Protection Fundamentals

By Craig Wester, John Levine

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Outline
Introductions Tools
Enervista Launchpad On Line Store Demo Relays at ISO / Levine

Discussion of future classes Protection Fundamentals ANSI number handout, Training CDs
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Introduction
Speakers:
Craig Wester GE Multilin Regional Manager John Levine GE Multilin Account Manager

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Objective
We are here to help make your job easier. This is very informal and designed around ISO Applications. Please ask question. We are not here to preach to you. The knowledge base on GE Multilin Relays varies greatly at ISO. If you have a question, there is a good chance there are 3 or 4 other people that have the same question. Please ask it.
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Tools

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Demo Relays with Ethernet

Working with James McRoy and Dave Curtis SR 489 SR 750 G30 MIF II Training CDs
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Demo Relays at L-3

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Future Classes
GE Multilin Training will be the 2nd Friday of every month. We will cover:
March Basics, Enervista Launchpad, ANSI number and what they represent, Uploading, downloading, Training CDs, etc. April 489 Relay May MIF II relay June - 750 Relay July - UR relay basic including Enervista Engineer August UR F60 and F35 relays September G30 and G60 including Transformer and Generator in same zone October Communications and security November - Neutral Grounding Resistors December Cts and PTs
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Protection Fundamentals

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Desirable Protection Attributes

Reliability: System operate properly
Security: Dont trip when you shouldnt Dependability: Trip when you should

Selectivity: Trip the minimal amount to clear the fault or abnormal operating condition Speed: Usually the faster the better in terms of minimizing equipment damage and maintaining system integrity Simplicity: KISS Economics: Dont break the bank
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Art & Science of Protection

Selection of protective relays requires compromises: Maximum and Reliable protection at minimum equipment cost High Sensitivity to faults and insensitivity to maximum load currents High-speed fault clearance with correct selectivity Selectivity in isolating small faulty area Ability to operate correctly under all predictable power system conditions

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Art & Science of Protection

Cost of protective relays should be balanced against risks involved if protection is not sufficient and not enough redundancy. Primary objectives is to have faulted zones primary protection operate first, but if there are protective relays failures, some form of backup protection is provided. Backup protection is local (if local primary protection fails to clear fault) and remote (if remote protection fails to operate to clear fault)

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Primary Equipment & Components

Transformers - to step up or step down voltage level Breakers - to energize equipment and interrupt fault current to isolate faulted equipment Insulators - to insulate equipment from ground and other phases Isolators (switches) - to create a visible and permanent isolation of primary equipment for maintenance purposes and route power flow over certain buses. Bus - to allow multiple connections (feeders) to the same source of power (transformer).
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Primary Equipment & Components

Grounding - to operate and maintain equipment safely Arrester - to protect primary equipment of sudden overvoltage (lightning strike). Switchgear integrated components to switch, protect, meter and control power flow Reactors - to limit fault current (series) or compensate for charge current (shunt) VT and CT - to measure primary current and voltage and supply scaled down values to P&C, metering, SCADA, etc. Regulators - voltage, current, VAR, phase angle, etc.
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Types of Protection
Overcurrent Uses current to determine magnitude of fault
Simple May employ definite time or inverse time curves May be slow Selectivity at the cost of speed (coordination stacks) Inexpensive May use various polarizing voltages or ground current for directionality Communication aided schemes make more selective

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Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection (IOC) & Definite Time Overcurrent

CTI

Relay closest to fault operates first Relays closer to source operate slower Time between operating for same current is called CTI (Clearing Time Interval)

CTI
50 +2 50 +2

Distribution Substation 18
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(TOC) Coordination
t
Relay closest to fault operates first Relays closer to source operate slower Time between operating for same current is called CTI

CTI

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Time Overcurrent Protection (TOC)

Selection of the curves uses what is termed as a time multiplier or time dial to effectively shift the curve up or down on the time axis Operate region lies above selected curve, while no-operate region lies below it Inverse curves can approximate fuse curve shapes

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Time Overcurrent Protection (51, 51N, 51G)

Multiples of pick-up
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Classic Directional Overcurrent Scheme for Looped System Protection

Bus X A 1 e
L L

Bus Y a 5 E

a E

b c D C

d e B A

b d

4 D

c 3 C

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Types of Protection
Differential
current in = current out Simple Very fast Very defined clearing area Expensive Practical distance limitations
Line differential systems overcome this using digital communications
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1 pu
IP
CT-X CT-Y

IP

Differential
Note CT polarity dots This is a through-current representation Perfect waveforms, no saturation
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IS

IS

Relay
IR-X IR-Y

+1 1 + (-1) = 0
Current, pu

-1 DIFF CURRENT

Multilin

2 pu
IP

2 pu

Fault
CT-X CT-Y

IP

Differential
Note CT polarity dots This is an internal fault representation Perfect waveforms, no saturation
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X
IS IS

Relay
IR-X IR-Y

+2 2 + (+2) = 4
Current, pu

-2 DIFF CURRENT

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Types of Protection
Voltage Uses voltage to infer fault or abnormal condition May employ definite time or inverse time curves May also be used for undervoltage load shedding
Simple May be slow Selectivity at the cost of speed (coordination stacks) Inexpensive
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Types of Protection
Frequency Uses frequency of voltage to detect power balance condition May employ definite time or inverse time curves Used for load shedding & machinery under/overspeed protection
Simple May be slow Selectivity at the cost of speed can be expensive

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Types of Protection
Power Uses voltage and current to determine power flow magnitude and direction Typically definite time
Complex May be slow Accuracy important for many applications Can be expensive

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Types of Protection
Distance (Impedance)
Uses voltage and current to determine impedance of fault Set on impedance [R-X] plane Uses definite time Impedance related to distance from relay Complicated Fast Somewhat defined clearing area with reasonable accuracy Expensive Communication aided schemes make more selective
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ZL

Impedance
Relay in Zone 1 operates first Time between Zones is called CTI
R

T2 T1 ZA

ZB

21

21

A
Source

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Impedance: POTT Scheme

POTT will trip only faulted line section RO elements are 21; 21G or 67N
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Power vs. Protection Engineer: Views of the World

+Q
MVA = KV2 Z ( Rc )
Rv

r Powe More

SS SS
+P

More

r Powe

-P

-Q

180 Opposites!

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Generation-typically at 4-20kV Transmission-typically at 230-765kV

Typical Bulk Power System

Receives power from transmission system and transforms into subtransmission level Subtransmission-typically at 69-161kV Receives power from subtransmission system and transforms into primary feeder voltage Distribution network-typically 2.4-69kV

Low voltage (service)-typically 120-600V

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Protection Zones
1. Generator or Generator-Transformer Units 2. Transformers 3. Buses 4. Lines (transmission and distribution) 5. Utilization equipment (motors, static loads, etc.) 6. Capacitor or reactor (when separately protected)
Bus zone Unit Generator-Tx zone Transformer zone Line zone Bus zone Transformer zone Bus zone Motor zone

~
Generator XFMR Bus Line Bus XFMR Bus Motor

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Zone Overlap
1. 2. Overlap is accomplished by the locations of CTs, the key source for protective relays. In some cases a fault might involve a CT or a circuit breaker itself, which means it can not be cleared until adjacent breakers (local or remote) are opened.

Relay Zone A

Relay Zone A

Zone A

Relay Zone B

Zone B

Zone A

Relay Zone B

Zone B

CTs are located at both sides of CBfault between CTs is cleared from both remote sides

CTs are located at one side of CBfault between CTs is sensed by both relays, remote right side operate only.

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Electrical Mechanical Parameter Comparisons

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Electrical Mechanical Parameter Comparisons

Effects of Capacitive & Inductive Loads on Current

Motor Model and Starting Curves

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What Info is Required to Apply Protection

1. One-line diagram of the system or area involved 2. Impedances and connections of power equipment, system frequency, voltage level and phase sequence 3. Existing schemes 4. Operating procedures and practices affecting protection 5. Importance of protection required and maximum allowed clearance times 6. System fault studies 7. Maximum load and system swing limits 8. CTs and VTs locations, connections and ratios 9. Future expansion expectance 10. Any special considerations for application.
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C37.2: Device Numbers

Partial listing

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One Line Diagram

Non-dimensioned diagram showing how pieces of electrical equipment are connected Simplification of actual system Equipment is shown as boxes, circles and other simple graphic symbols Symbols should follow ANSI or IEC conventions
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1-Line Symbols [1]

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1-Line Symbols [2]

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1-Line Symbols [3]

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1-Line Symbols [4]

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1-Line [1]

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1-Line [2]

3-Line

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Diagram Comparison

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C37.2: Standard Reference Position

1) These may be speed, voltage, current, load, or similar adjusting devices comprising rheostats, springs, levers, or other components for the purpose. 2) These electrically operated devices are of the nonlatched-in type, whose contact position is dependent only upon the degree of energization of the operating, restraining, or holding coil or coils that may or may not be suitable for continuous energization. The deenergized position of the device is that with all coils de-energized 3) The energizing influences for these devices are considered to be, respectively, rising temperature, rising level, increasing flow, rising speed, increasing vibration, and increasing pressure. 4.5.3) In the case of latched-in or handreset relays, which operate from protective devices to perform the shutdown of a piece of equipment and hold it out of service, the contacts should preferably be shown in the normal, nonlockout position 51
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CB Trip Circuit (Simplified)

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Showing Contacts NOT in Standard Reference Condition

Some people show the contact state changed like this

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Showing Contacts NOT in Standard Reference Condition

Better practice, do not change the contact style, but rather use marks like these to indicate nonstandard reference position
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Lock Out Relay

PR

86b 86 TC 86b

86a

Shown in RESET position

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CB Coil Circuit Monitoring: T with CB Closed; C with CB Opened

+
Trip/Close Contact Coil Monitor Input

Relay 52/a or 52/b Breaker

T/C Coil
52/a for trip circuit 52/b for close circuit

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CB Coil Circuit Monitoring: Both T&C Regardless of CB state

Relay

Relay

Breaker

Breaker

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Current Transformers
Current transformers are used to step primary system currents to values usable by relays, meters, SCADA, transducers, etc. CT ratios are expressed as primary to secondary; 2000:5, 1200:5, 600:5, 300:5 A 2000:5 CT has a CTR of 400

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Standard IEEE CT Relay Accuracy

IEEE relay class is defined in terms of the voltage a CT can deliver at 20 times the nominal current rating without exceeding a 10% composite ratio error.
For example, a relay class of C100 on a 1200:5 CT means that the CT can develop 100 volts at 24,000 primary amps (1200*20) without exceeding a 10% ratio error. Maximum burden = 1 ohm.
100 V = 20 * 5 * (1ohm) 200 V = 20 * 5 * (2 ohms) 400 V = 20 * 5 * (4 ohms) 800 V = 20 * 5 * (8 ohms)
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Excitation Curve

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Standard IEEE CT Burdens (5 Amp)

(Per IEEE Std. C57.13-1993)
Application Burden Designation B0.1 B0.2 B0.5 B0.9 B1.8 B1 B2 B4 B8 Impedance (Ohms) 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.9 1.8 1 2 4 8 VA @ 5 amps 2.5 5 12.5 22.5 45 25 50 100 200 Power Factor 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Metering

Relaying

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Current into the Dot, Out of the Dot Current out of the dot, in to the dot
Forward Power
IP

IS

Relay or Meter

IR

Forward Power
IP

IS

Relay or Meter

IR

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Voltage Transformers
Voltage (potential) transformers are used to isolate and step down and accurately reproduce the scaled voltage for the protective device or relay VT ratios are typically expressed as primary to secondary; 14400:120, 7200:120 A 4160:120 VT has a VTR of 34.66

VP VS
Relay

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Typical CT/VT Circuits

Courtesy of Blackburn, Protective Relay: Principles and Applications

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CT/VT Circuit vs. Casing Ground

Case

Secondary Circuit

Case ground made at IT location Secondary circuit ground made at first point of use

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Equipment Grounding
Prevents shock exposure of personnel Provides current carrying capability for the ground-fault current Grounding includes design and construction of substation ground mat and CT and VT safety grounding

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System Grounding
Limits overvoltages Limits difference in electric potential through local area conducting objects Several methods
Ungrounded Reactance Coil Grounded High Z Grounded Low Z Grounded Solidly Grounded
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System Grounding
1. Ungrounded: There is no intentional ground applied to the systemhowever its grounded through natural capacitance. Found in 2.415kV systems.

2. Reactance Grounded: Total system capacitance is cancelled by equal inductance. This decreases the current at the fault and limits voltage across the arc at the fault to decrease damage. X0 <= 10 * X1
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System Grounding
3. High Resistance Grounded: Limits ground fault current to 10A-20A. Used to limit transient overvoltages due to arcing ground faults. R0 <= X0C/3, X0C is capacitive zero sequence reactance 4. Low Resistance Grounded: To limit current to 25-400A R0 >= 2X0

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System Grounding

5. Solidly Grounded: There is a connection of transformer or generator neutral directly to station ground. Effectively Grounded: R0 <= X1, X0 <= 3X1, where R is the system fault resistance

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Grounding Differences.Why?
Solidly Grounded
Much ground current (damage) No neutral voltage shift
Line-ground insulation

Limits step potential issues Faulted area will clear Inexpensive relaying

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Grounding Differences.Why?
Somewhat Grounded
Manage ground current (manage damage) Some neutral voltage shift Faulted area will clear More expensive than solid, less expensive then ungrounded

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Grounding Differences.Why?
Ungrounded
Very little ground current (less damage) Big neutral voltage shift
Must insulate line-to-line voltage

May run system while trying to find ground fault Relay more difficult/costly to detect and locate ground faults If you get a second ground fault on adjacent phase, watch out!
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System Grounding Influences Ground Fault Detection Methods

Source

Low/No Z

50 51

50N 51N

50 51

50N 51N

50 51

50N 51N

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System Grounding Influences Ground Fault Detection Methods

Source

Med/High Z

50 51 50G 51G

50 51 50G 51G

50 51 50G 51G

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Basic Current Connections:

How System is Grounded Determines How Ground Fault is Detected

Medium/High Resistance Ground

Low/No Resistance Ground

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Substation Types
Single Supply Multiple Supply Mobile Substations for emergencies Types are defined by number of transformers, buses, breakers to provide adequate service for application
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Industrial Substation Arrangements

(Typical)

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Industrial Substation Arrangements

(Typical)

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Utility Substation Arrangements

(Typical)

Single Bus, 1 Tx, Dual supply

Single Bus, 2 Tx, Dual Supply

2-sections Bus with HS Tie-Breaker, 2 Tx, Dual Supply 80

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Utility Substation Arrangements

(Typical)

Bus 1

Bus 2

Breaker-and-a-half allows reduction of equipment cost by using 3 breakers for each 2 circuits. For load transfer and operation is simple, but relaying is complex as middle breaker is responsible to both circuits

Ring bus advantage that one breaker per circuit. Also each outgoing circuit (Tx) has 2 sources of supply. Any breaker can be taken from service without disrupting others.
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Utility Substation Arrangements

(Typical)
Main bus Aux. bus Main Reserve Transfer Bus 1
Tie breaker

Bus 2

Double Bus: Upper Main and Transfer, bottom Double Main bus

Main-Reserved and Transfer Bus: Allows maintenance of any bus and any breaker

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Switchgear Defined
Assemblies containing electrical switching, protection, metering and management devices Used in three-phase, high-power industrial, commercial and utility applications Covers a variety of actual uses, including motor control, distribution panels and outdoor switchyards The term "switchgear" is plural, even when referring to a single switchgear assembly (never say, "switchgears") May be a described in terms of use:
"the generator switchgear" "the stamping line switchgear"
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Switchgear Examples

Switchgear: MetalClad vs. Metal-Enclosed

Metal-clad switchgear (C37.20.2)
Breakers or switches must be draw-out design Breakers must be electrically operated, with antipump feature All bus must be insulated Completely enclosed on all side and top with grounded metal Breaker, bus and cable compartments isolated by metal barriers, with no intentional openings Automatic shutters over primary breaker stabs.

Metal-enclosed switchgear
Bus not insulated Breakers or switches not required to be draw-out No compartment barriering required
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Switchgear Basics [1]

All Switchgear has a metal enclosure Metalclad construction requires 11 gauge steel between sections and main compartments Prevents contact with live circuits and propagation of ionized gases in the unlikely event of an internal fault. Enclosures are also rated as weather-tight for outdoor use Metalclad gear will include shutters to ensure that powered buses are covered at all times, even when a circuit breaker is removed.

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Switchgear Basics [2]

Devices such as circuit breakers or fused switches provide protection against short circuits and ground faults Interrupting devices (other than fuses) are nonautomatic. They require control signals instructing them to open or close. Monitoring and control circuitry work together with the switching and interrupting devices to turn circuits on and off, and guard circuits from degradation or fluctuations in power supply that could affect or damage equipment Routine metering functions include operating amperes and voltage, watts, kilowatt hours, frequency, power factor.
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Switchgear Basics [3]

Power to switchgear is connected via Cables or Bus Duct The main internal bus carries power between elements within the switchgear Power within the switchgear moves from compartment to compartment on horizontal bus, and within compartments on vertical bus Instrument Transformers (CTs & PTs) are used to step down current and voltage from the primary circuits or use in lowerenergy monitoring and control circuitry.

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Air Magnetic Breakers

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SF6 and Vacuum Breakers

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A Good Day in System Protection

CTs and VTs bring electrical info to relays Relays sense current and voltage and declare fault Relays send signals through control circuits to circuit breakers Circuit breaker(s) correctly trip

What Could Go Wrong Here????

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A Bad Day in System Protection

CTs or VTs are shorted, opened, or their wiring is Relays do not declare fault due to setting errors, faulty relay, CT saturation Control wires cut or batteries dead so no signal is sent from relay to circuit breaker Circuit breakers do not have power, burnt trip coil or otherwise fail to trip

Protection Systems Typically are Designed for N-1

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Protection Performance Statistics

Correct and desired: 92.2% Correct but undesired: 5.3% Incorrect: 2.1% Fail to trip: 0.4%

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Contribution to Faults

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Fault Types (Shunt)

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Short Circuit Calculation Fault Types Single Phase to Ground

A C G B

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Short Circuit Calculations Fault Types Line to Line

A C G B Z X Z

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Short Circuit Calculations Fault Types Three Phase

A C G B Z X Z X

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AC & DC Current Components of Fault Current

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Variation of current with time during a fault

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Variation of generator reactance during a fault

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Useful Conversions

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Per Unit System

Establish two base quantities:

Standard practice is to define Base power 3 phase Base voltage line to line Other quantities derived with basic power equations
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Per Unit Basics

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Short Circuit Calculations Per Unit System

Per Unit Value = Actual Quantity Base Quantity

Vpu = Vactual Vbase Ipu = Iactual Ibase Zpu = Zactual Zbase

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Short Circuit Calculations Per Unit System

I MVAbase x 1000 = 3 x kV L-L base kV2L-L base = MVA base

base

base

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Short Circuit Calculations Per Unit System Base Conversion

Zpu = Zactual Zbase
Zpu1 = MVAbase1

Zbase = kV

MVAbase
2
X

2 base

kV 2base1

Zactual

Zpu2 = MVAbase2

kV

base2

Zactual

Zpu2 =Zpu1 x kV

2 base1 x kV 2base2

MVAbase2 MVAbase1
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Information for Short Circuit, Load Flow and Voltage Studies

To perform the above studies, information is needed on the electrical apparatus and sources to the system under consideration

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Utility Information
kV MVA short circuit Voltage and voltage variation Harmonic and flicker requirements

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Generator Information
Rated kV Rate MVA, MW Xs; synchronous reactance Xd; transient reactance Xd; subtransient reactance

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Motor
kV Rated HP or KW Type
Sync or Induction

Drive
Is it regenerative Harmonic spectrum

Subtransient or locked rotor current

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Transformers
Rated primary and secondary kV Rated MVA (OA, FA, FOA) Winding connections (Wye, Delta) Impedance and MVA base of impedance

Reactors
Rated kV Ohms
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Cables and Transmission Lines

For rough calculations, some can be neglected Length of conductor Impedance at given length Size of conductor Spacing of overhead conductors Rated voltage Type of conduit Number of conductors or number per phase
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ANSI 1-Line

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IEC 1-Line

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Short Circuit Study [1]

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Short Circuit Study [2]

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Short Circuit Study [3]

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A Study of a Fault.

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Fault Interruption and Arcing

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Arc Flash Hazard

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Arc Flash Mitigation: Problem Description

An electric arc flash can occur if a conductive object gets too close to a high-amp current source or by equipment failure (ex., while opening or closing disconnects, racking out)
The arc can heat the air to temperatures as high as 35,000 F, and vaporize metal in equipment The arc flash can cause severe skin burns by direct heat exposure and by igniting clothing The heating of the air and vaporization of metal creates a pressure wave (arc blast) that can damage hearing and cause memory loss (from concussion) and other injuries. Flying metal parts are also a hazard.
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Methods to Reduce Arc Flash Hazard

Arc flash energy may be expressed in I2t terms, so you can decrease the I or decrease the t to lessen the energy Protective relays can help lessen the t by optimizing sensitivity and decreasing clearing time
Protective Relay Techniques

Other means can lessen the I by limiting fault current

Non-Protective Relay Techniques
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Non-Protective Relaying Methods of Reducing Arc Flash Hazard

System design modifications increase power transformer impedance
Addition of phase reactors Faster operating breakers Splitting of buses Electronic current limiters (these devices sense overcurrent and interrupt very high currents with replaceable conductor links (explosive charge) Arc-resistant switchgear (this really doesn't reduce arc flash energy; it deflects the energy away from personnel) Optical arc flash protection via fiber sensors Optical arc flash protection via lens sensors

Current limiting fuses (provides partial protection only for a limited current range)

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Protective Relaying Methods of Reducing Arc Flash Hazard

Bus differential protection (this reduces the arc flash energy by reducing the clearing time Zone interlock schemes where bus relay selectively is allowed to trip or block depending on location of faults as identified from feeder relays Temporary setting changes to reduce clearing time during maintenance
Sacrifices coordination

FlexCurve for improved coordination opportunities Employ 51VC/VR on feeders fed from small generation to improve sensitivity and coordination Employ UV light detectors with current disturbance detectors for selective gear tripping

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Fuses vs. Relayed Breakers

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Arc Flash Hazards

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Arc Pressure Wave

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Arc Flash Warning Example [1]

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Arc Flash Warning Example [2]

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Arc Flash Warning Example [3]

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Copy of this presentation are at: www.L-3.com\private\Levine

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Protection Fundamentals

QUESTIONS?
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