Principles of Electronic Communication Systems

Second Edition Louis Frenzel

2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies

Principles of Electronic Communication Systems Second Edition

Chapter 3 Amplitude Modulation Fundamentals

2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies

Topics Covered in Chapter 3

AM Concepts Modulation Index and Percentage of Modulation Sidebands and the Frequency Domain AM Power Single-Sideband Modulation Classification of Radio Emissions

AM Concepts
In the modulation process, the voice, video, or digital signal modifies another signal called the carrier.

In amplitude modulation (AM) the information signal varies the amplitude of the carrier sine wave. The instantaneous value of the carrier amplitude changes in accordance with the amplitude and frequency variations of the modulating signal. An imaginary line called the envelope connects the positive and negative peaks of the carrier waveform.

Modulating Signal and Modulated Carrier

By Definition

A carrier is a high frequency signal. It is usually a sine wave that can be modified by the intelligence signal through modulation. Distortion occurs when the amplitude of the modulating signal is greater than the amplitude of the carrier. A modulator is a circuit used to produce the mathematical multiplication of the carrier and modulating signals.

Amplitude Modulator

Modulation Index and Percentage of Modulation

The modulation index (m) is a value that describes the relationship between the amplitude of the modulating signal and the amplitude of the carrier signal. This index is also known as the modulating factor, or coefficient, or the degree of modulation. Multiplying the modulation index by 100 gives the percentage of modulation.

Overmodulation and Distortion

The modulation index should be a number between 0 and 1. If the amplitude of the modulating voltage is higher than the carrier voltage , m will be greater than 1, causing distortion. Distortion of voice transmissions produces garbled, harsh, or unnatural sounds to the speaker. Distortion of video signals produces a scrambled and inaccurate picture on a TV screen.

Distortion Caused by Overmodulation

Percentage of Modulation

Modulation index can be determined by measuring actual values of modulation voltage and carrier voltage and computing the ratio. It is more common to compute the modulation index from measurements taken on the composite modulated waveform. Using oscilloscope voltage values: Vm = Vmax Vmin/2

AM Wave Showing Peaks and Troughs

Sidebands and the Frequency Domain

Side frequencies, or sidebands generated in the modulation process, occur in the frequency spectrum directly above and below the carrier frequency.

Single-frequency sine-wave modulation generates two sidebands. Complex wave (e.g. voice or video) modulation generates a range of sidebands. The upper sideband (fUSB) is equal to the carrier frequency plus the modulating frequency. The lower sideband (fLSB) is equal to the carrier frequency minus the modulating frequency.

AM Wave: Algebraic Sum of Carrier, Upper and Lower Waves

Frequency-Domain Representation of AM

Observing an AM signal on an oscilloscope, you see only amplitude variations of the carrier with respect to time. In order to see a representation of the carrier and sideband amplitudes with respect to frequency, a spectrum analyzer is used. A plot of signal amplitude versus frequency is referred to as frequency-domain display. Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower sideband frequencies.

Bandwidth Calculation
Example: A standard AM broadcast station is allowed to transmit modulating frequencies up to 5 kHz. If the AM station is transmitting on a frequency of 980 kHz, what are sideband frequencies and total bandwidth? fUSB = 980 + 5 = 985 kHz fLSB = 980 5 = 975 kHz BW = fUSB fLSB = 985 975 = 10 kHz BW = 2 (5 kHz) = 10 kHz

Pulse Modulation
When complex signals such as pulses or rectangular waves modulate a carrier, a broad spectrum of sidebands is produced. A modulating square wave will produce sidebands based on the fundamental sine wave as well as the third, fifth, seventh, etc. harmonics. Amplitude modulation by square waves or rectangular pulses is referred to as amplitude shift keying (ASK). ASK is used in some types of data communications.

Frequency Spectrum: Square Wave Modulation

Amplitude Shift Keying

By Definition

Continuous-wave (CW) transmission can be achieved by turning the carrier off and on. Continuous wave (CW) transmission is sometimes referred to as On-Off keying (OOK). Splatter is a term used to describe harmonic sideband interference.

AM Power

The AM signal is amplified by a power amplifier. A radio antenna has a characteristic impedance that is ideally, but not typically pure resistance. The AM signal is a composite of the carrier and sideband signal voltages. Total transmitted power (PT) is the sum of carrier power (Pc ) and power of the two sidebands (PUSB and PLSB).

AM Power (continued)
When the percentage of modulation is less than the optimum 100, there is much less power in the sidebands. Output power can be calculated by using the formula PT = (IT)2R Where IT is measured RF current and R is antenna impedance Maximum power appears in the sidebands when the carrier is 100 percent modulated.

Single-Sideband Modulation

In amplitude modulation, two-thirds of the transmitted power is in the carrier, which conveys no information. Signal information is contained within the sidebands. Single-sideband (SSB) is a form of AM where the carrier is suppressed and one sideband is eliminated.

By Definition

A double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSSC) signal is generated by suppressing the carrier frequency. A balanced modulator is a circuit used to produce the sum and difference frequencies but to cancel or balance out the carrier. A single-sideband suppressed carrier (SSSC) signal is generated by suppressing the carrier and one sideband.

Frequency-Domain: Doublesideband (DSB)

Single-sideband (SSB) Benefits

Spectrum space is reduced and allows more signals to be transmitted in the same frequency range. All power is channeled into a single sideband. This produces a stronger signal that will carry farther and will be more reliably received at greater distances. Occupied bandwidth space is narrower and noise in the signal is reduced. There is less selective fading over long distances.

Sideband Considerations

Single and double-sideband is not widely used because the signal is difficult to recover (i.e. demodulate) at the receiver. Double-sideband is used to transmit color information in a TV signal. A low power, pilot carrier is sometimes transmitted along with sidebands in order to more easily recover the signal at the receiver. Peak envelope power (PEP) is the SSB transmitted maximum power produced on voice amplitude peaks. A vestigial sideband signal (VSB) is produced by partially suppressing the lower sideband.

Classification of Radio Emissions

A code is used to designate the types of signals that can be transmitted by radio and wire. The code is made up of a capital letter and a number, and lowercase subscript letters are used for more specific definition. Examples of codes DSB two sidebands, full carrier = A3 DSB two sidebands, suppressed carrier = A3b OOK and ASK = A1

Radio Emission Codes

International Telecommunications Union (ITU) Emission Codes

The International Telecommunications Union (ITU), a standards organization, uses a code to describe signals. Examples are:

A3F J3E F2D G7E

amplitude-modulated analog TV SSB voice FSK data phase-modulated voice, multiple signals

ITU Emission Code