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Chapter 1:
Chemistry: A Science for the 21st Century
Chemistry: A Science for the 21st Century
Materials and Technology Polymers, ceramics, liquid crystals Room-temperature superconductors? Molecular computing?
Health and Medicine Sanitation systems Surgery with anesthesia Vaccines and antibiotics Gene therapy Energy and the Environment Fossil fuels Solar energy Nuclear energy
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Food and Agriculture Genetically modified crops Natural pesticides Specialized fertilizers
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The Study of Chemistry the study of change
Macroscopic Microscopic
The scientific method is a systematic approach to research
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a set of observations
tested
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modified
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A law is a concise statement of a relationship between phenomena that is always the same under the same conditions.
Force = mass x acceleration
Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. A (pure) substance is a form of matter that has a definite composition and distinct properties.
A theory is a unifying principle that explains a body of facts and/or those laws that are based on them.
Atomic Theory
liquid nitrogen
gold ingots
silicon crystals
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A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain their distinct identities. 1. Homogenous mixture composition of the mixture is the same throughout. soft drink, milk, solder 2. Heterogeneous mixture composition is not uniform throughout.
Physical means can be used to separate a mixture into its pure components.
magnet
cement, iron filings in sand
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distillation
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An element is a substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means. 114 elements have been identified
82 elements occur naturally on Earth gold, aluminum, lead, oxygen, carbon, sulfur
32 elements have been created by scientists technetium, americium, seaborgium
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(these are worth memorizing)
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A compound is a substance composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions (formula). Compounds can only be separated into their pure components (elements) by chemical means.
Classifications of Matter
lithium fluoride
quartz
dry ice carbon dioxide
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A Comparison: The Three States of Matter
The Three States of Matter: Effect of a Hot Poker on a Block of Ice
gas
liquid
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solid
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Types of Changes
A physical change does not alter the composition or identity of a substance (no change in formula). sugar dissolving ice melting in water A chemical change alters the composition or identity of the substance(s) involved.
Extensive and Intensive Properties
An extensive property of a material depends upon how much matter is is being considered.
mass length volume
An intensive property of a material does not depend upon how much matter is is being considered.
density temperature color
hydrogen burns in air to form water (new formulas)
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Matter - anything that occupies space and has mass.
mass measure of the quantity of matter SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg) 1 kg = 1000 g = 1 x 103 g weight force that gravity exerts on an object weight = c x mass
on earth, c = 1.0 on moon, c ~ 0.1
International System of Units (SI)
A 1 kg bar will weigh
1 kg on earth 0.1 kg on moon
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Volume SI derived unit for volume is cubic meter (m3) 1 cm3 = (1 x 10-2 m)3 = 1 x 10-6 m3 1 dm3 = (1 x 10-1 m)3 = 1 x 10-3 m3 1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3 1 mL = 1 cm3
(memorize k, c, m)
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Density SI derived unit for density is kg/m3 1 g/cm3 = 1 g/mL = 1000 kg/m3 density = mass volume m d= V
A piece of platinum metal with a density of 21.5 g/cm3 has a volume of 4.49 cm3. What is its mass? m d= V m = d x V = 21.5 g/cm3 x 4.49 cm3 = 96.5 g
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A Comparison of Temperature Scales
Convert 172.9 0F to degrees Celsius. = 9 x 0C + 32 5 0F 32 = 9 x 0C 5
0F
K = 0C + 273.15
273 K = 0 0C 373 K = 100 0C
0F
= 9 x 0C + 32 5
32 0F = 0 0C 212 0F = 100 0C
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5 x (0F 32) = 0C 9 0C = 5 x (0F 32) 9 0C = 5 x (172.9 32) = 78.3 9
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Scientific Notation
The number of atoms in 12 g of carbon: 602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000 6.022 x 1023 The mass of a single carbon atom in grams: 0.0000000000000000000000199 1.99 x 10-23 N x 10n
N is a number between 1 and 10 (coefficient) n is a positive or negative integer
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Scientific Notation
568.762 move decimal left n>0 568.762 = 5.68762 x 102 0.00000772 move decimal right n<0 0.00000772 = 7.72 x 10-6
Addition or Subtraction
1. Write each quantity with the same exponent n 2. Combine N1 and N2 3. The exponent, n, remains the same 4.31 x 104 + 3.9 x 103 = 4.31 x 104 + 0.39 x 104 = 4.70 x 104
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Scientific Notation
Multiplication
1. Multiply N1 and N2 2. Add exponents n1 and n2 (4.0 x 10-5) x (7.0 x 103) = (4.0 x 7.0) x (10-5+3) = 28 x 10-2 = 2.8 x 10-1 0.28 8.5 x 104 5.0 x 109 = (8.5 5.0) x 104-9 = 1.7 x 10-5
Significant Figures (or sig figs, or sf)
Any digit that is not zero is significant
1.234 kg 606 m 4 significant figures 3 significant figures Zeros between nonzero digits are significant Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit (also called leading zeroes) are not significant 0.08 L 1 significant figure If a number is greater than 1, then all zeros to the right of the decimal point are significant (also called trailing zeroes to right of decimal point) 2.0 mg 2 significant figures If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the end and in the middle of the number are significant 0.00420 g 3 significant figures Trailing zeroes to left of decimal point are ambiguous and number should be rewritten in scientific notation
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Division
1. Divide N1 and N2 2. Subtract exponents n1 and n2
3800 mL
ambiguous, could be 2 or 3 or 4 significant figures
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How many significant figures are in each of the following measurements?
24 mL 3001 g 0.00320 m3 6.4 x 104 molecules 560 kg 2 significant figures 4 significant figures 3 significant figures 2 significant figures ambiguous
Significant Figures
Addition or Subtraction
The answer cannot have more digits to the right of the decimal point (decimal places, dp) than any of the original numbers. 89.332 +1.1 90.432 3.70 -2.9133 0.7867 one significant figure after decimal point, 1dp round off to 90.4, 1dp two sig figs after decimal point, 2dp round off to 0.79, 2dp
(Or, stop at the first point of uncertainty)
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Significant Figures
Multiplication or Division
The number of significant figures in the result is set by the original number that has the smallest number of significant figures 4.51 x 3.6666 = 16.536366 = 16.5
Significant Figures
Exact Numbers
Numbers from definitions or numbers of objects are considered to have an infinite number of significant figures
The average of three measured lengths; 2.64, 2.68 and 2.7? 3 sig figs round to 3 sig figs 2.64 + 2.68 + 2.7 = 8.0 3 3
= 2.6666666 = 2.7= 3
6.8 112.04 = 0.0606926 = 0.061 2 sig figs round to 2 sig figs
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8.0 because 1dp (addition rule), 2.7 because 8.0 is 2sf and because 3 is an exact number (multiply rule)
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Accuracy how close a measurement is to the true value Precision how close a set of measurements are to each other
Dimensional Analysis Method of Solving Problems
1. Determine which unit conversion factor(s) are needed 2. Carry units through calculation 3. If all units cancel except for the desired unit(s), then the problem was solved correctly. Invert conversion factors if necessary, since top equals bottom, so factor equals one. given quantity x conversion factor = desired quantity desired unit given unit
accurate & precise
precise but not accurate
not accurate & not precise
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given unit x
= desired unit
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Dimensional Analysis Method of Solving Problems How many mL are in 1.63 L?
The speed of sound in air is about 343 m/s. What is this speed in miles per hour? conversion units top: meters to miles bottom: seconds to hours (minutes in between) 1 min = 60 s 1 hour = 60 min
Conversion Unit 1 L = 1000 mL 1.63 L x 1000 mL = 1630 mL 1L 1.63 L x 1L L2 = 0.001630 1000 mL mL 1 mi = 1609 m
343
1 mi 60 s m x x s 1609 m 1 min
60 min mi = 767 hour 1 hour
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