Concise Oxford English Dictionary 2008 Oxford University Press: language/la / noun !

! the "ethod of h#"an co""#nication$ either s%o&en or ritten$ consisting of the #se of ords in a str#ct#red and conventional ay' ( any "ethod of ex%ression or co""#nication: body language' 2 the syste" of co""#nication #sed )y a %artic#lar co""#nity or co#ntry' ( the %hraseology and voca)#lary of a %artic#lar gro#%' ( Computing a syste" of sy")ols and r#les for riting %rogra"s or algorith"s' * the "anner or style of a %iece of riting or s%eech' ( +#s#' bad/foul/strong language, cr#de or offensive lang#age' - P./01E1 speak the same language #nderstand one another as a res#lt of shared o%inions or val#es' - O/2324 5E: fro" OFr. langage$ )ased on L. lingua 6tong#e7'

What is Language?
5any ani"al and even %lant s%ecies co""#nicate ith each other' .#"ans are not #ni8#e in this ca%a)ility' .o ever$ h#"an lang#age is #ni8#e in )eing a sy")olic co""#nication syste" that is learned instead of )iologically inherited' Symbols are so#nds or things hich have "eaning given to the" )y the #sers' Originally$ the "eaning is ar)itrarily assigned' 9or instance$ the English ord :dog: does not in any ay %hysically rese")le the ani"al it stands for' 0ll sy")ols have a "aterial for" )#t the "eaning can not )e discovered )y "ere sensory exa"ination of their for"s' ;hey are a)stractions' 0 ord is one or "ore so#nds that in co")ination have a s%ecific "eaning assigned )y a lang#age' ;he sy")olic "eaning of ords can )e so %o erf#l that %eo%le are illing to ris& their lives for the" or ta&e the lives of others' 9or instance$ ords s#ch as :8#eer: and :nigger: have sy")olic "eaning that is highly charged e"otionally in 0"erica today for "any %eo%le' ;hey are "#ch "ore than <#st a se8#ence of so#nds to #s' 0 "a<or advantage of h#"an lang#age )eing a learned sy")olic co""#nication syste" is that it is infinitely flexi)le' 5eanings can )e changed and ne sy")ols created' ;his is evidenced )y the fact that ne ords are invented daily and the "eaning of old ones change' 9or exa"%le$ the English ord :nice: no generally "eans %leasing$ agreea)le$ %olite$ and &ind' 2n the!=th cent#ry it "eant foolish$ anton$ lascivio#s$ and even ic&ed' >ang#ages evolve in res%onse to changing historical and social conditions' 1o"e lang#age transfor"ations ty%ically occ#r in a generation or less' 9or instance$ the slang ords #sed )y yo#r %arents ere very li&ely different fro" those that yo# #se today' ?o# also %ro)a)ly are fa"iliar ith "any technical ter"s$ s#ch as :text "essaging: and :high definition ;@:$ that ere not in general #se even a decade ago' >ang#age and s%eech are not the sa"e thing' 1%eech is a )road ter" si"%ly referring to %atterned ver)al )ehavior' 2n contrast$ a language is a set of r#les for generating s%eech' 0 dialect is a variant of a lang#age' 2f it is associated ith a geogra%hically isolated s%eech co""#nity$ it is referred to as a regional dialect' .o ever$ if it is s%o&en )y a s%eech co""#nity that is "erely socially isolated$ it is called a social dialect' ;hese latter dialects are "ostly )ased on class$ ethnicity$ gender$ age$ and %artic#lar social sit#ations' Alac& English +or E)onics, in the United 1tates is an exa"%le of a social dialect' Dialects "ay )e )oth regional and social' 0n exa"%le is the Chinese s%o&en dialect and ritten for" called nushu' 2t a%%arently as &no n and #sed only )y o"en in the village of BiangCyong in .#nan Province of 1o#th China' Do"en ta#ght nushu only to their da#ghters and #sed it to rite "e"oirs$ create songs$ and share their tho#ghts ith each other' Dhile o"en also &ne and #sed the conventional Chinese dialect of their region$ they #sed nushu to "aintain fe"ale s#%%ort net or&s in their "ale do"inated society' Nushu is essentially gone no d#e to its s#%%ression d#ring the !E=0Fs and !EG0Fs )y the co""#nist govern"ent of China' ;he last s%ea&er and riter of nushu as a o"an na"ed ?ang .#anyi' 1he died in 200H' 4ot all societies have distinct dialects' ;hey are far "ore co""on in largeCscale diverse societies than in s"allCscale ho"ogeno#s ones' Over the last fe cent#ries$ deaf %eo%le have develo%ed sign lang#ages that are co"%lex vis#alCgest#ral for"s of co""#nicating ith each other' 1ince they are effective co""#nication syste"s ith standardiIed r#les$ they also "#st )e considered lang#ages in their o n right even tho#gh they are not s%o&en' 2

0 pidgin is a si"%lified$ "a&eshift lang#age that develo%s to f#lfill the co""#nication needs of %eo%le ho have no lang#age in co""on )#t ho need to occasionally interact for co""ercial and other reasons' Pidgins co")ine a li"ited a"o#nt of the voca)#lary and gra""ar of the different lang#ages' Peo%le ho #se %idgin lang#ages also s%ea& their o n native lang#age' Over the last several cent#ries$ doIens of %idgin lang#ages develo%ed as E#ro%eans ex%anded o#t into the rest of the orld for coloniIation and trade' ;he "ost ell &no n one is Pidgin English in 4e 3#inea' .o ever$ several for"s of Pidgin English and Pidgin 9rench also develo%ed in Dest 0frica and the Cari))ean' ;here have )een %idgins develo%ed )y nonCE#ro%ean c#lt#res as ell$ incl#ding the J#l#s in 1o#th 0frica$ the 5alays in 1o#theast 0sia$ the 0ra)s in 4orth 0frica$ and several 0"erican 2ndian societies' ;he "ost ell &no n %idgin develo%ed )y 0"erican 2ndians is Chinook$ hich as #sed on the 4orth est Coast of 4orth 0"erica' 0t ti"es$ a %idgin lang#age )eco"es the "other tong#e of a %o%#lation' Dhen that ha%%ens$ it is called a creole lang#age' 0s %idgins change into creoles over several generations$ their voca)#laries enlarge' 2n the s"all island nation of .aiti$ a 9renchC 0frican %idgin )eca"e the creole lang#age' 2t is still s%o&en there )y the "a<ority of the %o%#lation as their %rinci%le or only lang#age' ;he sa"e thing ha%%ened a"ong so"e of the %eo%les of Pa%#a 4e 3#inea$ the Pacific 2slands of @an#at#$ and 1ierra >eone in Dest 0frica$ here different versions of Pidgin English )eca"e creoles' 1i"ilarly$ on the o#ter )an&s of 3eorgia and 1o#th Carolina in the United 1tates$ isolated for"er 0frican slaves "ade another version of Pidgin English into a creole &no n as Gullah or Geechee' Creoles also develo%ed in >o#isiana$ Ba"aica$ and the 4etherlands 0ntilles' 2t is co""on for creole s%ea&ers to also s%ea& another :standard: lang#age as ell' 2n .aiti$ for instance$ the "ore ed#cated and affl#ent %eo%le also s%ea& 9rench a"ong the"selves' ;heir creole lang#age is #sed on the street in dealing ith %oor .aitians' ;he Gullah s%ea&ers of 3eorgia and 1o#th Carolina s%ea& English hen dealing ith o#tsiders' Dhich lang#age is s%o&en de%ends on the social sit#ation' ;his sa"e %heno"enon is often fo#nd in societies ith different dialects of the sa"e lang#age' Peo%le "ay 8#ic&ly s itch )ac& and forth )et een dialects$ de%ending on the %erson they are tal&ing to at the ti"e' ;his %attern is referred to as diglossia or :code s itching': ;he 0frican 0"erican sit#ational #se of standard and Alac& English is a %ri"e exa"%le' Alac& English is #s#ally reserved for tal&ing ith other 0frican 0"ericans' 4orth 0"erican re%orters and anno#ncers on national television %rogra"s are often diglossic' ;hey "#st learn to s%ea& ith a 5id estern$ E#ro%ean 0"erican dialect regardless of the region or social class they ca"e fro" originally' De )eco"e so acc#sto"ed to this that it is #s#ally a shoc&ing s#r%rise to hear the" s%ea& in their o n dialects' ;y%ically$ the dialects of a society are ran&ed relative to each other in ter"s of social stat#s' 2n the >ondon area of England$ the #%%er class s%ea& :%#)lic school: English$ hile the lo er class often #se a Coc&ney dialect' Aeca#se of the stig"a against the latter$ #% ardly "o)ile Coc&neys in the )#siness orld "ay ta&e lang#age lessons to ac8#ire the :%#)lic school: s%eech %atterns'