Chapter 10: Geology: Processes, Hazards, and Soils

10-1: Geologic Processes The interior of the Earth is divided into three main sections ased on the density of the primary material fo!nd there" The innermost zone of the Earth is the core, #hich is mostly made of solid and molten iron" $f co!rse, no ody has act!ally ever een there, eca!se of the tremendo!s press!re and high temperat!re" The mantle lies a ove the core" %t consists mostly of solid roc&, !t a section near the top is partially melted" This melted roc& is called magma" Sometimes the magma from the mantle ma&es its #ay to the s!rface, #here it is called lava" The o!termost layer of the Earth is called the crust" The cr!st is composed of t#o different types of solid roc&" The continental cr!st is made of granite, a relatively thic& layer of gray roc& #hich comprises the ma'ority of the land on the s!rface" The oceanic cr!st is made of asalt, a thinner and denser layer of lac& roc& #hich sin&s deeper into the mantle, !s!ally ending !p as the roc& on the ottom of the ocean" 10-2: Internal and External Earth Processes (or most of h!man e)istence, the Earth #as considered to e static and pretty m!ch !nchanging" This t!rned o!t to e !ntr!e, ho#ever, as the incredi le heat from the Earth*s core provides the energy for large scale changes on the cr!st on #hich #e live" The cr!st is not one solid contin!!m of roc&+ it is ro&en into large individ!al pieces &no#n as plates" Each plate is a o!t ,0 miles thic&, consisting of the cr!st and the !pper layer of the mantle" This com ination is called the lithosphere " -!st !nder the lithosphere, in the mantle, is the partially melted section of roc&, called the asthenosphere " The heat of the core ca!ses the melted roc& of the asthenosphere to slo#ly s#irl aro!nd" .eca!se the plates float on top of the asthenosphere, they also slo#ly move aro!nd" The theory that e)plains the movement of the plates and #hat happens at their o!ndaries is called plate tectonics" /any of the Earth*s geologic feat!res can e fo!nd on the areas #here the edges of t#o ordering plates interact" Plate tectonics is s!pported y a #ide range of evidence in many fields" 0i&e evol!tion, it is an e)cellent scientific theory eca!se it e)plains many complicated things #ith '!st one simple idea" %f t#o plates are made to move in separate directions, it is called a divergent plate boundary" This type of plate interaction creates ne# sea floor" 1s the t#o plates separate, a large crac& forms et#een them" /agma from the mantle rises thro!gh the crac& and cools, forming solid oceanic cr!st" 1ny place #here there is a divergent plate o!ndary, a ne# part of the ocean #ill form" E)amples incl!de the /id2 1tlantic 3idge and the 3ed Sea" %f t#o plates are made to collide, it is called a convergent plate boundary" 4hat happens at a convergent plate o!ndary depends on the type of cr!st on the edges of the plates" %f one edge is continental cr!st and the other is oceanic cr!st, the res!lt #ill e volcanic coastal mo!ntains" .eca!se the oceanic cr!st is denser, it sin&s !nderneath the continental cr!st as they collide" This process is called subduction" The oceanic cr!st melts as it sin&s into the mantle" This melted cr!st periodically er!pts thro!gh the cr!st #here the continental cr!st has een lifted !p" -!st off the coast a deep trench #ill form at the s! d!ction zone as the oceanic cr!st starts to dip !nder the continental cr!st" The total end res!lt of this collision is a com ination of a deep trench '!st off the coast, a long chain of coastal mo!ntains #ith volcanic activity, and fre5!ent earth5!a&es as the gro!nd shifts and cr!st melts" The classic e)ample of a continental vs" oceanic convergent plate o!ndary is the #est coast of So!th 1merica #here the volcanic 1ndes /o!ntains are located" %f oth edges involved in the plate collision are made of oceanic cr!st, the res!lt #ill e a volcanic island arc" -!st li&e in the previo!s sit!ation, a s! d!ction zone #ill form as one of the dense oceanic plates dips !nderneath the other" This time, tho!gh, the #hole interaction is ta&ing place in the ocean, so instead of mo!ntains forming on the coast, they form in the deep #ater" Since only the tops of the mo!ntains po&e over the s!rface, they are visi le only as islands" The total end res!lt of this collision is a deep ocean trench parallel to a long chain of volcanic oceanic mo!ntains visi le only as islands, and fre5!ent earth5!a&es at the s! d!ction zone" E)amples of this type of collision are the 1le!tian %slands of 1las&a and the /ariana %slands in the Pacific $cean"

%f oth edges involved in the plate collision are made of continental cr!st, non2volcanic inland mo!ntains #ill form" Since neither plate is oceanic, neither #ill s! d!ct into the mantle" 6o s! d!ction means no volcanoes" %nstead, the t#o pieces of continental roc& #ill fold !p#ard, li&e t#o cars in a head2on crash" The total end res!lt of this collision is a large, !t non2volcanic, mo!ntain cl!ster #ith fre5!ent earth5!a&es as the cr!st is sha&en y the collision of the t#o plates" The est e)ample of this type of collision is the Himalaya /o!ntain range in 1sia" %f t#o plates scrape past each other side2 y2side, it is called a transform plate o!ndary" .eca!se the roc&y cr!st creates a lot of friction as the t#o plates try to slide past each other, most of the time the t#o plates ecome st!c& together and remain stationary" Ho#ever, event!ally the force of the plates ecomes stronger than the friction holding them together and the t#o plates slide past each other !ntil they ecome st!c& again" The location #here the t#o edges of a transform plate o!ndary meet is called a fault" The episodes #hen the plates slip and move past each other are earth5!a&es" 1 classic e)ample of a transform plate o!ndary is the San 1ndreas (a!lt in California" eathering is the process of small pieces of roc& eing loosened from solid cr!st" /echanical #eathering is the most common variety of this process+ it typically occ!rs #hen #ater seeps into the spaces et#een roc&s, then e)pands as it freezes, splitting the roc& into pieces" Chemical #eathering occ!rs #hen the roc& slo#ly cr!m les eca!se of e)pos!re to vario!s molec!les in the atmosphere, s!ch as the nitric and s!lf!ric acid fo!nd in acid rain" Erosion occ!rs #hen an o!tside force li&e moving #ater or the #ind, dissolves or rea&s off tiny pieces of roc& and soil and then deposits it some#here else" 3!nning fresh #ater, s!ch as streams and rivers, are the most common and important method of erosion" Their eroding po#er is so strong that over tho!sands of years, giant str!ct!res li&e the Grand Canyon can e formed" Crashing #aves are another po#erf!l agent of erosion" Strong #inds can also act to move particles of soil from one area to another" 10-!: "inerals# $oc%s# and the $oc% &ycle 1 mineral is any solid element or inorganic compo!nd that occ!rs nat!rally in the cr!st" E)amples #o!ld e gold, al!min!m, salt, etc" There are three main types of roc&s, categorized ased on the #ay in #hich it forms" Igneous roc& forms #hen magma from the mantle rises !p thro!gh the cr!st and solidifies" 'edimentary roc& forms #hen eroded sediments and other solid particles s!ch as small shells are deposited on the ottom of a la&e or ocean" $ver large amo!nts of time the dirt7soil7shells are compacted to form solid roc&" "etamorphic roc& forms #hen a pree)isting roc& is e)posed to heat or chemicals in s!ch a #ay as to convert it into a different type of roc&" The roc% cycle of eroding e)isting roc& and creating ne# roc& is the slo#est of the Earth*s cycles, ta&ing millions of years" $ld roc& is destroyed y erosion and s! d!ction" 6e# roc& is created y sea2floor spreading and sedimentation" 10-(: )atural *a+ards: Earth,ua%es and -olcanic Eruptions Earth5!a&es can occ!r at any of the three types of plate o!ndaries 8 divergent, convergent, or transform" The epicenter of an earth5!a&e is the spot on the s!rface directly a ove #here the act!al movement started" The magnit!de of an earth5!a&e can e meas!red #ith a recording instr!ment called a seismograph" The severity of the earth5!a&e is then rated on the 3ichter scale" The 3ichter scale is a log scale, '!st li&e pH, #hich means that each #hole n!m er on the scale indicates an earth5!a&e 10) stronger than the previo!s n!m er" 1 ma'or earth5!a&e rates aro!nd 9"0 or so" The %ndian $cean earth5!a&e and s! se5!ent ts!nami in :00; rated at least <"0 on the 3ichter scale, meaning it #as at minim!m 100) more po#erf!l than a typical ma'or earth5!a&e" .sunamis are large, fast #aves sometimes generated #hen an earth5!a&e occ!rs !nder the sea floor" 1ftershoc&s are smaller earth5!a&es that occ!r follo#ing the main event" They are !s!ally the res!lt of the cr!st ecoming resettled after a ma'or movement"

1reas on the edges of plates are the most s!scepti le to earth5!a&es" %n the ="S" this means the Pacific Coast, especially California" The last ma'or earth5!a&e in 1merica #as in California in 1<><" 0ive in San (rancisco at yo!r o#n ris&" $ther areas may also e some#hat v!lnera le eca!se of old fa!lts that still e)ist !ndergro!nd that are leftover from old plate o!ndaries that no longer e)ist" ?olcanoes occ!r most fre5!ently at divergent and convergent @continental v" oceanic and oceanic v" oceanicA plate o!ndaries" The most famo!s volcano in the ="S" is "ount 't/ *elens in 4ashington state" %t er!pted dramatically in 1<>0, creating the #orst volcanic disaster in ="S" history" The so!thern coast of 1las&a is volcanically active eca!se of the t#o colliding plates there" Part of Ha#aii is also volcanically active even tho!gh it is not on the edge of a plate" Ha#aii sits over top of a Bhot spotC in the mantle, a place that contin!o!sly shoots magma thro!gh the cr!st" %t*s sort of li&e a lea& in the mantle" The remnants of older mo!ntains7islands created y this one Bhot spotC can e seen thro!gho!t the Pacific $cean" 10-0: 'oil $esources: 1ormation and .ypes 'oil is a mi)t!re of small its of eroded roc&, minerals, decaying organic matter, air, #ater, and living things @mostly decomposersA" Soil is a rene#a le reso!rce, !t it forms very slo#ly, so it is highly s!scepti le to eing !sed faster than it can nat!rally replenish itself" %n tropical and temperate areas it typically ta&es :0021,000 years for one inch of topsoil to form" Soil is not the same at all depths" 'oil hori+ons are layers of soil #ith different te)t!res and characteristics" 1 soil profile is a cross section of the horizons in the soil" The top layer of soil is called the 2 hori+on" %t consists of fallen and decomposing leaves, t#igs and ranches, animal #aste, and f!ngi" The $ horizon is also called the leaf litter and is typically ro#n or lac& in color eca!se it is so rich in organic matter" =nderneath the leaf litter is the topsoil, #hich is the 3 hori+on" Topsoil is a mi)t!re of decomposing organic matter @humusA and inorganic minerals" The topsoil is also typically rather dar& in color and m!ch looser than the horizons !nderneath" The 5!ality and depth of the 1 horizon is the ma'or determining factor of the agric!lt!ral prod!ctivity of the land" The $ and 1 horizons typically ho!se a comple) food #e of plants, insects, #orms, f!ngi and acterial decomposers" The color of the topsoil is a 5!ic& indicator of its n!trient level+ lac& and ro#n soils are rich in organic matter, #hile gray, red, and yello#ish soils #ill li&ely need artificial fertilizers to prod!ce m!ch vegetation" The 4 hori+on, also called the s! soil, is located !nder the 1 horizon" %t consists mostly of inorganic matter, mi)t!res of vario!s pieces of ro&en2do#n roc&" 1ro!nd here, the . horizon is typically red clay" The & hori+on is the edroc& !nderneath the . horizon" %t is !n#eathered solid ase roc&" Soil profiles from five different iomes are sho#n on page :1D" Eecid!o!s forest and grasslands have the est soils for agric!lt!re, and most farms are located on areas #here these forests and grasslands have een cleared" Tropical rain forests do not ma&e for good farmland eca!se the fast rate of decomposition prevents most of the organic matter from settling in the soil" Conifero!s forests also are not prime for agric!lt!re eca!se the decomposition of the needle leaves creates a very acidic soil that is o!tside the range of tolerance for most crops" /!ch of the soil is made !p of different sized particles of #eathered roc&" The particles are classified into fo!r categories ased on their size" 1" :" F" ;" Clay @very small particlesA 8 feels stic&y to the to!ch Silt @small particlesA 8 feels smooth to the to!ch Sand @medi!m particlesA 8 feels gritty to the to!ch Gravel @large particlesA 8 feels li&e little roc&s

The amo!nt of each size particle in the soil is called the soil texture" 5oams are soils that have a ro!ghly e5!al amo!nt of each type of particle" 0oams feel cr!m ly and spongy to the to!ch" Soil te)t!res are typically determined y performing a to!ch test, r! ing a pinch of soil in et#een yo!r finger and th!m and then noting the characteristics" $nce the te)t!re has een determined, a soil triangle can e !sed to fig!re o!t the general composition of the particles in the soil"

'oil porosity is a meas!re of the amo!nt and size of air poc&ets in a soil" The soil porosity determines the soil permeability, #hich is the rate at #hich #ater and air sin& do#n thro!gh the soil from the !pper to lo#er horizons" Sandy soils have lots of air poc&ets @goodA and a high permea ility @ adA" Crops can only e gro#n on sandy soils if they*re heavily irrigated or they have lo# #ater re5!irements" This is eca!se the #ater percolates thro!gh the sandy 1 horizon so fast" Clay soils have a very lo# permea ility, meaning they hold #ater near the s!rface #ell, !t have poor aeration" $ften, clay soils hold the #ater too #ell, and ecome too #aterlogged for most crops to gro#" 0oams are the est type of soil for plant gro#th" .eca!se they contain a mi)t!re of particle sizes, they have a medi!m level of permea ility and aeration instead of eing e)treme on either end of the scale" The acidity or al&alinity of the soil can also infl!ence ho# #ell the plants gro#" This is meas!red !sing the pH scale" The pH scale is a log scale #here each n!m er represents a 10) increase over the previo!s n!m er" P!re #ater rates a 9 on the pH scale" 1 ph !nder 9 means the soil is acidic, #hile a pH over 9 means the soil is al&aline" Soils in the eastern ="S" tend to e slightly acidic, especially #here there are a lot of conifers" The soil can e ne!tralized y adding an al&aline compo!nd to the soil, #hich is !s!ally lime" Soils in the #estern ="S" can e al&aline eca!se they are so dry allo#ing certain compo!nds to !ild !p in the topsoil instead of percolating deeper into the gro!nd" These soils can e made !sa le y adding s!lf!r, #hich is converted into s!lf!ric acid y the acterial decomposers in the 1 horizon" 10-6: 'oil Erosion and 7egradation 1ltho!gh some soil erosion is nat!ral, h!man activities are ca!sing the rate of erosion to e m!ch faster than normal" =nder normal circ!mstances the roots of vegetation help to anchor the soil and prevent it from eroding" 1ny h!man activity #hich destroys plant cover leads to an accelerated rate of erosion" This incl!des farming, logging, constr!ction, overgrazing and deli erate !rning of vegetation to clear land" 3emem er that moving #ater ca!ses most soil erosion" 4ind is a secondary factor" The three types of #ater erosion are: 1" :" F" 'heet erosion 8 s!rface #ater moves do#n a slope and #ashes a#ay a thin, !niform layer of topsoil" $ill erosion 8 s!rface #ater c!ts small channels in the soil #hich carry a#ay small particles" Gully erosion 8 s!rface #ater c!ts deep ditches into the soil+ most often occ!rs on steep slopes"

Soil erosion has t#o directly harmf!l effects on the environment, one at the so!rce and one at the destination" 1reas that are eing eroded are losing their topsoil at a faster rate than it can e nat!rally replenished and are therefore losing the a ility to e prod!ctive" 1reas #here the eroded sediment is ending !p are ecoming clogged, the #ater is ecoming t!r id, and la&es and reservoirs are shrin&ing" 0a&e Conestee in Greenville Co!nty is an e)ample of a la&e that is shrin&ing eca!se it is eing filled !p #ith eroded sediment from the s!rro!nding area" Erosion is a serio!s pro lem on pretty m!ch every continent" 1frica and 1sia seem to have the #orst of it eca!se the land there is marginal to egin #ith and fe# preca!tions are ta&en to prevent erosion from occ!rring" %n the =nited States, soil on c!ltivated land is eroding 1,) faster than it can reform" 1 o!t one2third of the original topsoil in the co!ntry has already eroded a#ay" The ="S" government and farmers are #ell a#are of the pro lem and steps ta&en to control it have led to a ;0G drop in the rate of erosion from 1<>D to 1<<9" The ="S" had a ma'or erosion episode in the 1<F0s in the Great Plains" Settlers had eg!n to gro# crops in places li&e $&lahoma, Hansas, and Te)as" The native grasses that had anchored the soil #ere replaced y crops #hich only gre# part of the year, leaving the gro!nd are for long stretches" 4hen an e)tended dro!ght occ!rred et#een the years of 1<:,21<F;, the erosion of the are topsoil ecame so ad that giant clo!ds of d!st reg!larly lan&eted the area" This area of the Great Plains #as nic&named the B7ust 4o8lC" (ailed agric!lt!re ca!sed a mass migration o!t of the region and #as a contri !tor to the economic pro lems of the co!ntry d!ring the Great Eepression" The ="S" government passed the 'oil &onservation 3ct of 19!0, #hich esta lished #hat is no# called the 6at!ral 3eso!rces Conservation Service, in an effort to ed!cate farmers a o!t ho# to practice etter soil conservation techni5!es and hopef!lly prevent a f!t!re repeat of the E!st .o#l crisis"

The 19:0 1arm 3ct offered farmers s! sidies @money or ta) rea&sA to ta&e highly erodi le land o!t of prod!ction and instead '!st plant grass and trees there to hold in the soil" .y :001, 10G of ="S" cropland had een admitted to this program" 1s a condition of receiving the s! sidies, farmers #ere then re5!ired to s! mit a soil conservation plan to the government to sho# that they #ere #or&ing to prevent the pro lem from #orsening in the f!t!re" 7esertification is a process #here y a com ination of dro!ght and over!se y h!mans ca!ses the prod!ctivity of an area to decrease significantly" .asically, the land starts to resem le a desert and loses its a ility to gro# crops" Eesertification is most often ca!sed y overgrazing, deforestation, or e)cessive irrigation practices #hich lead to erosion or !n!sa le soil" Eesertification can e slo#ly reversed if nat!ral vegetation is planted and allo#ed to gro# for a fe# decades to replenish the soil" Ho#ever, this is rarely done and desertification contin!es to e a significant pro lem in many areas of the #orld" 'alini+ation occ!rs in soils that are heavily irrigated" The #ater !sed for irrigation contains trace amo!nts of salts and other minerals" Sometimes, the #ater evaporates efore it can e a sor ed y the soil" 4hen this happens, the salt is left ehind" $ver time, it can !ild !p in the soil to the point #here it is no longer !sa le to gro# crops" Salinization is a pro lem in the #estern ="S" #here constant irrigation is necessary to gro# crops in the typically dry climate" :FG of irrigated cropland in the ="S" s!ffers from salinization" 1s the soil ecomes saltier over time, farmers often s#itch to more salt2tolerant crops so that their land remains prod!ctive for a little longer" Sometimes farmers apply large amo!nts of #ater to the soil to try to leach the salts deeper into the gro!nd" $ne potential negative of this techni5!e is the possi ility that this salty #ater deep in the soil #ill !ild !p to the point #here the roots of the plants are contin!ally athed in salt #ater, &illing them" This is called 8aterlogging and it affects a o!t 10G of the irrigated cropland #orld#ide" 10-;: 'olutions: 'oil &onservation 'oil conservation is the process of red!cing soil erosion and restoring soil fertility" $ne #ay to red!ce erosion is to change the #ay fields are plo#ed" %nstead of tearing !p the s!rface every fall, leaving the e)posed soil v!lnera le to erosion, many farmers are s#itching to conservation-tillage farming" The idea is to dist!r the topsoil as little as possi le #hile planting crops" The seeds, fertilizer, and pesticides can e in'ected deep into the gro!nd #itho!t loosening the top layer" .y :001, a o!t ;DG of 1merican farmers practiced this techni5!e" .erracing is the process of converting a steep slope into a series of flat steps" This helps to prevent the sheet and g!lly erosion that plag!es hillsides" 'trip cropping means alternating ro#s of the intended crop #ith ro#s of grass cover" The cover ro#s trap the eroded soil and #ater r!noff and slo# the spread of pests" 3lley cropping is similar to strip cropping e)cept that the farmer plants his crops in et#een long ro#s of trees and shr! s" indbrea%s are trees that are planted aro!nd the perimeter of a crop field" This red!ces #ind erosion and provides ha itats for irds and other animals #hich may act as nat!ral pest controls" &rop rotation is #hen farmers only gro# crops on an area of land for a co!ple of years efore letting the land lay fallo# and moving the crops to another piece of land" /any crops !se n!trients from the soil at s!ch a high rate that they #ill deplete the soil in a very short time" .y letting the land rec!perate for a fe# years, the n!trients can slo#ly e replenished and the land can then e farmed again at a later date" 1ertili+ers can add n!trients to the soil to ma&e them more prod!ctive" 1 lo# level of 6, P, or H is often the limiting factor for plant gro#th" $rganic fertilizer comes from plants and animals, #hile inorganic fertilizer is mined o!t of the gro!nd" Types of organic fertilizer incl!de: 1" :" F" 3nimal manure 8 this traditional fertilizer is effective, !t decreasing in pop!larity eca!se of the high cost of transporting the d!ng from livestoc& farms to r!ral croplands" Green manure 8 fresh green vegetation plo#ed directly into the soil" &ompost 8 prod!ced #hen decomposers li&e f!ngi and acteria are allo#ed to rea& do#n organic #aste s!ch as leaves, food #aste, anana peels, orange rinds, etc" Since compost is asically the same thing as h!m!s, it*s a o!t as close to the real thing as yo! can get" /any people create compost piles at their ho!se to !se in fertilizing their gardens"

%norganic fertilizers typically contain large amo!nts of three specific n!trients @nitrogen, phosphor!s, and potassi!m 8 often a reviated as )P<A" 4itho!t the !se of inorganic fertilizers it is estimated that the #orld#ide food s!pply #o!ld drop y a o!t ;0G" %norganic fertilizers have many do#nsides, ho#ever, incl!ding: 6ot adding act!al h!m!s to the soil @the real thing is al#ays etter than a s! stit!teA Providing only three macron!trients and no micron!trients 3e5!iring large amo!nts of fossil f!els in prod!ction and transport 3eleasing the greenho!se gas 6:$ #hen decomposed E!trophication of #ater s!pplies #hen #ashed off farms Contamination of drin&ing #ater s!pplies

1 recent st!dy has fo!nd that children orn in r!ral areas in the s!mmertime have lo#er %Is than children orn there d!ring other seasons eca!se the drin&ing #ater in the s!mmer is more contaminated #ith fertilizers and pesticides"