industrial furnaces Non-linear loads Transformers/generators Rectifier equipment Loss of generation Extreme loading conditions

Table 23.2: Power system disturbance classification to EN 50160

Harmonics

Power Quality

For computer equipment, a common standard that manufacturers use is the ITI (Information Technology Industry) curve, illustrated in Figure 23.1. Voltage disturbances that lie in the area indicated as safe should not cause a malfunction in any way. However, some disturbances at LV levels that lie within the boundaries defined by EN50160 might cause a malfunction because they do not lie in the safe area of the ITI curve. It may be necessary to check carefully which standards are applicable when considering equipment susceptibility.
500 450 400 350 300 250 200 Withstand disturbance 150 100 50 0 0.001 0.01 0.1

Power frequency variation

Voltage fluctuation

AC motor drives Inter-harmonic current components Welding and arc furnaces Motor starting Transformer tap changing Unbalanced loads Unbalanced impedances Power system faults Equipment failures Control malfunctions CB tripping Heavy network loading Loss of generation Poor power factor Lack of var support Lightning Capacitive switching Non linear switching loads System voltage regulation

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Rapid voltage change

Voltage imbalance

Overheating in motors/generators Interruption of 3-phase operation Loss of supply to customer equipment Computer shutdowns Motor tripping All equipment without backup supply facilities Control system resetting Damage to sensitive electronic components Damage to insulation

Percentage of nominal voltage (r.m.s.)

Light flicker Tripping of equipment

Affected by disturbance

Short and long voltage interruptions

Affected by disturbance 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 Duration of disturbance (ms) Figure 23.1: ITI curve for equipment susceptibility

Undervoltage

Transients

Table 23.1: Power Quality issues

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23.3 CAUSES AND IMPACT OF POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS Each of the Power Quality disturbance categories detailed in Table 23.1 is now examined in more detail as to the possible causes and the impact on consumers.

insulator flashover, collisions due to birds, and excavations damaging cables. Multiple voltage dips, as illustrated in Figure 23.3, cause more problems for equipment than a single isolated dip. The impact on consumers may range from the annoying (non-periodic light flicker) to the serious (tripping of sensitive loads and stalling of motors). Where repeated dips occur over a period of several hours, the repeated shutdowns of equipment can give rise to serious production problems. Figure 23.4 shows an actual voltage dip, as captured by a Power Quality recorder.
100 80 60 40 20 0 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 Figure 23.4: Recording of a voltage dip

23.3.1 Voltage Dips Figure 23.2 shows the profile of a voltage dip, together with the associated definitions. The major cause of voltage dips on a supply system is a fault on the system, that is sufficiently remote electrically that a voltage interruption does not occur. Other sources are the starting of large loads (especially common in industrial systems), and, occasionally, the supply of large inductive loads.
Vrms Nom. High Nom. Low x % below nominal o a PQ Standards User defined setpoints Interruption Retained Voltage Time Figure 23.2: Voltage dip profile

Time

Number of incidents/yr

Voltage dips due to the latter are usually due to poor design of the network feeding the consumer. A voltage dip is the most common supply disturbance causing interruption of production in an industrial plant. Faults on a supply network will always occur, and in industrial systems, it is often practice to specify equipment to ride-through voltage dips of up to 0.2s. The most common exception is contactors, which may well drop out if the voltage dips below 80% of rated voltage for more than 50-100ms. Motor protection relays that have an undervoltage element setting that is too sensitive is another cause. Since contactors are commonly used in circuits supplying motors, the impact of voltage dips on motor drives, and hence the process concerned, requires consideration.
Vrms Nom. High Nom. Low

Typical data for undervoltage disturbances on power systems during evolving faults are shown in Figure 23.5. Disturbances that lie in the front right-hand portion of the histogram are the ones that cause most problems, but fortunately these are quite rare.

Number of undervoltage disturbances recorded

<0.5ms

0.5-1ms

PQ Standards User defined setpoints Retained Voltage

16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

1-5ms 5-10ms

10-50ms 50-100ms

100-500ms

91-100% 71-80% 51-60% 31-40% 11-20%

0.5-1s

1-5s 5-10s

Interruption Time

Duration of disturbance

Figure 23.5: Undervoltage disturbance histogram Figure 23.3: Multiple voltage dip

Other network-related fault causes are weatherrelated (such as snow, ice, wind, salt spray, dust) causing

23.3.2 Voltage Surges/Spikes Voltage surges/spikes are the opposite of dips a rise

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Retained voltage

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Retained voltage 61-70% 0-10% 81-90% 41-50% 91-100% 51-60%

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that may be nearly instantaneous (spike) or takes place over a longer duration (surge). These are most often caused by lightning strikes and arcing during switching operations on circuit breakers/contactors (fault clearance, circuit switching, especially switch-off of inductive loads). Figure 23.6 shows the profile of a voltage surge.
Vrms
Nom. High Nom. Low

are sufficiently high enough, protective devices may shut the equipment down to avoid damage. Some equipment, such as certain protection devices, may maloperate and cause unnecessary shutdowns.
150 100 50

User defined setpoints

0 Time -50

PQ Standards

-100 -150 Figure 23.7: Supply waveform distorted due to the presence of harmonics

Interruption Time

Figure 23.6: Voltage surge profile

Equipment may suffer serious damage from these causes, ranging from insulation damage to destruction of sensitive electronic devices. The damage may be immediate and obvious by the fact that equipment stops working, through to failure at a much later date from deterioration initiated from a surge or spike of voltage. These latter failures are very difficult to distinguish from random failures due to age, minor manufacturing defects, etc.

Special provision may have to be made to filter harmonics from the measured signals in these circumstances. Interference may be caused to communication systems. Overloading of neutral conductors in LV systems has also occurred (the harmonics in each phase summing in the neutral conductor, not cancelling) leading to failure due to overheating. This is a particular risk in buildings that have a large number of PCs, etc., and in such cases a neutral conductor rated at up to 150% of the phase conductors has been known to be required. Busbar risers in buildings are also at risk, due to harmonic-induced vibration causing joint securing bolts, etc. to work loose.

Power Quality

23.3.3 Overvoltages Sustained overvoltages are not common. The most likely causes are maladjusted voltage regulators on generators or on-load tap changers, or incorrectly set taps on fixedtap transformers. Equipment failures may immediately result in the case of severe overvoltages, but more likely is accelerated degradation leading to premature failure without obvious cause. Some equipment that is particularly sensitive to overvoltages may have to be shut down by protective devices.

23.3.5 Frequency Variations Frequency variations that are large enough to cause problems are most often encountered in small isolated networks, due to faulty or maladjusted governors. Other causes are serious overloads on a network, or governor failures, though on an interconnected network, a single governor failure will not cause widespread disturbances of this nature. Network overloads are most common in areas with a developing electrical infrastructure, where a reduction in frequency may be a deliberate policy to alleviate overloading. Serious network faults leading to islanding of part of an interconnected network can also lead to frequency problems. Few problems are normally caused by this problem. Processes where product quality depends on motor speed control may be at risk but such processes will normally have closed-loop speed controllers. Motor drives will suffer output changes, but process control mechanisms will normally take care of this. Extreme under- or overfrequency may require the tripping of generators, leading to the possibility of progressive network collapse through network overloading/underfrequency causes.

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23.3.4 Harmonics This is a very common problem in the field of Power Quality. The main causes are Power Electronic Devices, such as rectifiers, inverters, UPS systems, static var compensators, etc. Other sources are electric discharge lamps, arc furnaces and arc welders. In fact, any nonlinear load will be a source of harmonics. Figure 23.7 illustrates a supply waveform that is distorted due to the presence of harmonics. Harmonics usually lead to heating in rotating equipment (generators and motors), and transformers, leading to possible shutdown. Capacitors may be similarly affected. If harmonic levels

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23.3.6 Voltage Fluctuations These are mainly caused by load variations, especially large rapid ones such as are likely to occur in arc and induction heating furnaces, rolling mills, mine winders, and resistance welders. Flicker in incandescent lamps is the most usual effect of voltage fluctuations. It is a serious problem, with the human eye being particularly sensitive to light flicker in the frequency range of 5-15Hz. Because of the wide use of such lamps, the effects are widespread and inevitably give rise to a large number of complaints. Fluorescent lamps are also affected, though to a lesser extent.

23.3.9 Undervoltage Excessive network loading, loss of generation, incorrectly set transformer taps and voltage regulator malfunctions, cause undervoltage. Loads with a poor power factor (see Chapter 18 for Power Factor Correction) or a general lack of reactive power support on a network also contribute. The location of power factor correction devices is often important, incorrect location resulting in little or no improvement. The symptoms of undervoltage problems are tripping of equipment through undervoltage trips. Lighting will run at reduced output. Undervoltage can also indirectly lead to overloading problems as equipment takes an increased current to maintain power output (e.g. motor loads). Such loads may then trip on overcurrent or thermal protection.

23.3.7 Voltage Unbalance Unbalanced loading of the network normally causes voltage unbalance. However, parts of the supply network with unbalanced impedances (such as untransposed overhead transmission lines) will also cause voltage unbalance, though the effect of this is normally small. Overheating of rotating equipment results from voltage unbalance. In serious cases, tripping of the equipment occurs to protect it from damage, leading to generation/load imbalance or loss of production.

23.3.10 Transients Transients on the supply network are due to faults, control and protection malfunctions, lightning strikes, etc. Voltage-sensitive devices and insulation of electrical equipment may be damaged, as noted above for voltage surges/spikes. Control systems may reset. Semiconductor manufacture can be seriously affected unless the supplies to critical process plant are suitably protected.

23.3.8 Supply Interruptions Faults on the power system are the most common cause, irrespective of duration. Other causes are failures in equipment, and control and protection malfunctions. Electrical equipment ceases to function under such conditions, with undervoltage protection devices leading to tripping of some loads. Short interruptions may be no more than an inconvenience to some consumers (e.g. domestic consumers), but for commercial and industrial consumers (e.g. semiconductor manufacture) may lead to lengthy serious production losses with large financial impact. Longer interruptions will cause production loss in most industries, as induction and synchronous motors cannot tolerate more than 1-2 seconds interruption without having to be tripped, if only to prevent excessive current surges and resulting large voltage dips on supply restoration. On the other hand, vital computer systems are often fed via a UPS supply that may be capable of supplying power from batteries for several hours in the event of a mains supply failure. More modern devices such as Dynamic Voltage Restorers can also be used to provide continuity of supply due to a supply interruption. For interruptions lasting some time, a standby generator can be provide a limited supply to essential loads, but cannot be started in time to prevent an interruption occurring.

23.4 POWER QUALITY MONITORING If an installation or network is thought to be suffering from problems related to Power Quality, suitable measurements should to be taken to confirm the initial diagnosis. These measurements will also help quantify the extent of the problem(s) and provide assistance in determining the most suitable solutions. Finally, followup measurements after installation will confirm the effectiveness of the remedial measures taken.

23.4.1 Type of Installation Monitoring equipment for Power Quality may be suitable for either temporary or permanent installation on a supply network. Permanent installation is most likely to be used by Utilities for routine monitoring of parts of their networks to ensure that regulatory limits are being complied with and to monitor general trends in respect of power quality issues. Consumers with sensitive loads may also install permanent monitoring devices in order to monitor Power Quality and provide supporting evidence in the event of a claim for compensation being made against the supplier if loss occurs due to a power quality problem whose source is in the Utility network.

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The performance of any devices installed to improve Power Quality can also be monitored. Such devices may have a data link to a DCS or data logger in order to provide historical data recording and data processing/presentation facilities. They are quite small and are fitted in a suitable cubicle forming part of a switchboard line-up. The data link may be hard-wired, use a modem connection to a telephone line, or in the case of a utility with many geographically-dispersed substations, radio links for data transmission may be used. Internal data storage will be provided to ensure effective use of the data link. The units may be self- or auxiliary supply powered, and in the case of important Utility substations may have battery-backed supplies to ensure capture of voltage interruptions. Time synchronisation may be required to ensure accurate identification of events. For investigation of particular problems, a portable instrument is more suitable. The same range of Power Quality measurement capabilities is provided as for permanent instrumentation. The instrument may have built-in analysis/data storage capabilities, but external storage in the form of floppy discs or a data link to a laptop or desktop PC is commonplace. Analysis/report writing software running on a PC is often available, which may be more comprehensive than that provide in the instrument itself.

23.4.2 Connection to the Supply Connection to the supply being monitored may present problems. For LV supplies, the voltage inputs are usually taken directly to the instrument in single-phase or threephase form as required. Monitoring of currents may be through a current shunt or suitable CT, depending on circuit rating. At higher voltages, VTs and CTs already fitted for instrumentation/protection purposes are used. In general, the conventional electromagnetic voltage or current transformer is suitable for use without special considerations being required, but capacitor voltage transformers often have a low-pass filter on the output that has the potential to seriously affect readings of harmonics and transient phenomena. In such cases, the input to the monitoring device must be taken prior to filtering, or the filter characteristics must be determined and the measured signals processed to take account of the filtering prior to analysis being undertaken. In addition, the CVT itself may have a non-linear transfer function with respect to frequency, though the variety of types of CVT and difficulties of testing make confirmation of this point virtually impossible at present. Where harmonics or high-frequency phenomena are being measured, suitable connecting leads between the transducers and the measuring instrument are required to avoid signal distortion. This is especially important if long cable runs are used; this may be the case if the measuring instruments are centralised but measurements are being made at a number of switchboards.

Power Quality

Figure 23.8 illustrates a Power Quality meter that is available (MiCOM M720 range).

23.4.3 Types of Power Quality Measurements Instruments for power quality monitoring may not offer the full range of measurements for all Power Quality issues. Care is therefore required that the instrument chosen is suited for the purpose. Most instruments will provide provide measurements of current and voltage harmonics, and capture of voltage dips and frequency excursions (Figure 23.9). Measurements to the commonly encountered standards may be built-in. For capture of surges, spikes and interruptions, more specialised instrumentation may be required as transient high-speed waveform capture is required. This requires a high sampling rate and large memory storage.
Figure 23.8: MiCOM M720 Power Quality meter

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Most instruments designed for Power Quality use A/D conversion of the input waveforms. The raw waveform is stored and either transferred to a computer for analysis, or the instrument contains built-in software to carry out analysis of power quality in line with accepted standards. Often the software will have a choice of standards for user selection. Figure 23.10 shows the capture of data and analysis for a period of one week to determine compliance with EN 50160.

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More detailed analysis using the same instrument can show directly how the results compare with this standard, as shown in Figure 23.11. To facilitate the interchange of data between locations and/or users, the public-domain PQDIF data interchange format for Power Quality may be used and facilities provided for in the software.

23.4.4 Instrument Location The location of the measuring instrument also requires consideration. By careful placement and observing the relative polarities, it is possible to deduce if the source of the disturbance is on the source or load side of the monitoring device.

23.5 REMEDIAL MEASURES There are many methods available for correcting Power Quality problems. The most common are given in Table 23.3. Brief details of each method are given below, but it is emphasised that the solution adopted will be tailored specifically to the problem and site.
Equipment Application Voltage variations Supply interruptions Frequency variations Harmonics Harmonics Voltage variations Supply interruptions

Figure 23.9: Transient voltage disturbance capture

UPS Earthing practices Filters (Active/Passive) Energy Storage Devices

Table 23.3: Power system disturbance classification to EN 50160

23.5.1 UPS Systems

Figure 23.10: Data capture for analysis of data to EN50160

A UPS system consists of the following: a. an energy storage device normally a battery b. a rectifier and inverter c. transfer switches The UPS may be on-line (continuously in operation) or offline (switched in when a disturbance occurs). The former eliminates all problems due to voltage surges/spikes/dips and interruptions (within the capacity of the storage device) while the latter passes some of the disturbance through, until the supply is transferred from the normal source to the UPS. Harmonics originating in the source may be reduced, but not eliminated in the load, because the UPS itself is a source of harmonics, as it contains Power Electronic Devices. Thus it may increase harmonic distortion on the source side.
417

Figure 23.11: THD analysis to EN50160

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Supply

Rectifier/ Inverter

Load

Energy storage

Figure 23.12: UPS system

The main disadvantages of UPS systems are cost and efficiency. An on-line UPS incurs continuous losses, while both types require energy storage devices that can be expensive. Fast-acting switches to transfer load to the energy storage device are required for offline devices, while transfer switches to bypass the rectifier/inverter when these are undergoing maintenance may also be required. Figure 23.12 illustrates conceptually both types of UPS.

(voltage source converter) technologies are possible. Passive filters may take up significant space, depending on the harmonics being filtered and the connection voltage. A voltage source converter may be used instead to provide a reduced footprint. It can filter several frequencies simultaneously and track changes in the frequencies of the harmonics as the fundamental frequency changes. It can be expensive when used solely as an active filter, but be viable where space is at a premium. Figure 23.14 shows the concept of an active harmonic filter. A danger with filters is the possibility of resonance with part of the power system at some frequency, giving rise to problems that would not otherwise occur.

Network

Load

Coupling inductance

23.5.2 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) This is a voltage source converter and energy store, connected in series (either directly or via an injection transformer) that controls the voltage downstream directly by injection of suitable voltage in series with the source. Ratings of up to several MW are possible at voltages up to 11kV. Figure 23.13 illustrates the concept.
IGBT power section

DC-link capacitor Figure 23.14: Active harmonic filter concept

Power Quality

Disturbed incoming supply

Disturbance free supply

23.5.5 Static Var Compensator (SVC) This is a shunt-connected assembly of capacitors, and possibly reactors, which provides reactive power to a network during disturbances to minimise them. It is normally applied to transmission networks to counter voltage dips/surges during faults and enhance power transmission capacity on long transmission circuits. The devices are switched either in discrete steps or made continuously variable through the use of PEDs. It works by providing reactive power (leading/lagging as required) to assist in keeping the voltage at the point of connection constant. Voltage variations at that point are reflected in var variations, so provision of reactive power of appropriate sign can reduce the voltage fluctuations. The STATCOM is a SVC comprised of a self commutated static converter and capacitor energy storage. The switching of the converter is controlled to supply reactive power of appropriate sign to the network.

A.C.-D.C.

Modular 3-phase power electronic inverters Energy storage system D.C.-D.C.

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Figure 23.13: Dynamic Voltage Restorer concept

23.5.3 Earthing Practices A site that suffers from problems with harmonics may need to investigate the earthing of equipment. The high neutral currents that result can give rise to overheating/failure of neutral/earth connections, while high neutral-earth impedances can give rise to commonmode voltage problems. All neutral and earth connections need to be checked to ensure they are adequately sized and have sound joints.

D.C.-D.C.

D.C.-D.C.

A.C.-D.C.

23.5.6 Ferro-resonant Transformer 23.5.4 Filters These are shunt-connected devices used to eliminate harmonics. Either passive (LC or RLC) networks or active This is a transformer that is designed to run highly saturated. Thus, input voltage dips and surges have little effect on the output voltage. Voltage interruptions of very short duration result in the magnetic stored energy

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being used up in maintaining output voltage and current. The transformer is normally of 1:1 ratio, although taps may be provided for fine adjustment of output voltage. Appropriate shielding of the windings enables the impact of voltage spikes to be reduced. It is used in LV systems, with a power output of up to a few tens of kVA.

The dips can also be seen using the graphical viewing facilities of the instrument. Figure 23.16(a) shows the display of the envelope of the r.m.s. voltage, and Figure 23.16(b), the same data magnified. The number, magnitude and frequency of the dips can be clearly seen. A detailed view of one dip shows clearly that the dips are only just outside the normal supply voltage limits (Figure 23.17).

23.6 EXAMPLES The following sections show some examples of the measurement of Power Quality problems, using an ALSTOM M720 Power Quality meter.

23.6.1 Flicker Detection on a LV network, using Power Quality Monitoring Instruments In a network known to have a high incidence of disturbances, some local industries were identified as the source of pollution of the electrical network, reducing the level of Power Quality at LV voltages. Measurements using a Power Quality meter show many voltage dips to about 88% of the nominal voltage, as illustrated in Figure 23.15. The voltage dips were found to occur at frequencies of up to 8 dips/second.
Figure 23.17: Detailed analysis on a single voltage dip

Using the waveform capture facility, the problem can be viewed in great detail, as shown in Figure 23.18.

Figure 23.15: Voltage dip recording Figure 23.18: Detailed view of voltage dip waveform

Using this information, and knowledge of the operating cycle of the industries causing the dip, the particular equipment responsible for causing the voltage dip can be identified and remedial measures implemented.

(a)

23.6.2 Investigation of Harmonic Pollution Problems on an Industrial Plant An industrial plant was suffering Power Quality problems, and harmonic pollution was suspected as the cause. A Power Quality meter was installed at various parts of the network to determine the extent of the problem and the equipment causing the problem. Confirmation of the pollution as being due to harmonics was readily obtained. This can be seen in Figure 23.19, for the equipment identified as the source of the disturbance. The graphics enable rapid and clear identification of the frequency and amount by which the generated harmonics exceed the permitted limit. A Power System Analysis of the network was then

(b)

Figure 23.16: Graphical view of voltage dip data

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conducted to replicate the measured results, and then used for testing the effectiveness of harmonic filter designs. The most cost-effective filter design and location can then be selected for implementation.

Figure 23.19: Harmonic pollution measurement

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Power System Measurements

Introduction General characteristics Digital transducer technology Analogue transducer technology Transducer selection Measurement centres Tariff metering Synchronisers Disturbance recorders

22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7 22.8 22.9

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22 Power System Measurements

22.1 INTRODUCTION The accurate measurement of the voltage, current or other parameter of a power system is a prerequisite to any form of control, ranging from automatic closed-loop control to the recording of data for statistical purposes. Measurement of these parameters can be accomplished in a variety of ways, including the use of direct-reading instruments as well as electrical measuring transducers. Transducers produce an accurate d.c. analogue output, usually a current, which corresponds to the parameter being measured (the measurand). They provide electrical isolation by transformers, sometimes referred to as Galvanic Isolation, between the input and the output. This is primarily a safety feature, but also means that the cabling from the output terminals to any receiving equipment can be lightweight and have a lower insulation specification. The advantages over discrete measuring instruments are as follows: a. mounted close to the source of the measurement, reducing instrument transformer burdens and increasing safety through elimination of long wiring runs b. ability to mount display equipment remote from transducer c. ability to use multiple display elements per transducer d. the burden on CTs/VTs is considerably less Outputs from transducers may be used in many ways from simple presentation of measured values for an operator, to being utilised by a network automation scheme to determine the control strategy.

22.2 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Transducers may have single or multiple inputs and/or outputs. The inputs, outputs and any auxiliary circuits will all be isolated from each other. There may be more than one input quantity and the measurand may be a function of one or more of them.

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Whatever measurement transducer is being used, there will usually be a choice between discrete and modular types, the latter being plug-in units to a standard rack. The location and user-preferences will dictate the choice of transducer type.

22.2.3 Transducer Accuracy Accuracy is usually of prime importance, but in making comparisons, it should be noted that accuracy can be defined in several ways and may only apply under very closely defined conditions of use. The following attempts to clarify some of the more common terms and relate them to practical situations, using the terminology given in IEC 60688. The accuracy of a transducer will be affected, to a greater or lesser extent, by many factors, known as influence quantities, over which the user has little, or no, control. Table 22.1 provides a complete list of influence quantities. The accuracy is checked under an agreed set of conditions known as reference conditions. The reference conditions for each of the influence quantities can be quoted as a single value (e.g. 20C) or a range (e.g. 10-40C).
Input current Input quantity distortion Power factor Continuous operation Interaction between measuring elements Auxiliary supply voltage External magnetic fields Series mode interference External heat Table 22.1: Transducer influence quantities Input voltage Input quantity frequency Unbalanced currents Output load Ambient temperature Auxiliary supply frequency Self heating Common mode interference

22.2.1 Transducer Inputs The input of a transducer is often taken from transformers and these may be of many different types. Ideally, to obtain the best overall accuracy, meteringclass instrument transformers should be used, since the transformer errors will be added, albeit algebraically, to the transducer errors. However, it is common to apply transducers to protection-class instrument transformers and that is why transducers are usually characterised to be able to withstand significant short-term overloads on their current inputs. A typical specification for the current input circuits of a transducer suitable for connection to protection-class instrument transformers is to withstand:

Power System Measurements

a. 300% of full-load current continuously b. 2500% for three seconds c. 5000% for one second The input impedance of any current input circuit will be kept as low as possible, and that for voltage inputs will be kept as high as possible. This reduces errors due to impedance mismatch.

22.2.2 Transducer Outputs The output of a transducer is usually a current source. This means that, within the output voltage range (compliance voltage) of the transducer, additional display devices can be added without limit and without any need for adjustment of the transducer. The value of the compliance voltage determines the maximum loop impedance of the output circuit, so a high value of compliance voltage facilitates remote location of an indicating instrument. Where the output loop is used for control purposes, appropriately rated Zener diodes are sometimes fitted across the terminals of each of the devices in the series loop to guard against the possibility of their internal circuitry becoming open circuit. This ensures that a faulty device in the loop does not cause complete failure of the output loop. The constant-current nature of the transducer output simply raises the voltage and continues to force the correct output signal round the loop.

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The error determined under reference conditions is referred to as the intrinsic error. All transducers having the same intrinsic error are grouped into a particular accuracy class, denoted by the class index. The class index is the same as the intrinsic error expressed as a percentage (e.g. a transducer with an intrinsic accuracy of 0.1% of full scale has a class index of 0.1). The class index system used in IEC 60688 requires that the variation for each of the influence quantities be strictly related to the intrinsic error. This means that the higher the accuracy claimed by the manufacturer, the lower must be all of the variations. Because there are many influence quantities, the variations are assessed individually, whilst maintaining all the other influence quantities at reference conditions. The nominal range of use of a transducer is the normal operating range of the transducer as specified by the manufacturer. The nominal range of use will naturally be wider than the reference value or range. Within the nominal range of use of a transducer, additional errors accumulate resulting in an additional error. This additional error is limited for any individual influence quantity to, at most, the value of the class index. Table 22.2 gives performance details of a typical range of transducers according to the standard.

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Influence Quantity Input current,In Input voltage,Vn Input frequency Power factor Unbalanced current Interaction between measuring elements Continuous operation Self Heating Output load Waveform crest factor Ambient temperature Aux. supply d.c. voltage A.C. Aux. Supply frequency, fn External magnetic fields Output series mode interference Output common mode interference Table 22.2: Typical transducer performance

Accuracy Class of Transducer: 0.5 Reference Range Max. Error- Reference Range % In=1A, 5A 20120% Vn=50500V 80120% 4565Hz Cos = 0.51 0100% Current input 0360 Continuous > 6h 130min 10100% 1.41 (sine wave) 0-50 C 24250V DC 90110% fn 00.4kA/m 1V 50Hz r.m.s. in series with output 100V 50Hz r.m.s. output to earth 0.5% 0.25% 0.5% 0.25% 0.5% 0.25% 0.5% 0.5% 0.25% 0.5% 0.25% 0.25% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5%

Nominal Working Range 0-120% 0-120% Cos = 01 1.21.8 -1060 C 19V-300V -

Max. Error- Nominal Range 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 1.0% 0.25% -

Once installed, the user expects the accuracy of a transducer to remain stable over time. The use of high quality components and conservative power ratings will help to ensure long-term stability, but adverse site conditions can cause performance changes which may need to be compensated for during the lifetime of the equipment.

Under changing conditions of the measurand, the output signal does not follow the changes instantaneously but is time-delayed. This is due to the filtering required to reduce ripple or, in transducers using numerical technology, prevent aliasing. The amount of the delay is called the response time. To a certain extent, ripple and response time are interrelated. The response time can usually be shortened at the expense of increased ripple, and vice-versa. Transducers having shorter response times than normal can be supplied for those instances where the power system suffers swings, dips, and low frequency oscillations that must be monitored. Transducers having a current output have a maximum output voltage, known as the compliance voltage. If the load resistance is too high and hence the compliance voltage is exceeded, the output of the transducer is no longer accurate. Certain transducers are characterised by the manufacturer for use on systems where the waveform is not a pure sinusoid. They are commonly referred to as true r.m.s. sensing types. For these types, the distortion factor of the waveform is an influence quantity. Other transducers are referred to as mean-sensing and are

22.3 DIGITAL TRANSDUCER TECHNOLOGY Digital power system transducers make use of the same technology as that described for digital and numerical relays in Chapter 7. The analogue signals acquired from VTs and CTs are filtered to avoid aliasing, converted to digital form using A/D conversion, and then signal processing is carried out to extract the information required. Basic details are given in Chapter 7. Sample rates of 64 samples/cycle or greater may be used, and the accuracy class is normally 0.5. Outputs may be both digital and analogue. The analogue outputs will be affected by the factors influencing accuracy as described above. Digital outputs are typically in the form of a communications link with RS232 and/or RS485 types available. The response time may suffer compared to analogue transducers, depending on the rate at which values are transferred to the communications link and the delay in processing data at the receiving end. In fact, all of the influence quantities that affect a traditional analogue transducer also are present in a digital transducer in some form, but

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Confusion also arises in specifying the performance under real operating conditions. The output signal is often a d.c. analogue of the measurand, but is obtained from alternating input quantities and will, inevitably, contain a certain amount of alternating component, or ripple. Ripple is defined as the peak-to-peak value of the alternating component of the output signal although some manufacturers quote mean-to-peak or r.m.s. values. To be meaningful, the conditions under which the value of the ripple has been measured must be stated, e.g. 0.35% r.m.s. = 1.0% peak-to-peak ripple.

adjusted to respond to the r.m.s. value of a pure sine wave. If the input waveform becomes distorted, errors will result. For example, the error due to third harmonic distortion can amount to 1% for every 3% of harmonic.

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the errors resulting may be much less than in an analogue transducer and it may be more stable over a long period of time. The advantages of a transducer using numerical technology are: 1. improved long-term stability 2. more accurate r.m.s measurements 3. improved communications facilities 4. programmability of scaling 5. wider range of functions 6. reduced size The improved long term stability reduces costs by extending the intervals between re-calibration. More accurate r.m.s measurements provide the user with data of improved accuracy, especially on supplies with significant harmonic content. The improved communications facilities permit many transducers to share the same communications link, and each transducer to provide several measurements. This leads to economy in interconnecting wiring and number of transducers used. Remote or local programmable scaling of the transducer permits scaling of the transducer in the field. The scaling can be changed to reflect changes in the network, or to be re-used elsewhere. Changes can be downloaded via the communications link, thus removing the need for a site visit. It also minimises the risk of the user specifying an incorrect scaling factor and having to return the transducer to the manufacturer for adjustment. Suppliers can keep a wider range of transducers suitable for a wide range of applications and inputs in stock, thus reducing delivery times. Transducers are available with a much wider range of functions in one package, thus reducing space requirements in a switchboard. Functions available include harmonics up to the 31st, energy, and maximum demand information. The latter are useful for tariff negotiations.

These features are shown diagrammatically in Figure 22.1.

I1 I2 Zin Zin Z0 I0

Qin

Figure 22.1: Schematic of an analogue transducer

Power System Measurements

Output ranges of 0-10mA, 0-20mA, and 4-20mA are common. Live zero (e.g. 4-20mA), suppressed zero (e.g. 0-10mA for 300-500kV) and linear inverse range (e.g. 10-0mA for 0-15kV) transducers normally require an auxiliary supply. The dual-slope type has two linear sections to its output characteristic, for example, an output of 0-2mA for the first part of the input range, 08kV, and 2-10mA for the second part, 8-15kV.

22.5 TRANSDUCER SELECTION The selection of the correct transducer to perform a measurement function depends on many factors. These are detailed below.

22.5.1 Current Transducers Current transducers are usually connected to the secondary of an instrument current transformer with a rated output of 1 or 5 amps. Mean-sensing and true r.m.s. types are available. If the waveform contains significant amounts of harmonics, a true r.m.s sensing type must be used for accurate measurement of the input. They can be self-powered, except for the true r.m.s. types, or when a live zero output (for example 420mA) is required. They are not directional and, therefore, are unable to distinguish between export and import current. To obtain a directional signal, a voltage input is also required.

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22.4 ANALOGUE TRANSDUCER TECHNOLOGY All analogue transducers have the following essential features: a. an input circuit having impedance Zin b. isolation (no electrical connection) between input and output c. an ideal current source generating an output current, I1, which is an accurate and linear function of Qin, the input quantity d. a parallel output impedance, Zo. This represents the actual output impedance of the current source and shunts a small fraction, I2, of the ideal output e. an output current, Io, equal to (I1 - I2)

22.5.2 Voltage Transducers Connection is usually to the secondary of an instrument voltage transformer but may be direct if the measured quantity is of sufficiently low voltage. The suppressed zero type is commonly used to provide an output for a specific range of input voltage where measurement of zero on the input quantity is not required. The linear inverse type is often used as an aid to synchronising.

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22.5.3 Frequency Accurate measurement of frequency is of vital importance to transmission system operators but not quite so important, perhaps, for the operator of a diesel generator set. Accuracy specifications of 0.1% and 0.01% are available, based on percent of centre scale frequency. This means, for example that a device quoted as 0.1% and having a centre scale value of 50Hz will have a maximum error of 50mHz under reference conditions.

phase angle transducer use the zero crossing point of the input waveform to obtain the phase information and are thus prone to error if the input contains significant amounts of harmonics. Calculating the power factor from the values of the outputs of a watt and a var transducer will give a true measurement in the presence of harmonics.

22.5.5 Power Quantities The measurement of active power (watts) and reactive power (vars) is generally not quite as simple as for the other quantities. More care needs to be taken with the selection of these types because of the variety of configurations. It is essential to select the appropriate type for the system to be measured by taking into account factors such as system operating conditions (balanced or unbalanced load), the number of current and voltage connections available and whether the power flow is likely to be import, export, or both. The range of the measurand will need to encompass all required possibilities of over-range under normal conditions so that the transducer and its indicating instrument, or other receiving equipment, is not used above the upper limit of its effective range. Figure 22.2 illustrates the connections to be used for the various types of measurement.

22.5.4 Phase Angle Transducers for the measurement of phase angle are frequently used for the display of power factor. This is achieved by scaling the indicating instrument in a nonlinear fashion, following the cosine law. For digital indicators and SCADA equipment, it is necessary for the receiving equipment to provide appropriate conversions to achieve the correct display of power factor. Phase angle transducers are available with various input ranges. When the scaling is -1800180, there is an ambiguous region, of about 2 at the extremes of the range. In this region, where the output is expected to be, for example, 10mA or +10mA, the output may jump sporadically from one of the full-scale values to the other. Transducers are also available for measurement of the angle between two input voltages. Some types of

Transducer Van Ia S1 A B C N To load 3 phase, 4 wire balanced load P1 S2 P2 A B C Vab Vca

Transducer

Ia S2 P2

S1 P1

To load 3 phase, 3 wire balanced load

Transducer Vab Vca S1 A B S1 C P1 S2 P2 To load 3 phase, 3 wire unbalanced load C N P1 Ic S2 P2 A

V Transducer Vb Vc Ia S1 P1 B S2

Transducer Ic Ib A Van Vcn S1 P1 S2 P2 S1 P1 B S2 P2 C N To load To load 3 phase, 4 wire unbalanced (21/

2

Ia

Ia S2 P2 S1 P1

Ic Ib

P2 S1 P1

S2 P2 S1 P1 S2 P2

3 phase, 4 wire unbalanced load

el.) load

Figure 22.2: Connections for 3-phase watt/var transducers

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22.5.6 Scaling The relationship of the output current to the value of the measurand is of vital importance and needs careful consideration. Any receiving equipment must, of course, be used within its rating but, if possible, some kind of standard should be established. As an example, examine the measurement of a.c. voltage. The primary system has a nominal value of 11kV and the transformer has a ratio of 11kV/110V. To specify the conversion coefficient for a 0-10mA voltage transducer to be 110V/10mA would not necessarily be the optimum. One of the objectives must be to have the capability of monitoring the voltage over a range of values so an upper limit must be selected for instance +20%, or 132V. Using the original conversion coefficient, the maximum output of the transducer is required to be 12mA. This is within the capability of most 0-10mA transducers, the majority of which can accommodate an over-range of 25%, but it does mean any associated analogue indicating instrument must have a sensitivity of 12mA. However, the scale required on this instrument is now 0-13.2kV, which may lead to difficulty in drawing the scale in such a way as to make it readable (and conforms to the relevant standard). In this example, it would be more straightforward to establish the full-scale indication as 15kV and to make this equivalent to 10mA, thus making the specification of the display instrument much easier. The transducer will have to be specified such that an input of 0-150V gives an output of 0-10mA. In the case of transducers with a 4-20mA output, great care is required in the output scaling, as there is no overrange capability. The 20mA output limit is a fixed one from a measurement point of view. Such outputs are typically used as inputs to SCADA systems, and the SCADA system is normally programmed to assume that a current magnitude in excess of 20mA represents a transducer failure. Thus, using the above example, the output might be scaled so that 20mA represents 132V and hence the nominal 110V input results in an output of 16.67mA. A more convenient scaling might be to use 16mA as representing110V, with 20mA output being equal to 137.5V (i.e. 25% over-range instead of the 20% required). It would be incorrect to scale the transducer so that 110V input was represented by 20mA output, as the over-range capability required would not be available. Similar considerations apply to current transducers and, with added complexity, to watt transducers, where the ratios of both the voltage and the current transformers must be taken into account. In this instance, the output will be related to the primary power of the system. It should be noted that the input current corresponding to full-scale output may not be exactly equal to the secondary rating of the current transformer but this does not matter - the manufacturer will take this into account.

Some of these difficulties do not need to be considered if the transducer is only feeding, for example, a SCADA outstation. Any receiving equipment that can be programmed to apply a scaling factor to each individual input can accommodate most input signal ranges. The main consideration will be to ensure that the transducer is capable of providing a signal right up to the full-scale value of the input, that is, it does not saturate at the highest expected value of the measurand.

22.5.7 Auxiliary Supplies Many transducers do not require any auxiliary supply. These are termed self-powered transducers. Of those that do need a separate supply, the majority have a biased, or live zero output, such as 4-20mA. This is because a non-zero output cannot be obtained for zero input unless a separate supply is available. Transducers that require an auxiliary supply are generally provided with a separate pair of terminals for the auxiliary circuit so that the user has the flexibility of connecting the auxiliary supply input to the measured voltage, or to a separate supply. However, some manufacturers have standardised their designs such that they appear to be of the self-powered type, but the auxiliary supply connection is actually internal. For a.c. measuring transducers, the use of a d.c. auxiliary supply enables the transducer to be operated over a wider range of input. The range of auxiliary supply voltage over which a transducer can be operated is specified by the manufacturer. If the auxiliary voltage is derived from an input quantity, the range of measurement will be restricted to about 20% of the nominal auxiliary supply voltage. This can give rise to problems when attempting to measure low values of the input quantity.

Power System Measurements 22

22.6 MEASUREMENT CENTRES A Measurement Centre is effectively a collection of discrete transducers mounted in a common case. This is largely impractical if analogue technology for signal processing is used, but no such limitation exists if digital or numerical technology is adopted. Therefore, Measurement Centres are generally only found implemented using these technologies. As has been already noted in Chapter 7, a numerical relay can provide many measurements of power system quantities. Therefore, an alternative way of looking at a Measurement Centre that uses numerical technology is that it is a numerical relay, stripped of its protection functions and incorporating a wide range of power system parameter measurements.

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This is rather an oversimplification of the true situation, as there are some important differences. A protection relay has to provide the primary function of protection over a very large range of input values; from perhaps 5% to 500% or greater of rated values. The accuracy of measurement, whilst important, is not required to be as accurate as, for instance, metering for tariff purposes. Metering does not have to cover quite such a wide range of input values, and therefore the accuracy of measurement is often required to be higher than for a protection relay. Additional functionality over that provided by the measurement functions of a protection relay is often required for a typical set of functions provided by a measurement centre, see Table 22.3. On the other hand, the fundamental measurement process in a measurement centre based on numerical technology is identical to that of a numerical relay, so need not be repeated here. The only differences are the ranges of the input quantities and the functionality. The former is dealt with by suitable design of the input signal conditioning and A/D conversion, the latter is dealt with by the software provided.
R.M.S. line currents Neutral current Average current Negative sequence voltage Power (each phase and total) Apparent Power (each phase and total) Phase angle (voltage/current) each phase Demand current in period Demand reactive power in period Demand power factor in period R.M.S. line voltages R.M.S. phase voltages Average voltage Negative sequence current Reactive Power (each phase and total) Power factor (each phase and total) Demand time period Demand power in period Demand VA in period Maximum demand current (each phase and total) since reset Energy, Wh

Maximum demand (W and var) since reset Energy, varh Frequency Individual harmonics (to 31st) %THD (voltage) each phase and total %THD (current) each phase and total Programmable multiple analogue outputs Table 22.3: Typical function set provided by a Measurement Centre

Figure 22.3: Typical transducers/Measurement Centres

22.7 TARIFF METERING Tariff metering is a specialised form of measurement, being concerned with the measurement of electrical power, reactive power or energy for the purposes of charging the consumer. As such, it must conform to the appropriate national standards for such matters. Primary tariff metering is used for customer billing purposes, and may involve a measurement accuracy of 0.2% of reading, even for readings that are 5% or less of the nominal rated value. Secondary tariff metering is applied where the user wishes to include his own metering as a check on the primary tariff metering installed by the supplier, or within a large plant or building to gain an accurate picture of the consumption of energy in different areas, perhaps for the purpose of energy audits or internal cost allocation. The accuracy of such metering is rather less, an overall accuracy of 0.5% over a wide measurement

The advantages of a Measurement Centre are that a comprehensive set of functions are provided in a single item of equipment, taking up very little extra space compared to a discrete transducer for a much smaller number of parameters. Therefore, when the requisite CTs and VTs are available, it may well make sense to use a Measurement Centre even if not all of the functionality is immediately required. History shows that more and more data is required as time passes, and incorporation of full functionality at the outset may make sense. Figure 22.3 illustrates the wide variety of transducers and Measurement Centres available.

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range being typically required. As this is the overall accuracy required, each element in the metering chain (starting with the CTs/VTs) must have an accuracy rather better than this. Careful attention to wiring and mounting of the transducer is required to avoid errors due to interference, and the accuracy may need to be maintained over a fairly wide frequency range. Thus a tariff metering scheme requires careful design of all of the equipment included in the scheme. Facilities are normally included to provide measurements over a large number of defined time periods (e.g. 24 half-hour periods for generator energy tariff metering) so that the exporter of the energy can produce an overall invoice for the user according to the correct rates for each tariff period. The time intervals that these periods cover may change according to the time of year (winter, spring, etc.) and therefore flexibility of programming of the energy metering is required. Remote communications are invariably required, so that the data is transferred to the relevant department on a regular basis for invoicing purposes.

be tolerated without leading to excessive current/voltage transients on CB closure. The check synchroniser has programmable error limits to define the limits of acceptability when making the comparison.
CB close controls Check synchroniser

Close Generator

Network

Busbar (a) Application to generator CB close controls Check synchroniser

Close

22.8 SYNCHRONISERS

Power System Measurements

Synchronisers are required at points on a power system where two supplies (either generator and grid, or two grid supplies) may need to be paralleled. They are more than just a measuring device, as they will provide contact closures to permit circuit breaker closing when conditions for paralleling (synchronising) are within limits. However, they are not regarded as protection relays, and so are included in this Chapter for convenience. There are two types of synchronisers auto-synchronisers and check synchronisers.

Network #2

Line A

CB 1

Network #1

Busbar B (b) Application to two networks Figure 22.4: Check synchroniser applications

22.8.1 Check Synchronisers The function of a check synchroniser is to determine if two voltages are in synchronism, or nearly so, and provide outputs under these conditions. The outputs are normally in the form of volt-free contacts, so that they may be used in CB control circuits to permit or block CB closing. When applied to a power system, the check synchroniser is used to check that it is safe to close a CB to connect two independent networks together, or a generator to a network, as in Figure 22.4. In this way, the check synchroniser performs a vital function in blocking CB closure when required. Synchronism occurs when two a.c. voltages are of the same frequency and magnitude, and have zero phase difference. The check synchroniser, when active, monitors these quantities and enables CB close circuits when the differences are within pre-set limits. While CB closure at the instant of perfect synchronism is the ideal, this is very difficult to obtain in practice and some mismatch in one or more of the monitored quantities can

22

The conditions under which a check synchroniser is required to provide an output are varied. Consider the situation of a check synchroniser being used as a permissive device in the closing control circuit of a CB that couples two networks together at a substation Figure 22.4(b). It is not sufficient to assume that both networks will be live, situations where either Line A or Busbar B may be dead may have to be considered, leading to the functionality shown in Table 22.4(a).
Live bus/live line synchronising Dead bus/live line synchronising Live bus/dead line synchronising Network supply voltage #1 deviation from nominal

Network supply voltage #2 deviation Voltage difference within limits from nominal Frequency difference within limits Phase angle difference within limits CB closing advance time CB closing pulse time Maximum number of synchronising attempts (a): Check synchroniser functionality Incoming supply frequency deviation Incoming supply voltage signal from nominal raise/lower Incoming supply voltage raise/lower Incoming supply frequency raise/lower mode (pulse/continuous) mode (pulse/continuous) Incoming supply voltage setpoint Incoming supply frequency setpoint Voltage raise/lower pulse time Frequency raise/lower pulse time (b) Additional functions for auto-synchroniser Table 22.4: Synchroniser function set

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When the close signal is permitted, it may be given only for a limited period of time, to minimise the chances of a CB close signal remaining after the conditions have moved outside of limits. Similarly, circuits may also be provided to block closure if the CB close signal from the CB close controls is present prior to satisfactory conditions being present this ensures that an operator must be monitoring the synchronising displays and only initiating closure when synchronising conditions are correct, and also detects synchronising switch contacts that have become welded together. A check synchroniser does not initiate any adjustments if synchronising conditions are not correct, and therefore acts only as a permissive control in the overall CB closing circuit to provide a check that conditions are satisfactory. In a substation, check-synchronisers may be applied individually to all required CBs. Alternatively, a reduced number may be installed, together with suitable switching arrangements in the signal input/output circuits so that a single device may be selected to cover several CBs.

emergency conditions, it could block the synchronising of a generator that was urgently required in service to help assist in overcoming the condition. If (a) above is not within limits, signals are sent automatically to the governor of the generating set to adjust the speed setpoint appropriately. In the case of (c) not in limits, similar signals are sent to the Automatic Voltage Regulator to raise or lower the setpoint. The signals are commonly in the form of pulses to raise or lower the setpoint, but could be continuous signals if that is what the particular equipment requires. It is normal for the speed and voltage of the generator to be slightly higher than that of the network, and this can be accommodated either by initial settings on the Governor/AVR or by providing setpoint values in the synchroniser. This ensures stable synchronising and export of power at lagging power factor to the network by the generator after CB closure. The possibility of tripping due to reverse/low forward power conditions and/or field failure/under-excitation is avoided. Use of an auto-synchroniser also helps avoid human error if manual synchronising were employed there is potential for damage to equipment, primarily the generator, if synchronising outside of permitted limits occurs. To ensure that the CB is closed at the correct instant, the CB close time is normally a required data item. The autosynchroniser calculates from a knowledge of this and the slip frequency the correct time in advance of phase coincidence to issue the CB close command. This ensures that the CB closes as close to the instant of phase coincidence as possible. Upon receipt of the signal indicating CB closed a further signal to raise frequency may be sent to the governor to ensure stable export of power is achieved. Conversely, failure of the CB to close within a set time period will reset the auto-synchroniser, ready for another attempt, and if further attempts are still unsuccessful, the auto-synchroniser will lock out and raise an alarm. Practice in respect of fitting of auto-synchronisers varies widely between Utilities. Where policy is flexible, it is most common when the time to synchronise is important i.e. emergency standby and peak lopping sets. Many Utilities still relay on manual synchronising procedures. It is also possible for both an auto-synchroniser and checksynchroniser to be fitted in series. This provides protection against internal failure of the auto-synchroniser leading to a CB close command being given incorrectly. 22.9 DISTURBANCE RECORDERS Power systems suffer from various types of disturbances. In post-fault analysis, it is beneficial to have a detailed record of a disturbance to enable the initiating event to be distinguished from the subsequent effects. Especially where the disturbance causes further problems (e.g.

An auto-synchroniser contains additional functionality compared to a check synchroniser. When an autosynchroniser is placed in service, it measures the frequency and magnitude of the voltages on both sides of the circuit breaker, and automatically adjusts one of the voltages if conditions are not correct. Application of auto-synchronisers is normally restricted to generators i.e. the situation shown in Figure 22.4(a), replacing the check synchroniser with an auto-synchroniser. This is because it is generally not possible to adjust either of the network voltages by changing the settings of one or a very few equipments in a network. When applied to a generator, it is relatively easy to adjust the frequency and magnitude of the generated voltage by transmitting signals to the Governor and AVR respectively. The auto-synchroniser will check the voltage of the incoming generator against the network voltage for compliance with the following (Table 22.4(a), (b)): a. slip frequency within limits (i.e. difference in frequency between the generator and network) b. phase difference between the voltages within limits c. voltage magnitude difference within limits The CB close command is issued automatically when all three conditions are satisfied. Checks may also be made that the network frequency and voltage is within pre-set limits, and if not the synchronising sequence is locked out. This prevents synchronising under unusual network conditions, when it may not be desirable. This facility should be used with caution, since under some

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single-phase fault develops into 3-phase), a detailed recording of the fault may be required to distinguish between cause and effect. If the effects of a fault are spread over a wide area, records of the disturbance from a number of locations can assist in determining the location of the disturbance. The equipment used for this purpose is known as a disturbance, or fault, recorder.

22.9.1 Disturbance Recorder Features A disturbance recorder will normally have the following capabilities: a. multi-channel analogue input waveform recording b. multi-channel digital input recording c. storage of several fault records, ready for download/analysis d. recording time of several seconds per disturbance e. triggering from any analogue or digital input channel, or quantity derived from a combination of inputs, or manually

Power system disturbances may last from periods of a few seconds to several minutes. To ensure that maximum benefit is obtained from the investment, a disturbance recorder must be able to capture events over a wide range of timescales. This leads to the provision of programmable sampling rates, to ensure that short-term transients are captured with sufficient resolution while also ensuring that longer-term ones have sufficient of the transient captured to enable a meaningful analysis to be undertaken. The record for each disturbance is divided into sections covering pre-fault, fault, and postfault periods, and each of these periods may have different sampling rates. Time synchronisation is also a vital feature, to enable a recording from one recorder to be aligned with another of the same event from a different recorder to obtain a complete picture of events. Since most distrubance recorders are fitted in substations that are normally unmanned, the provision to download captured information is essential. Each fault recording will contain a large amount of data, and it is vital that the data is uniquely identified in respect of recorder, fault event, channel, etc. Standards exist in field to facilitate the interchange of data, of which perhaps the best known is the IEEE COMTRADE format, now also an IEC standard. Once downloaded, the data from a disturbance recorder can be analysed by various software packages, such as WinAnalyse, Eview, or TOP2000. The software will often have the ability to calculate the fault location (distance-to-fault), superimpose waveforms to assist in fault analysis, and perform harmonic and other analyses.

Power System Measurements

f. distance to fault location for one or more feeders g. variable pre/post trigger recording length h. time synchronisation (IRIG-B, GPS, etc.) i. programmable sampling rates j. standard data transfer formats (IEEE COMTRADE (now IEC 60255-24), etc. k. communication links to control centre, etc. (Ethernet, modem, etc.) l. self-monitoring/diagnostics Analogue channels are provided to record the important currents and voltages at the fault recorder location. High resolution is required to ensure accurate capture of the waveforms, with 14 or 16 bit A/D conversion being usual. Digital inputs are provided to capture signals such as CB opening, protection relay operation, intertrip signals, etc. so that a complete picture of the sequence of events can be built up. The information can then be used to check that the sequence of operations post-fault is correct, or assist in determining the cause of an unexpected sequence of operations. To avoid loss of the disturbance data, sufficient memory is provided to capture and store the data from several faults prior to transfer of the data for analysis. Flexibility in the triggering arrangements is extremely important, as it is pointless to install a disturbance recorder, only for it to miss recording events due to lack of appropriate triggering facilities. It is normal for triggering to be available if the relevant threshold is crossed on any analogue or digital channel, or a quantity that can be derived from a combination of inputs.

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21

Relay Testing and Commissioning

Introduction Electrical type tests Electromagnetic compatibility tests Product safety type tests Environmental type tests Software type tests Dynamic validation type testing Production testing Commissioning tests Secondary injection test equipment Secondary injection testing 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 21.8 21.9 21.10 21.11

Primary injection testing 21.12 Testing of protection scheme logic 21.13 Tripping and alarm annunciation tests 21.14 Periodic maintenance tests 21.15 Protection scheme design for maintenance 21.16 References 21.17

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21 Relay Testing and Commissioning

21.1 INTRODUCTION The testing of protection equipment schemes presents a number of problems. This is because the main function of protection equipment is solely concerned with operation under system fault conditions, and cannot readily be tested under normal system operating conditions. This situation is aggravated by the increasing complexity of protection schemes and use of relays containing software. The testing of protection equipment may be divided into four stages: i. type tests ii. routine factory production tests iii. commissioning tests iv. periodic maintenance tests

21.1.1 Type Tests Type tests are required to prove that a relay meets the published specification and complies with all relevant standards. Since the principal function of a protection relay is to operate correctly under abnormal power conditions, it is essential that the performance be assessed under such conditions. Comprehensive type tests simulating the operational conditions are therefore conducted at the manufacturer's works during the development and certification of the equipment. The standards that cover most aspects of relay performance are IEC 60255 and ANSI C37.90. However compliance may also involve consideration of the requirements of IEC 61000, 60068 and 60529, while products intended for use in the EEC also have to comply with the requirements of Directives 89/336/EEC and 73/23/EEC. Since type testing of a digital or numerical relay involves testing of software as well as hardware, the type testing process is very complicated and more involved than a static or electromechanical relay.

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21.1.2 Routine Factory Production Tests These are conducted to prove that relays are free from defects during manufacture. Testing will take place at several stages during manufacture, to ensure problems are discovered at the earliest possible time and hence minimise remedial work. The extent of testing will be determined by the complexity of the relay and past manufacturing experience.

would take 4 years to write the functional type-test specifications, 30 years to perform the tests and several years to write the test reports that result. Automated techniques/ equipment are clearly required, and are covered in Section 21.7.2.
Range 0.08 - 4.00In 0.08 - 32In Forward/Reverse/Non-directional -95 to +95 DT/IDMT 0 - 100s IEC Standard Inverse IEC Very Inverse IEC IDMT Time Delay IEC Extremely Inverse UK Long Time Inverse Time Multiplier Setting (TMS) 0.025 - 1.2 IEEE Moderately Inverse IEEE Very Inverse IEEE IDMT Time Delay IEEE Extremely Inverse US-CO8 Inverse US-CO2 Short Time Inverse Time Dial (TD) 0.5 - 15 IEC Reset Time (DT only) 0 - 100s IEEE Reset Time IDMT/DT IEEE DT Reset Time 0 - 100s IEEE Moderately Inverse IEEE Very Inverse IEEE IDMT Reset Time IEEE Extremely Inverse US-CO8 Inverse US-CO2 Short Time Inverse Table 21.1: Overcurrent relay element specification Element I>1 I>2 Directionality RCA Characteristic Definite Time Delay Step Size 0.01In 0.01In 1 0.01s

21.1.3 Commissioning Tests These tests are designed to prove that a particular protection scheme has been installed correctly prior to setting to work. All aspects of the scheme are thoroughly checked, from installation of the correct equipment through wiring checks and operation checks of the individual items of equipment, finishing with testing of the complete scheme.

0.025

R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g

21.1.4 Periodic Maintenance Checks These are required to identify equipment failures and degradation in service, so that corrective action can be taken. Because a protection scheme only operates under fault conditions, defects may not be revealed for a significant period of time, until a fault occurs. Regular testing assists in detecting faults that would otherwise remain undetected until a fault occurs.

0.1 0.01s 0.01s

21.2 ELECTRICAL TYPE TESTS Various electrical type tests must be performed, as follows:
Test 1 Three phase non-directional pick up and drop off accuracy over complete current setting range for both stages Three phase directional pick up and drop off accuracy over complete RCA setting range in the forward direction, current angle sweep Three phase directional pick up and drop off accuracy over complete RCA setting range in the reverse direction, current angle sweep Three phase directional pick up and drop off accuracy over complete RCA setting range in the forward direction, voltage angle sweep Three phase directional pick up and drop off accuracy over complete RCA setting range in the reverse direction, voltage angle sweep Three phase polarising voltage threshold test Accuracy of DT timer over complete setting range Accuracy of IDMT curves over claimed accuracy range Accuracy of IDMT TMS/TD Effect of changing fault current on IDMT operating times Minimum Pick-Up of Starts and Trips for IDMT curves Accuracy of reset timers Effect of any blocking signals, opto inputs, VTS, Autoreclose Voltage polarisation memory

21.2.1 Functional Tests

Test 2

21

The functional tests consist of applying the appropriate inputs to the relay under test and measuring the performance to determine if it meets the specification. They are usually carried out under controlled environmental conditions. The testing may be extensive, even where only a simple relay function is being tested., as can be realised by considering the simple overcurrent relay element of Table 21.1. To determine compliance with the specification, the tests listed in Table 21.2 are required to be carried out. This is a time consuming task, involving many engineers and technicians. Hence it is expensive. When a modern numerical relay with many functions is considered, each of which has to be type-tested, the functional type-testing involved is a major issue. In the case of a recent relay development project, it was calculated that if one person had to do all the work, it

Test 3

Test 4

Test 5 Test 6 Test 7 Test 8 Test 9 Test 10 Test 11 Test 12 Test 13 Test 14

Table 21.2: Overcurrent relay element functional type tests

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21.2.2 Rating Tests Rating type tests are conducted to ensure that components are used within their specified ratings and that there are no fire or electric shock hazards under a normal load or fault condition of the power system. This is in addition to checking that the product complies with its technical specification. The following are amongst the rating type tests conducted on protection relays, the specified parameters are normally to IEC 60255-6.

seconds. This is carried out between all circuits and case earth, between all independent circuits and across normally open contacts. The acceptance criterion for a product in new condition is a minimum of 100M. After a damp heat test the pass criterion is a minimum of 10M. 21.2.7 Auxiliary Supplies Digital and numerical protection relays normally require an auxiliary supply to provide power to the on-board microprocessor circuitry and the interfacing optoisolated input circuits and output relays. The auxiliary supply can be either a.c. or d.c., supplied from a number of sources or safe supplies - i.e. batteries, UPS, generators, etc., all of which may be subject to voltage dips, short interruptions and voltage variations. Relays are designed to ensure that operation is maintained and no damage occurs during a disturbance of the auxiliary supply. Tests are carried out for both a.c. and d.c. auxiliary supplies and include mains variation both above and below the nominal rating, supply interruptions derived by open circuit and short circuit, supply dips as a percentage of the nominal supply, repetitive starts. The duration of the interruptions and supply dips range from 2ms to 60s intervals. A short supply interruption or dip up to 20ms, possibly longer, should not cause any malfunction of the relay. Malfunctions include the operation of output relays and watchdog contacts, the reset of microprocessors, alarm or trip indication, acceptance of corrupted data over the communication link and the corruption of stored data or settings. For a longer supply interruption, or dip in excess of 20ms, the relay self recovers without the loss of any function, data, settings or corruption of data. No operator intervention is required to restore operation after an interruption or dip in the supply. Many relays have a specification that exceeds this requirement, tolerating dips of up to 50ms without operation being affected. In addition to the above, the relay is subjected to a number of repetitive starts or a sequence of supply interruptions. Again the relay is tested to ensure that no damage or data corruption has occurred during the repetitive tests. Specific tests carried out on d.c. auxiliary supplies include reverse polarity, a.c. waveform superimposed on the d.c. supply and the effect of a rising and decaying auxiliary voltage. All tests are carried out at various levels of loading of the relay auxiliary supply.

21.2.3 Thermal Withstand The thermal withstand of VTs, CTs and output contact circuits is determined to ensure compliance with the specified continuous and short-term overload conditions. In addition to functional verification, the pass criterion is that there is no detrimental effect on the relay assembly, or circuit components, when the product is subjected to overload conditions that may be expected in service. Thermal withstand is assessed over a time period of 1s for CTs and 10s for VTs.

21.2.4 Relay Burden The burdens of the auxiliary supply, optically isolated inputs, VTs and CTs are measured to check that the product complies with its specification. The burden of products with a high number of input/output circuits is application specific i.e. it increases according to the number of optically isolated input and output contact ports which are energised under normal power system load conditions. It is usually envisaged that not more than 50% of such ports will be energised in any application.

21.2.5 Relay Inputs Relay inputs are tested over the specified ranges. Inputs include those for auxiliary voltage, VT, CT, frequency, optically isolated digital inputs and communication circuits.

21.2.6 Relay Output Contacts Protection relay output contacts are type tested to ensure that they comply with the product specification. Particular withstand and endurance type tests have to be carried out using d.c., since the normal supply is via a station battery.

21.2.7 Insulation Resistance The insulation resistance test is carried out according to IEC 60255-5, i.e. 500V d.c. 10%, for a minimum of 5

21.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY TESTS There are numerous tests that are carried out to determine the ability of relays to withstand the electrical

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environment in which they are installed. The substation environment is a very severe environment in terms of the electrical and electromagnetic interference that can arise. There are many sources of interference within a substation, some originating internally, others being conducted along the overhead lines or cables into the substation from external disturbances. The most common sources are: a. switching operations b. system faults c. lightning strikes d. conductor flashover e. telecommunication operations e.g. mobile phones A whole suite of tests are performed to simulate these types of interference, and they fall under the broad umbrella of what is known as EMC, or Electromagnetic Compatibility tests.

that the relay can withstand an interruption in the auxiliary supply without de-energising, e.g. switching off, and that when this time is exceeded and it does transiently switch off, that no maloperation occurs. It simulates the effect of a loose fuse in the battery circuit, or a short circuit in the common d.c. supply, interrupted by a fuse. Another source of d.c. interruption is if there is a power system fault and the battery is supplying both the relay and the circuit breaker trip coils. When the battery energises the coils to initiate the circuit breaker trip, the voltage may fall below the required level for operation of the relay and hence a d.c. interrupt occurs. The test is specified in IEC 60255-11 and comprises a interruptions of 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 and 200ms. For interruptions lasting up to and including 20ms, the relay must not de-energise of maloperate, while for longer interruptions it must not maloperate. The relay is powered from a battery supply, and both short circuit and open circuit interruptions are carried out. Each interruption is applied 10 times, and for auxiliary power supplies with a large operating range, the tests are performed at minimum, maximum, and other voltages across this range, to ensure compliance over the complete range.

R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g

Broadly speaking, EMC can be defined as: The ability of equipment to co-exist in the same electromagnetic environment It is not a new subject and has been tested for by the military ever since the advent of electronic equipment. EMC can cause real and serious problems, and does need to be taken into account when designing electronic equipment. EMC tests determine the impact on the relay under test of high-frequency electrical disturbances of various kinds. Relays manufactured or intended for use in the EEC have to comply with EEC Directive 89/336/EEC in this respect. To achieve this, in addition to designing for statutory compliance to this Directive, the following range of tests are carried out: a. d.c. interrupt test b. a.c. ripple on d.c. supply test

21.3.2 A.C. Ripple on D.C. Supply This test (IEC 60255-11) determines that the relay is able to operate correctly with a superimposed a.c. voltage on the d.c. supply. This is caused by the station battery being charged by the battery charger, and the relevant waveform is shown in Figure 21.1. It consists of a 12% peak-to-peak ripple superimposed on the d.c. supply voltage.
60.00 50.00 40.00
Voltage (V)

21

c. d.c. ramp test d. high frequency disturbance test e. fast transient test f. surge immunity test g. power frequency interference test h. electrostatic discharge test i. conducted and radiated emissions tests j. conducted and radiated immunity tests k. power frequency magnetic field tests

30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00

1 88 175 262 349 436 523 610 697 784 871 958 1045 1132 1219 1306 1393

Time (ms) Figure 21.1: A.C. ripple superimposed on d.c. supply test

21.3.1 D.C Interrupt Test This is a test to determine the maximum length of time

For auxiliary power supplies with a large operating range, the tests are performed at minimum, maximum, and other voltages across this range, to ensure compliance for the complete range. The interference is applied using a full wave rectifier network, connected in parallel with the battery supply. The relay must continue to operate without malfunction during the test.

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21.3.3 D.C. Ramp Down/Ramp Up This test simulates a failed station battery charger, which would result in the auxiliary voltage to the relay slowly ramping down. The ramp up part simulates the battery being recharged after discharging. The relay must power up cleanly when the voltage is applied and not maloperate. There is no international standard for this test, so individual manufacturers can decide if they wish to conduct such a test and what the test specification shall be.
V

Burst period, 300 ms Burst duration (1/15 ms)

t V 5 ns rise time, 50 ns pulse width

Repetition period Figure 21.3: Fast Transient Test waveform

21.3.4 High Frequency Disturbance Test The High Frequency Disturbance Test simulates high voltage transients that result from power system faults and plant switching operations. It consists of a 1MHz decaying sinusoidal waveform, as shown in Figure 21.2. The interference is applied across each independent circuit (differential mode) and between each independent circuit and earth (common mode) via an external coupling and switching network. The product is energised in both normal (quiescent) and tripped modes for this test, and must not maloperate when the interference is applied for a 2 second duration. The product is energised in both normal (quiescent) and tripped modes for this test. It must not maloperate when the interference is applied in common mode via the integral coupling network to each circuit in turn, for 60 seconds. Interference is coupled onto communications circuits, if required, using an external capacitive coupling clamp.

21.3.6 Surge Immunity Test The Surge Immunity Test simulates interference caused by major power system disturbances such as capacitor bank switching and lightning strikes on overhead lines within 5km of the substation. The test waveform has an open circuit voltage of 4kV for common mode surges and 2kV for differential mode surges. The test waveshape consists on open circuit of a 1.2/50ms rise/fall time and a short circuit current of 8/20ms rise/fall time. The generator is capable of providing a short circuit test current of up to 2kA, making this test potentially destructive. The surges are applied sequentially under software control via dedicated coupling networks in both differential and common modes with the product energised in its normal (quiescent) state. The product shall not maloperate during the test, shall still operate within specification after the test sequence and shall not incur any permanent damage.

0 Time

Figure 21.2: High Frequency Disturbance Test waveform

21.3.5 Fast Transient Test The Fast Transient Test simulates the HV interference caused by disconnector operations in GIS substations or breakdown of the SF6 insulation between conductors and the earthed enclosure. This interference can either be inductively coupled onto relay circuits or can be directly introduced via the CT or VT inputs. It consists of a series of 15ms duration bursts at 300ms intervals, each burst consisting of a train of 50ns wide pulses with very fast (5ns typical) rise times (Figure 21.3), with a peak voltage magnitude of 4kV.

21.3.7 Power Frequency Interference This test simulates the type of interference that is caused when there is a power system fault and very high levels of fault current flow in the primary conductors or the earth grid. This causes 50 or 60Hz interference to be induced onto control and communications circuits. There is no international standard for this test, but one used by some Utilities is: a. 500V r.m.s., common mode b. 250V r.m.s., differential mode

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applied to circuits for which power system inputs are not connected. Tests are carried out on each circuit, with the relay in the following modes of operation: 1. current and voltage applied at 90% of setting, (relay not tripped) 2. current and voltage applied at 110% of setting, (relay tripped) 3. main protection and communications functions are tested to determine the effect of the interference The relay shall not maloperate during the test, and shall still perform its main functions within the claimed tolerance.

1. current and voltage applied at 90% of setting, (relay not tripped) 2. current and voltage applied at 110% of setting, (relay tripped) 3. main protection and communications functions are tested to determine the effect of the discharge To pass, the relay shall not maloperate, and shall still perform its main functions within the claimed tolerance.

21.3.9 Conducted and Radiated Emissions Tests These tests arise primarily from the essential protection requirements of the European Community (EU) directive on EMC. These require manufacturers to ensure that any equipment to be sold in the countries comprising the European Union must not interfere with other equipment. To achieve this it is necessary to measure the emissions from the equipment and ensure that they are below the specified limits. Conducted emissions are measured only from the equipments power supply ports and are to ensure that when connected to a mains network, the equipment does not inject interference back into the network which could adversely affect the other equipment connected to the network. Radiated emissions measurements are to ensure that the interference radiated from the equipment is not at a level that could cause interference to other equipment. This test is normally carried out on an Open Area Test Site (OATS) where there are no reflecting structures or sources of radiation, and therefore the measurements obtained are a true indication of the emission spectrum of the relay. An example of a plot obtained during conducted emissions tests is shown in Figure 21.5. The test arrangements for the conducted and radiated emissions tests are shown in Figure 21.6. When performing these two tests, the relay is in a quiescent condition, that is not tripped, with currents and voltages applied at 90% of the setting values. This is because for the majority of its life, the relay will be in the quiescent state and the emission of electromagnetic interference when the relay is tripped is considered to be of no significance. Tests are conducted in accordance with IEC 60255-25 and EN 50081-2, and are detailed in Table 21.3.
Frequency Range 30 - 230MHz Radiated 230 - 1000MHz Specified Limits 30dB(V/m) at 30m 37dB(V/m) at 30m 79dB(V) quasi-peak 66dB(V) average 73dB(V) quasi-peak 60dB(V) average Test Limits 40dB(V/m) at 10m 47dB(V/m) at 10m 79dB(V) quasi-peak 66dB(V) average 73dB(V) quasi-peak 60dB(V) average

21.3.8 Electrostatic Discharge Test This test simulates the type of high voltage interference that occurs when an operator touches the relays front panel after being charged to a high potential. This is exactly the same phenomenon as getting an electric shock when stepping out of a car or after walking on a synthetic fibre carpet. In this case the discharge is only ever applied to the front panel of the relay, with the cover both on and off. Two types of discharges are applied, air discharge and contact discharge. Air discharges are used on surfaces that are normally insulators, and contact discharges are used on surfaces that are normally conducting. IEC 60255-22-2 is the relevant standard this test, for which the test parameters are: a. cover on: Class 4, 8kV contact discharge, 15kV air discharge b. cover off: Class 3, 6kV contact discharge, 8kV air discharge In both cases above, all the lower test levels are also tested. The discharge current waveform is shown in Figure 21.4.
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10
Current, % of Peak

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Rise Time = 0.7 to 1.0 ns. Current specified for 30 ns and 60 ns

20

30

40 50 Time, ns

60

70

80

90

Figure 21.4: ESD Current Waveform

The test is performed with single discharges repeated on each test point 10 times with positive polarity and 10 times with negative polarity at each test level. The time interval between successive discharges is greater than 1 second. Tests are carried out at each level, with the relay in the following modes of operation:

0.15 - 0.5MHz Conducted 0.5 - 30MHz

Table 21.3: Test criteria for Conducted and Radiated Emissions tests

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100 90 80 70 Quasi-peak limits Average limits Typical trace

Emissions Level, dBuV

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0.1 1 Frequency, MHz 10 100

Figure 21.5: Conducted Emissions Test Plot

Screened room

Ante-chamber

E.U.T. Impedance network

Access panel
Support/analysis equipment

(a) Conducted EMC emissions test arrangement

10m

Antenna E.U.T.

Turntable

Earth Plane

(b) Radiated Emissions test arrangement on an OATS E.U.T. - Equipment under test Figure 21.6: EMC test arrangements

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21.3.10 Conducted and Radiated Immunity Tests These tests are designed to ensure that the equipment is immune to levels of interference that it may be subjected to. The two tests, conducted and radiated, arise from the fact that for a conductor to be an efficient antenna, it must have a length of at least 1/4 of the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave it is required to conduct. If a relay were to be subjected to radiated interference at 150kHz, then a conductor length of at least = 300 x106/(150 x 103 x 4) = 500 m would be needed to conduct the interference. Even with all the cabling attached and with the longest PCB track length taken into account, it would be highly unlikely that the relay would be able to conduct radiation of this frequency, and the test therefore, would have no effect. The interference has to be physically introduced by conduction, hence the conducted immunity test. However, at the radiated immunity lower frequency limit of 80MHz, a conductor length of approximately 1.0m is required. At this frequency, radiated immunity tests can be performed with the confidence that the relay will conduct this interference, through a combination of the attached cabling and the PCB tracks. Although the test standards state that all 6 faces of the equipment should be subjected to the interference, in practice this is not carried out. Applying interference to the sides and top and bottom of the relay would have little effect as the circuitry inside is effectively screened by the earthed metal case. However, the front and rear of the relay are not completely enclosed by metal and are therefore not at all well screened, and can be regarded as an EMC hole. Electromagnetic interference when directed at the front and back of the relay can enter freely onto the PCBs inside. When performing these two tests, the relay is in a quiescent condition, that is not tripped, with currents and voltages applied at 90% of the setting values. This is because for the majority of its life, the relay will be in the quiescent state and the coincidence of an electromagnetic disturbance and a fault is considered to be unlikely. However, spot checks are performed at selected frequencies when the main protection and control functions of the relay are exercised, to ensure that it will operate as expected, should it be required to do so. The frequencies for the spot checks are in general selected to coincide with the radio frequency broadcast bands, and in particular, the frequencies of mobile communications equipment used by personnel working in the substation. This is to ensure that when working in the vicinity of a relay, the personnel should be able to

operate their radios/mobile phones without fear of relay maloperation. IEC 60255-22-3 specifies the radiated immunity tests to be conducted (ANSI/IEEE C37.90.2 is used for equipment built to US standards), with signal levels of: 1. IEC: Class III, 10V/m, 80MHz -1000MHz 2. ANSI/IEEE: 35V/m 25MHz - 1000MHz with no modulation, and again with 100% pulse modulation IEC 60255-22-6 is used for the conducted immunity test, with a test level of: Class III, 10V r.m.s., 150kHz - 80MHz.

21.3.11 Power Frequency Magnetic Field Tests These tests are designed to ensure that the equipment is immune to magnetic interference. The three tests, steady state, pulsed and damped oscillatory magnetic field, arise from the fact that for different site conditions the level and waveshape is altered. [Link] Steady state magnetic field tests These tests simulate the magnetic field that would be experienced by a device located within close proximity of the power system. Testing is carried out by subjecting the relay to a magnetic field generated by two induction coils. The relay is rotated such that in each axis it is subjected to the full magnetic field strength. IEC 610004-6 is the relevant standard, using a signal level of: Level 5: 300A/m continuous and 1000A/m short duration The test arrangement is shown in Figure 21.7.

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Induction coil

21

Induction coil

E.U.T.

Ground plane

E.U.T. - Equipment under test Figure 21.7: Power frequency magnetic field set-up

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To pass the steady-state test, the relay shall not maloperate, and shall still perform its main functions within the claimed tolerance. During the application of the short duration test, the main protection function shall be exercised and verified that the operating characteristics of the relay are unaffected. [Link] Pulsed magnetic field These tests simulate the magnetic field that would be experienced by a device located within close proximity of the power system during a transient fault condition. According to IEC 61000-4-9, the generator for the induction coils shall produce a 6.4/16s waveshape with test level 5, 100A/m with the equipment configured as for the steady state magnetic field test. The relay shall not maloperate, and shall still perform its main functions within the claimed tolerance during the test. [Link] Damped oscillatory magnetic field These tests simulate the magnetic field that would be experienced by a device located within close proximity of the power system during a transient fault condition. IEC 61000-4-10 specifies that the generator for the coil shall produce an oscillatory waveshape with a frequency of 0.1MHz and 1MHz, to give a signal level in accordance with Level 5 of 100A/m, and the equipment shall be configured as in Figure 21.7.

open contacts intended for connection to tripping circuits, in accordance with ANSI/IEEE C37.90 3. 1.0kV r.m.s., 50/60Hz for 1 minute across the normally open contacts of watchdog or changeover output relays, in accordance with IEC 60255-5 The routine dielectric voltage withstand test time may be shorter than for the 1 minute type test time, to allow a reasonable production throughput, e.g. for a minimum of 1 second at 110% of the voltage specified for 1 minute.

21.4.2 Insulation Withstand for Overvoltages The purpose of the High Voltage Impulse Withstand type test is to ensure that circuits and their components will withstand overvoltages on the power system caused by lightning. Three positive and three negative high voltage impulses, 5kV peak, are applied between all circuits and the case earth and also between the terminals of independent circuits (but not across normally open contacts). As before, different requirements apply in the case of circuits using D-type connectors. The test generator characteristics are as specified in IEC 60255-5 and are shown in Figure 21.8. No disruptive discharge (i.e. flashover or puncture) is allowed. If it is necessary to repeat either the Dielectric Voltage or High Voltage Impulse Withstand tests these should be carried out at 75% of the specified level, in accordance with IEC 60255-5, to avoid overstressing insulation and components.

21.4 PRODUCT SAFETY TYPE TESTS A number of tests are carried out to demonstrate that the product is safe when used for its intended application. The essential requirements are that the relay is safe and will not cause an electric shock or fire hazard under normal conditions and in the presence of a single fault. A number of specific tests to prove this may be carried out, as follows.

Voltage

21.4.1 Dielectric Voltage Withstand Dielectric Voltage Withstand testing is carried out as a routine test i.e. on every unit prior to despatch. The purpose of this test is to ensure that the product build is as intended by design. This is done by verifying the clearance in air, thus ensuring that the product is safe to operate under normal use conditions. The following tests are conducted unless otherwise specified in the product documentation: 1. 2.0kV r.m.s., 50/60Hz for 1 minute between all terminals and case earth and also between independent circuits, in accordance with IEC 60255-5. Some communication circuits are excluded from this test, or have modified test requirements e.g. those using D-type connectors 2. 1.5kV r.m.s., 50/60Hz for 1 minute across normally

5kV peak Rise time (10 % to 90 %) = 1.2 s Duration (50 %) = 50 s

Time

Figure 21.8: Test generator characteristics for insulation withstand test

21.4.3 Single Fault Condition Assessment An assessment is made of whether a single fault condition such as an overload, or an open or short circuit, applied to the product may cause an electric shock or fire

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hazard. In the case of doubt, type testing is carried out to ensure that the product is safe.

21.5.2 Humidity Test The humidity test is performed to ensure that the product will withstand and operate correctly when subjected to 93% relative humidity at a constant temperature of 40C for 56 days. Tests are performed to ensure that the product functions correctly within specification after 21 and 56 days. After the test, visual inspections are made for any signs of unacceptable corrosion and mould growth.

21.4.4 Earth Bonding Impedance Class 1 products that rely on a protective earth connection for safety are subjected to an earth bonding impedance (EBI) type test. This ensures that the earth path between the protective earth connection and any accessible earthed part is sufficiently low to avoid damage in the event of a single fault occurring. The test is conducted using a test voltage of 12V maximum and a test current of twice the recommended maximum protective fuse rating. After 1 minute with the current flowing in the circuit under test, the EBI shall not exceed 0.1. 21.4.5 CE Marking

21.5.3 Cyclic Temperature/Humidity Test This is a short-term test that stresses the relay by subjecting it to temperature cycling in conjunction with high humidity. The test does not replace the 56 day humidity test, but is used for testing extension to ranges or minor modifications to prove that the design is unaffected. The applicable standard is IEC 60068-2-30 and test conditions of: +25C 3C and 95% relative humidity/+55C 2C and 95% relative humidity are used, over the 24 hour cycle shown in Figure 21.9.
Relative humidity %

R e l a y Te s t i n g a n d C o m m i s s i o n i n g

A CE mark on the product, or its packaging, shows that compliance is claimed against relevant European Community directives e.g. Low Voltage Directive 73/23/EEC and Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Directive 89/336/EEC.

21.5 ENVIRONMENTAL TYPE TESTS Various tests have to be conducted to prove that a relay can withstand the effects of the environment in which it is expected to work. They consist of: the following tests: 1. temperature 2. humidity 3. enclosure protection 4. mechanical

100 90 80 70

96% 95% 90% 15min End of temperature rise 80% temperature Time 95%

+55 C
Ambient Temperature C

21

These tests are described in the following sections.

0.5h 3h 12h0.5h 3h 6h 24h

+28 C +22 C Time

+25 C

21.5.1 Temperature Test Temperature tests are performed to ensure that a product can withstand extremes in temperatures, both hot and cold, during transit, storage and operating conditions. Storage and transit conditions are defined as a temperature range of 25C to +70C and operating as 25C to +55C. Dry heat withstand tests are performed at 70C for 96 hours with the relay de-energised. Cold withstand tests are performed at 40C for 96 hours with the relay deenergised. Operating range tests are carried out with the product energised, checking all main functions operate within tolerance over the specified working temperature range 25C to +55C.

Figure 21.9: Cyclic temperature/humidity test profile

For these tests the relay is placed in a humidity cabinet, and energised with normal in-service quantities for the complete duration of the tests. In practical terms this usually means energising the relay with currents and voltages such that it is 10% from the threshold for operation. Throughout the duration of the test the relay is monitored to ensure that no unwanted operations occur. Once the relay is removed from the humidity cabinet, its insulation resistance is measured to ensure that it has not deteriorated to below the claimed level. The relay is then functionally tested again, and finally dismantled to
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check for signs of component corrosion and growth. The acceptance criterion is that no unwanted operations shall occur including transient operation of indicating devices. After the test the relays insulation resistance should not have significantly reduced, and it should perform all of its main protection and communications functions within the claimed tolerance. The relay should also suffer no significant corrosion or growth, and photographs are usually taken of each PCB and the case as a record of this.

21.5.4 Enclosure Protection Test Enclosure protection tests prove that the casing system and connectors on the product protect against the ingress of dust, moisture, water droplets (striking the case at predefined angles) and other pollutants. An acceptable level of dust or water may penetrate the case during testing, but must not impair normal product operation, safety or cause tracking across insulated parts of connectors.
Figure 21.10: Relay undergoing seismic test

1.2A A 0.8A Pulse shape (half sine)

21.5.5 Mechanical Tests Mechanical tests simulate a number of different mechanical conditions that the product may have to endure during its lifetime. These fall into two categories a. response to disturbances while energised b. response to disturbances during transportation (de-energised state) Tests in the first category are concerned with the response to vibration, shock and seismic disturbance. The tests are designed to simulate normal in-service conditions for the product, for example earthquakes. These tests are performed in all three axes, with the product energised in its normal (quiescent) state. During the test, all output contacts are continually monitored for change using contact follower circuits. Vibration levels of 1gn, over a 10Hz-150Hz frequency sweep are used. Seismic tests use excitation in a single axis, using a test frequency of 35Hz and peak displacements of 7.5mm and 3.5mm in the x and y axes respectively below the crossover frequency and peak accelerations of 2.0gn and 1.0gn in these axes above the crossover frequency. The second category consists of vibration endurance, shock withstand and bump tests. They are designed to simulate the longer-term affects of shock and vibration that could occur during transportation. These tests are performed with the product de-energised. After these tests, the product must still operate within its specification and show no signs of permanent mechanical damage. Equipment undergoing a seismic type test is shown in Figure 21.10, while the waveform for the shock/bump test is shown in Figure 21.11
Network Protection & Automation Guide

0.4D 2.5D

D 2.5D

2.4D = T1 6D = T2 D - duration of nominal pulse A - peak acceleration of nominal pulse T1- minimum time for monitoring of pulse when conventional shock/bump machine is used T2 - as T1 when a vibration generator is used Figure 21.11: Shock/Bump Impulse waveform

The test levels for shock and bump tests are: Shock response (energised): 3 pulses, each 10g, 11ms duration Shock withstand (de-energised): 3 pulses, 15g, 11ms duration Bump (de-energised): 1000 pulses, 10g, 16ms duration

21.6 SOFTWARE TYPE TESTS Digital and numerical relays contain software to implement the protection and measurement functions of a relay. This software must be thoroughly tested, to ensure that the relay complies with all specifications and that disturbances of various kinds do not result in unexpected results. Software is tested in various stages: a. unit testing b. integration testing c. functional qualification testing

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The purpose of unit testing is to determine if an individual function or procedure implemented using software, or small group of closely related functions, is free of data, logic, or standards errors. It is much easier to detect these types of errors in individual units or small groups of units than it is in an integrated software architecture and/or system. Unit testing is typically performed against the software detailed design and by the developer of the unit(s). Integration testing typically focuses on these interfaces and also issues such as performance, timings and synchronisation that are not applicable in unit testing. Integration testing also focuses on stressing the software and related interfaces. Integration testing is black box in nature, i.e. it does not take into account the structure of individual units. It is typically performed against the software architectural and detailed design. The specified software requirements would typically also be used as a source for some of the test cases.

21.6.3 Unit Testing Environment Both Dynamic and Static Unit Testing are performed in the host environment rather than the target environment. Dynamic Unit Testing uses a test harness to execute the unit(s) concerned. The test harness is designed such that it simulates the interfaces of the unit(s) being tested - both software-software interfaces and software-hardware interfaces - using what are known as stubs. The test harness provides the test data to those units being tested and outputs the test results in a form understandable to a developer. There are many commercially available testing tools to automate test harness production and the execution of tests.

21.6.4 Software/Software Integration Testing Software/Software Integration Testing is performed in the host environment. It uses a test harness to simulate inputs and outputs, hardware calls and system calls (e.g. the target environment operating system).

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21.6.5 Software/Hardware Integration Testing 21.6.1 Static Unit Testing Static Unit Testing (or static analysis as it is often called) analyses the unit(s) source code for complexity, precision tracking, initialisation checking, value tracking, strong type checking, macro analysis etc. While Static Unit Testing can be performed manually, it is a laborious and error prone process and is best performed using a proprietary automated static unit analysis tool. It is important to ensure that any such tool is configured correctly and used consistently during development. Software/Hardware Integration Testing is performed in the target environment, i.e. it uses the actual target hardware, operating system, drivers etc. It is usually performed after Software/Software Integration Testing. Testing the interfaces to the hardware is an important feature of Software/Hardware Integration Testing. Test cases for Integration Testing are typically based on those defined for Validation Testing. However the emphasis should be on finding errors and problems. Performing a dry run of the validation testing often completes Integration Testing.

21.6.2 Dynamic Testing

21.6.6 Validation Testing The purpose of Validation Testing (also known as Software Acceptance Testing) is to verify that the software meets its specified functional requirements. Validation Testing is performed against the software requirements specification, using the target environment. In ideal circumstances, someone independent of the software development performs the tests. Validation Testing is black box in nature, i.e. it does not take into account the internal structure of the software. For relays, the non-protection functions included in the software are considered to be as important as the protection functions, and hence tested in the same manner. Each validation test should have predefined evaluation criteria, to be used to decide if the test has passed or failed. The evaluation criteria should be explicit with no room for interpretation or ambiguity.
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Dynamic Testing is concerned with the runtime behaviour of the unit(s) being tested and so therefore, the unit(s) must be executed. Dynamic unit testing can be sub-divided into black box testing and white box testing. Black box testing verifies the implementation of the requirement(s) allocated to the unit(s). It takes no account of the internal structure of the unit(s) being tested. It is only concerned with providing known inputs and determining if the outputs from the unit(s) are correct for those inputs. White box testing is concerned with testing the internal structure of the unit(s) and measuring the test coverage, i.e. how much of the code within the unit(s) has been executed during the tests. The objective of the unit testing may, for example, be to achieve 100% statement coverage, in which every line of the code is executed at least once, or to execute every possible path through the unit(s) at least once.

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21.6.7 Traceability of Validation Tests Traceability of validation tests to software requirements is vital. Each software requirement documented in the software requirements specification should have at least one validation test, and it is important to be able to prove this.

Power system simulators can be divided into two types: a. those which use analogue models of a power system b. those which model the power system mathematically using digital simulation techniques

21.6.8 Software Modifications - Regression Testing Regression Testing is not a type test in its own right. It is the overall name given to the testing performed when an existing software product is changed. The purpose of Regression Testing is to show that unintended changes to the functionality (i.e. errors and defects) have not been introduced. Each change to an existing software product must be considered in its own right. It is impossible to specify a standard set of regression tests that can be applied as a catch-all for introduced errors and defects. Each change to the software must be analysed to determine what risk there might be of unintentional changes to the functionality being introduced. Those areas of highest risk will need to be regression tested. The ultimate regression test is to perform the complete Validation Testing programme again, updated to take account of the changes made. Regression Testing is extremely important. If it is not performed, there is a high risk of errors being found in the field. Performing it will not reduce to zero the chance of an error or defect remaining in the software, but it will reduce it. Determining the Regression Testing that is required is made much easier if there is traceability from properly documented software requirements through design (again properly documented and up to date), coding and testing.

21.7.1 Use of Power System Analogue Models For many years, relays have been tested on analogue models of power systems such as artificial transmission lines, or test plant capable of supplying significant amounts of current [21.1]. However, these approaches have significant limitations in the current and voltage waveforms that can be generated, and are not suitable for automated, unattended, testing programmes. While still used on a limited basis for testing electromechanical and static relays, a radically different approach is required for dynamic testing of numerical relays.

21.7.2 Use of Microprocessor Based Simulation Equipment The complexity of numerical relays, reliant on software for implementation of the functions included, dictates some kind of automated test equipment. The functions of even a simple numerical overcurrent relay (including all auxiliary functions) can take several months of automated, 24 hours/day testing to test completely. If such test equipment was able to apply realistic current and voltage waveforms that closely match those found on power systems during fault conditions, the equipment can be used either for type testing of individual relay designs or of a complete protection scheme designed for a specific application. In recognition of this, a new generation of power system simulators has been developed, which is capable of providing a far more accurate simulation of power system conditions than has been possible in the past. The simulator enables relays to be tested under a wide range of system conditions, representing the equivalent of many years of site experience. [Link] Simulation hardware Equipment is now available to provide high-speed, highly accurate modelling of a section of a power system. The equipment is based on distributed microprocessor-based hardware containing software models of the various elements of a power system, and is shown in Figure 21.12. The modules have outputs linked to current and voltage sources that have a similar transient capability and have suitable output levels for direct connection to the inputs of relays i.e. 110V for voltage and 1A/5A for current. Inputs are also provided to monitor the response of relays under test (contact closures for tripping, etc.) and these inputs can be used as part of the model of the power

21.7 DYNAMIC VALIDATION TYPE TESTING There are two possible methods of dynamically proving the satisfactory performance of protection relays or schemes; the first method is by actually applying faults on the power system and the second is to carry out comprehensive testing on a power system simulator. The former method is extremely unlikely to be used lead times are lengthy and the risk of damage occurring makes the tests very expensive. It is therefore only used on a very limited basis and the faults applied are restricted in number and type. Because of this, a proving period for new protection equipment under service conditions has usually been required. As faults may occur on the power system at infrequent intervals, it can take a number of years before any possible shortcomings are discovered, during which time further installations may have occurred.

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Figure 21.12: Digital power system simulator for relay/protection scheme testing

system. The software is also capable of modelling the dynamic response of CTs and VTs accurately. Where it is desired to check the response of a relay or protection scheme to an actual power system transient, the transient can be simulated using sophisticated power systems analysis software and the results transferred digitally to the simulator, or the event recorder recording of the transient can be used, in either digital or analogue form as inputs to the simulator model. Output signal conversion involves circuits to eliminate the quantisation steps normally found in conventional D/A conversion. Analogue models of the system transducer characteristics can be interposed between the signal processors and the output amplifiers when required. This equipment shows many advantages over traditional test equipment: a. the power system model is capable of reproducing high frequency transients such as travelling waves b. tests involving very long time constants can be carried out c. it is not affected by the harmonic content, noise and frequency variations in the a.c. supply d. it is capable of representing the variation in the current associated with generator faults and power swings e. saturation effects in CTs and VTs can be modelled f. a set of test routines can be specified in software and then left to run unattended (or with only occasional monitoring) to completion, with a detailed record of

test results being available on completion A block schematic of the equipment is shown in Figure 21.13, is based around a computer which calculates and stores the digital data representing the system voltages and currents. The computer controls conversion of the digital data into analogue signals, and it monitors and controls the relays being tested. [Link] Simulation software Unlike most traditional software used for power systems analysis, the software used is suitable for the modelling the fast transients that occur in the first few milliseconds after fault inception. Two very accurate simulation programs are used, one based on time domain and the other on frequency domain techniques. In both programs, single and double circuit transmission lines are represented by fully distributed parameter models. The line parameters are calculated from the physical construction of the line (symmetrical, asymmetrical, transposed or non-transposed), taking into account the effect of conductor geometry, conductor internal impedance and the earth return path. It also includes, where appropriate, the frequency dependence of the line parameters in the frequency domain program. The frequency dependent variable effects are calculated using Fast Fourier Transforms and the results are converted to the time domain. Conventional current transformers and capacitor voltage transformers can be simulated. The fault can be applied at any one point in the system and can be any combination of phase to phase or phase

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IA

IB

D/A conversion

Linear interpolation circuits

CT model

Current amplifier

IC VDU I/O Subsystem VA Computer Equipment under test D/A conversion

Linear interpolation circuits

Keyboard VDU

VB

CVT model

Voltage amplifier

VC Contact status monitor Storage Key : CT - Current transformer CVT - Capacitor voltage transformer VDU - Visual display unit Signalling Channel Simulation To second RTDS

Keyboard

Figure 21.13: Block diagram of microprocessor-based automated relay test system

to earth, resistive, or non-linear phase to earth arcing faults. For series compensated lines, flashover across a series capacitor following a short circuit fault can be simulated. The frequency domain model is not suitable for developing faults and switching sequences, therefore the widely used Electromagnetic Transient Program (EMTP), working in the time domain, is employed in such cases. In addition to these two programs, a simulation program based on lumped resistance and inductance parameters is used. This simulation is used to represent systems with long time constants and slow system changes due, for example, to power swings. [Link] Simulator applications The simulator is used for checking the accuracy of calibration and performing type tests on a wide range of protection relays during their development. It has the following advantages over existing test methods: a. 'state of the art' power system modelling data can be used to test relays b. freedom from frequency variations and noise or harmonic content of the a.c. supply c. the relay under test does not burden the power system simulation d. all tests are accurately repeatable e. wide bandwidth signals can be produced f. a wide range of frequencies can be reproduced g. selected harmonics may be superimposed on the

power frequency h. the use of direct coupled current amplifiers allows time constants of any length i. capable of simulating slow system changes j. reproduces fault currents whose peak amplitude varies with time k. transducer models can be included l. automatic testing removes the likelihood of measurement and setting errors m. two such equipments can be linked together to simulate a system model with two relaying points The simulator is also used for the production testing of relays, in which most of the advantages listed above apply. As the tests and measurements are made automatically, the quality of testing is also greatly enhanced. Further, in cases of suspected malfunction of a relay in the field under known fault conditions, the simulator can be used to replicate the power system and fault conditions, and conduct a detailed investigation into the performance of the relay. Finally, complex protection schemes can be modelled, using both the relays intended for use and software models of them as appropriate, to check the suitability of the proposed scheme under a wide variety of conditions. To illustrate this, Figure 21.14(a) shows a section of a particular power system modelled. The waveforms of Figure 21.14(b) show the three phase voltages and currents at the primaries of VT1 and CT1 for the fault condition indicated in Figure 21.14(a).

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Communications link to second RTDS

(When required)

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N 3G L Infinite bus 4G CB3 CT3 F3 Line 2 8G F4 CT4 CB4

9G LR3 LR4

CB1 load 1 load 2 load 3 VT1

CT1

F1 Line 1

F2

CT2

CB2

11G

VT2

LR1

LR2 Relay 2

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Relay 1 (a) Example power system

Va Vb Vc Ia Ib

Figure 21.14: Example of application study

Ic 0 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.32 0.4 0.48 0.56

(b) Voltages and currents at VT1/CT1

21.8 PRODUCTION TESTING Production testing of protection relays is becoming far more demanding as the accuracy and complexity of the products increase. Electronic power amplifiers are used to supply accurate voltages and currents of high stability to the relay under test. The inclusion of a computer in the test system allows more complex testing to be performed at an economical cost, with the advantage of speed and repeatability of tests from one relay to another. Figure 21.15 shows a modern computer-controlled test bench. The hardware is mounted in a special rack. Each unit of the test system is connected to the computer via an interface bus. Individual test programs for each type of relay are required, but the interface used is standard for all relay types. Control of input waveforms and analogue measurements, the monitoring of output signals and the analysis of test data are performed by the computer. A printout of the test results can also be produced if required.

21

Figure 21.15: Modern computer-controlled test bench

Because software is extensively tested at the typetesting stage, there is normally no need to check the correct functioning of the software. Checks are limited to determining that the analogue and digital I/O is functioning correctly. This is achieved for inputs by

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applying known voltage and current inputs to the relay under test and checking that the software has captured the correct values. Similarly, digital outputs are exercised by using test software to actuate each output and checking that the correct output is energised. Provided that appropriate procedures are in place to ensure that only type-tested software is downloaded, there is no need to check the correct functioning of the software in the relay. The final step is to download the software appropriate to the relay and store it in the EPROM fitted in the relay.

b. general inspection of the equipment, checking all connections, wires on relays terminals, labels on terminal boards, etc. c. insulation resistance measurement of all circuits d. perform relay self-test procedure and external communications checks on digital/numerical relays e. test main current transformers f. test main voltage transformers g. check that protection relay alarm/trip settings have been entered correctly h. tripping and alarm circuit checks to prove correct functioning In addition, the following checks may be carried out, depending on the factors noted earlier. i. secondary injection test on each relay to prove operation at one or more setting values

21.9 COMMISSIONING TESTS Installation of a protection scheme at site creates a number of possibilities for errors in the implementation of the scheme to occur. Even if the scheme has been thoroughly tested in the factory, wiring to the CTs and VTs on site may be incorrectly carried out, or the CTs/VTs may have been incorrectly installed. The impact of such errors may range from simply being a nuisance (tripping occurs repeatedly on energisation, requiring investigation to locate and correct the error(s)) through to failure to trip under fault conditions, leading to major equipment damage, disruption to supplies and potential hazards to personnel. The strategies available to remove these risks are many, but all involve some kind of testing at site. Commissioning tests at site are therefore invariably performed before protection equipment is set to work. The aims of commissioning tests are: 1. to ensure that the equipment has not been damaged during transit or installation 2. to ensure that the installation work has been carried out correctly 3. to prove the correct functioning of the protection scheme as a whole The tests carried out will normally vary according to the protection scheme involved, the relay technology used, and the policy of the client. In many cases, the tests actually conducted are determined at the time of commissioning by mutual agreement between the clients representative and the commissioning team. Hence, it is not possible to provide a definitive list of tests that are required during commissioning. This section therefore describes the tests commonly carried out during commissioning. The following tests are invariably carried out, since the protection scheme will not function correctly if faults exist. a. wiring diagram check, using circuit diagrams showing all the reference numbers of the interconnecting wiring

k. testing of protection scheme logic This section details the tests required to cover items (a)(g) above. Secondary injection test equipment is covered in Section 21.10 and Section 21.11 details the secondary injection that may be carried out. Section 21.12 covers primary injection testing, and Section 21.13 details the checks required on any logic involved in the protection scheme. Finally, Section 21.14 details the tests required on alarm/tripping circuits tripping/alarm circuits.

21.9.1 Insulation Tests All the deliberate earth connections on the wiring to be tested should first be removed, for example earthing links on current transformers, voltage transformers and d.c. supplies. Some insulation testers generate impulses with peak voltages exceeding 5kV. In these instances any electronic equipment should be disconnected while the external wiring insulation is checked. The insulation resistance should be measured to earth and between electrically separate circuits. The readings are recorded and compared with subsequent routine tests to check for any deterioration of the insulation. The insulation resistance measured depends on the amount of wiring involved, its grade, and the site humidity. Generally, if the test is restricted to one cubicle, a reading of several hundred megohms should be obtained. If long lengths of site wiring are involved, the reading could be only a few megohms.

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j. primary injection tests on each relay to prove stability for external faults and to determine the effective current setting for internal faults (essential for some types of electromechanical relays)

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21.9.2 Relay Self-Test Procedure Digital and numerical relays will have a self-test procedure that is detailed in the appropriate relay manual. These tests should be followed to determine if the relay is operating correctly. This will normally involve checking of the relay watchdog circuit, exercising all digital inputs and outputs and checking that the relay analogue inputs are within calibration by applying a test current or voltage. For these tests, the relay outputs are normally disconnected from the remainder of the protection scheme, as it is a test carried out to prove correct relay, rather than scheme, operation. Unit protection schemes involve relays that need to communicate with each other. This leads to additional testing requirements. The communications path between the relays is tested using suitable equipment to ensure that the path is complete and that the received signal strength is within specification. Numerical relays may be fitted with loopback test facilities that enable either part of or the entire communications link to be tested from one end. After completion of these tests, it is usual to enter the relay settings required. This can be done manually via the relay front panel controls, or using a portable PC and suitable software. Whichever method is used, a check by a second person that the correct settings have been used is desirable, and the settings recorded. Programmable scheme logic that is required is also entered at this stage.

robust moving coil, permanent magnet, centre-zero type. A low voltage battery is used, via a single-pole pushbutton switch, to energise the primary winding. On closing the push-button, the d.c. ammeter, A, should give a positive flick and on opening, a negative flick. [Link] Magnetisation Curve Several points should be checked on each current transformer magnetisation curve. This can be done by energising the secondary winding from the local mains supply through a variable auto-transformer while the primary circuit remains open; see Figure 21.17. The characteristic is measured at suitable intervals of applied voltage, until the magnetising current is seen to rise very rapidly for a small increase in voltage. This indicates the approximate knee-point or saturation flux level of the current transformer. The magnetising current should then be recorded at similar voltage intervals as it is reduced to zero. Care must be taken that the test equipment is suitably rated. The short-time current rating must be in excess of the CT secondary current rating, to allow for the measurement of the saturation current. This will be in excess of the CT secondary current rating. As the magnetising current will not be sinusoidal, a moving iron or dynamometer type ammeter should be used. It is often found that current transformers with secondary ratings of 1A or less have a knee-point voltage higher than the local mains supply. In these cases, a step-up interposing transformer must be used to obtain the necessary voltage to check the magnetisation curve.
Test plug isolating current transformers from relay coils

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21.9.3 Current Transformer Tests The following tests are normally carried out prior to energisation of the main circuits. [Link] Polarity check
P2 _ P1 S2 S1 +

Variable transformer 250V 8A

A P1 S 1 To relay coils V 250V a.c. supply

21

P2 S2 Main circuit breaker open _ A +

Step-up transformer if required

Figure 21.17: Testing current transformer magnetising curve

21.9.4 Voltage Transformer Tests

Figure 21.16: Current transformer polarity check

Voltage transformers require testing for polarity and phasing. [Link] Polarity check The voltage transformer polarity can be checked using the method for CT polarity tests. Care must be taken to connect the battery supply to the primary winding, with

Each current transformer should be individually tested to verify that the primary and secondary polarity markings are correct; see Figure 21.16. The ammeter connected to the secondary of the current transformer should be a

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the polarity ammeter connected to the secondary winding. If the voltage transformer is of the capacitor type, then the polarity of the transformer at the bottom of the capacitor stack should be checked. [Link] Ratio check This check can be carried out when the main circuit is first made live. The voltage transformer secondary voltage is compared with the secondary voltage shown on the nameplate. [Link] Phasing check The secondary connections for a three-phase voltage transformer or a bank of three single-phase voltage transformers must be carefully checked for phasing. With the main circuit alive, the phase rotation is checked using a phase rotation meter connected across the three phases, as shown in Figure 21.18. Provided an existing proven VT is available on the same primary system, and that secondary earthing is employed, all that is now necessary to prove correct phasing is a voltage check between, say, both A phase secondary outputs. There should be nominally little or no voltage if the phasing is correct. However, this test does not detect if the phase sequence is correct, but the phases are displaced by 120 from their correct position, i.e. phase A occupies the position of phase C or phase B in Figure 21.18. This can be checked by removing the fuses from phases B and C (say) and measuring the phase-earth voltages on the secondary of the VT. If the phasing is correct, only phase A should be healthy, phases B and C should have only a small residual voltage.
A B C A

Correct phasing should be further substantiated when carrying out on load tests on any phase-angle sensitive relays, at the relay terminals. Load current in a known phase CT secondary should be compared with the associated phase to neutral VT secondary voltage. The phase angle between them should be measured, and should relate to the power factor of the system load. If the three-phase voltage transformer has a brokendelta tertiary winding, then a check should be made of the voltage across the two connections from the broken delta VN and VL, as shown in Figure 21.18. With the rated balanced three-phase supply voltage applied to the voltage transformer primary windings, the broken-delta voltage should be below 5V with the rated burden connected.

21.9.5 Protection Relay Setting Checks At some point during commissioning, the alarm and trip settings of the relay elements involved will require to be entered and/or checked. Where the complete scheme is engineered and supplied by a single contractor, the settings may already have been entered prior to despatch from the factory, and hence this need not be repeated. The method of entering settings varies according to the relay technology used. For electromechanical and static relays, manual entry of the settings for each relay element is required. This method can also be used for digital/numerical relays. However, the amount of data to be entered is much greater, and therefore it is usual to use appropriate software, normally supplied by the manufacturer, for this purpose. The software also makes the essential task of making a record of the data entered much easier. Once the data has been entered, it should be checked for compliance with the recommended settings as calculated from the protection setting study. Where appropriate software is used for data entry, the checks can be considered complete if the data is checked prior to download of the settings to the relay. Otherwise, a check may required subsequent to data entry by inspection and recording of the relay settings, or it may be considered adequate to do this at the time of data entry. The recorded settings form an essential part of the commissioning documentation provided to the client.

V1 C V2 B

VN V VL V2

21.10 SECONDARY INJECTION TEST EQUIPMENT

V1

A B C

Phase rotation meter

Secondary injection tests are always done prior to primary injection tests. The purpose of secondary injection testing is to prove the correct operation of the protection scheme that is downstream from the inputs to the protection relay(s). Secondary injection tests are always done prior to primary injection tests. This is

Figure 21.18: Voltage transformer phasing check

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because the risks during initial testing to the LV side of the equipment under test are minimised. The primary (HV) side of the equipment is disconnected, so that no damage can occur. These tests and the equipment necessary to perform them are generally described in the manufacturer's manuals for the relays, but brief details are given below for the main types of protection relays.

21.10.1 Test Blocks/Plugs for Secondary Injection Equipment It is common practice to provide test blocks or test sockets in the relay circuits so that connections can readily be made to the test equipment without disturbing wiring. Test plugs of either multi-finger or single-finger design (for monitoring the current in one CT secondary circuit) are used to connect test equipment to the relay under test. The top and bottom contact of each test plug finger is separated by an insulating strip, so that the relay circuits can be completely isolated from the switchgear wiring when the test plug is inserted. To avoid open-circuiting CT secondary terminals, it is therefore essential that CT shorting jumper links are fitted across all appropriate live side terminals of the test plug BEFORE it is inserted. With the test plug inserted in position, all the test circuitry can now be connected to the isolated relay side test plug terminals. Some modern test blocks incorporate the live-side jumper links within the block and these can be set to the closed or open position as appropriate, either manually prior to removing the cover and inserting the test plug, or automatically upon removal of the cover. Removal of the cover also exposes the colour-coded face-plate of the block, clearly indicating that the protection scheme is not in service, and may also disconnect any d.c. auxiliary supplies used for powering relay tripping outputs. Withdrawing the test plug immediately restores the connections to the main current transformers and voltage transformers and removes the test connections. Replacement of the test block cover then removes the short circuits that had been applied to the main CT secondary circuits. Where several relays are used in a protection scheme, one or more test blocks may be fitted on the relay panel enabling the whole scheme to be tested, rather than just one relay at a time. Test blocks usually offer facilities for the monitoring and secondary injection testing of any power system protection scheme. The test block may be used either with a multi-fingered test plug to allow isolation and monitoring of all the selected conductor paths, or with a single finger test plug that allows the currents on individual conductors to be monitored. A modern test block and test plugs are illustrated in Figure 21.19.
Figure 21.19: Modern test block/plugs

21.10.2 Secondary Injection Test Sets The type of the relay to be tested determines the type of equipment used to provide the secondary injection currents and voltages. Many electromechanical relays have a non-linear current coil impedance when the relay operates and this can cause the test current waveform to be distorted if the injection supply voltage