Components of a Microprocessor

Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded RealTime Systems: Microcontrollers

Components of a Microprocessor
Memory:
Storage of data Storage of a program Either can be temporary or permanent storage

Registers: small, fast memories

General purpose: store arbitrary data Special purpose: used to control the processor
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Components of a Microprocessor
Instruction decoder:
Translates current program instruction into a set of control signals

Arithmetic logical unit:

Performs both arithmetic and logical operations on data: add, subtract, multiply, AND, OR

Input/output control modules

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Components of a Microprocessor
Many of these components must exchange data with one-another It is common to use a bus for this exchange

Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded RealTime Systems: Microcontrollers

Collections of Bits
8 bits: a byte 4 bits: a nybble words: can be 8, 16, or 32 bits (depending on the processor)

Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded RealTime Systems: Microcontrollers

Collections of Bits
A data bus typically captures a set of bits simultaneously Need one wire for each of these bits In the Atmel Mega2560: the data bus is 8bits wide In your home machines: 32 or 64 bits

Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded RealTime Systems: Microcontrollers

Memory
What are the essential components of a memory?

Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded RealTime Systems: Microcontrollers

A Memory Abstraction
We think of memory as an array of elements each with its own address Each element contains a value
It is most common for the values to be 8-bits wide (so a byte)

Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded RealTime Systems: Microcontrollers

A Memory Abstraction
We think of memory as an array of elements each with its own address Each element contains a value
It is most common for the values to by 8-bits wide (so a byte)
Stored value

Address

Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded RealTime Systems: Microcontrollers

Memory Operations
Read foo(A+5); reads the value from the memory location referenced by the variable A and adds the value to 5. The result is passed to a function called foo();

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Memory Operations
Write A = 5; writes the value 5 into the memory location referenced by A

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Types of Memory
Random Access Memory (RAM) Computer can change state of this memory at any time Once power is lost, we lose the contents of the memory This will be our data storage on our microcontrollers
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Types of Memory
Read Only Memory (ROM) Computer cannot arbitrarily change state of this memory When power is lost, the contents are maintained

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Types of Memory
Erasable/Programmable ROM (EPROM) State can be changed under very specific conditions (usually not when connected to a computer) Our microcontrollers have an Electrically Erasable/Programmable ROM (EEPROM) for program storage
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CPU Exercise

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 Note: The concepts in the next ~50 slides below are covered in our acting exercise

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Buses
In the simplest form, a bus is a single wire Many different components can be attached to the bus Any component can take input from the bus or place information on the bus

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Buses
At most one component may write to the bus at any one time In a microprocessor, which component is allowed to write is usually determined by the code that is currently executing

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Atmel Mega2560 Architecture

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Atmel Mega2560
8-bit data bus Primary mechanism for data exchange

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Atmel Mega2560
32 general purpose registers 8 bits wide 3 pairs of registers can be combined to give us 16 bit registers
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Atmel Mega2560
Special purpose registers Control of the internals of the processor

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Atmel Mega2560
Random Access Memory (RAM) 8 KByte in size

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Atmel Mega2560
Random Access Memory (RAM) 8 KByte in size Note: in high-end processors, RAM is a separate component
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Atmel Mega2560
Flash (EEPROM) Program storage 256 KByte in size

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Atmel Mega2560
Flash (EEPROM) In this and many microcontrollers, program and data storage is separate Not the case in our general purpose computers
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Atmel Mega2560
EEPROM Permanent data storage

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Atmel Mega2560
Arithmetic Logical Unit Data inputs from registers Control inputs not shown (derived from instruction decoder)
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One More Bus Note

Many devices on the bus. However, at a given time: There is exactly one device that is the writer There is exactly one that is the reader

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Machine-Level Programs
Machine-level programs are stored as sequences of atomic machine instructions Stored in program memory Execution is generally sequential (instructions are executed in order) But with occasional jumps to other locations in memory
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Types of Instructions
Memory operations: transfer data values between memory and the internal registers Mathematical operations: ADD, SUBTRACT, MULT, AND, etc. Tests: value == 0, value > 0, etc. Program flow: jump to a new location, jump conditionally (e.g., if the last test was true)
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Mega2560: Decoding Instructions

Program counter Address of currently executing instruction

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Mega2560: Decoding Instructions

Instruction register Stores the machine-level instruction currently being executed

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Atmel Mega2560
Instruction decoder Translates current instruction into control signals for the rest of the processor
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Atmel Instructions

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Some Mega2560 Memory Operations

LDS Rd, k Load SRAM memory location k into register Rd Rd <- (k)
We refer to this as Assembly Language

STS Rd, k Store value of Rd into SRAM location k (k) <- Rd

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Load SRAM Value to Register

LDS Rd, k

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Store Register Value to SRAM

STS Rd, k

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Some Mega2560 Arithmetic and Logical Instructions

ADD Rd, Rr Rd and Rr are registers Operation: Rd <- Rd + Rr ADC Rd, Rr Add with carry Rd <- Rd + Rr + C
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Add Two Register Values

ADD Rd, Rr Fetch register values

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Add Two Register Values

ADD Rd, Rr Fetch register values ALU performs ADD

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Add Two Register Values

ADD Rd, Rr Fetch register values ALU performs ADD Result is written back to register via the data bus
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Some Mega2560 Arithmetic and Logical Instructions

NEG Rd: take the twos complement of Rd AND Rd, Rr: bit-wise AND with a register ANDI Rd, K: bit-wise AND with a constant EOR Rd, Rr: bit-wise XOR INC Rd: increment Rd MUL Rd, Rr: multiply Rd and Rr (unsigned) MULS Rd, Rr: multiply (signed)
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Some Mega8 Test Instructions

CP Rd, Rr Compare Rd with Rr TST Rd Test for if register Rd is zero or a negative number

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Some Mega8 Test Instructions

Modify the status register

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Some Program Flow Instructions

RJMP k Change the program counter by k+1 PC <- PC + k + 1 BRGE k Branch if greater than or equal to If last compare was greater than or equal to, then PC <- PC + k + 1
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Connecting Assembly Language to C

Our C compiler is responsible for translating our code into Assembly Language Today, we rarely program in Assembly Language
Embedded systems are a common exception Also: it is useful in some cases to view the assembly code generated by the compiler
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An Example
A C code snippet: if(B < A) { D += A; }

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An Example
The Assembly : A C code snippet: LDS R1 (A) LDS R2 (B) if(B < A) { CP R2, R1 D += A; BRGE 3 } LDS R3 (D) ADD R3, R1 STS (D), R3 .. Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded RealTime Systems: Microcontrollers

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An Example
A C code snippet: if(B < A) { D += A; }
Load the contents of memory location A into register 1

The Assembly : LDS R1 (A) PC LDS R2 (B) CP R2, R1 BRGE 3 LDS R3 (D) ADD R3, R1 STS (D), R3 ..
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Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded RealTime Systems: Microcontrollers

An Example
A C code snippet: if(B < A) { D += A; }
Load the contents of memory location B into register 2

The Assembly : LDS R1 (A) LDS R2 (B) PC CP R2, R1 BRGE 3 LDS R3 (D) ADD R3, R1 STS (D), R3 ..
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Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded RealTime Systems: Microcontrollers

An Example
A C code snippet: if(B < A) { D += A; }
Compare the contents of register 2 with those of register 1

This results in a change to the Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded Realstatus register Time Systems: Microcontrollers

The Assembly : LDS R1 (A) LDS R2 (B) CP R2, R1 PC BRGE 3 LDS R3 (D) ADD R3, R1 STS (D), R3 ..
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An Example
A C code snippet: if(B < A) { D += A; }
Branch If Greater Than or Equal To: jump ahead 3 instructions if true

The Assembly : LDS R1 (A) LDS R2 (B) CP R2, R1 PC BRGE 3 LDS R3 (D) ADD R3, R1 STS (D), R3 ..
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Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded RealTime Systems: Microcontrollers

An Example
A C code snippet: if(B < A) { D += A; }
Branch if greater than or equal to will jump ahead 3 instructions if true

Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded RealTime Systems: Microcontrollers

The Assembly : LDS R1 (A) LDS R2 (B) CP R2, R1 BRGE 3 LDS R3 (D) if true ADD R3, R1 STS (D), R3 .. PC
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An Example
A C code snippet: if(B < A) { D += A; } The Assembly : LDS R1 (A) LDS R2 (B) CP R2, R1 BRGE 3 LDS R3 (D) PC ADD R3, R1 STS (D), R3 ..
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if not true

Not true: execute the next instruction

Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded RealTime Systems: Microcontrollers

An Example
A C code snippet: if(B < A) { D += A; }
Load the contents of memory location D into register 3

The Assembly : LDS R1 (A) LDS R2 (B) CP R2, R1 BRGE 3 LDS R3 (D) PC ADD R3, R1 STS (D), R3 ..
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Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded RealTime Systems: Microcontrollers

An Example
A C code snippet: if(B < A) { D += A; }
Add the values in registers 1 and 3 and store the result in register 3

The Assembly : LDS R1 (A) LDS R2 (B) CP R2, R1 BRGE 3 LDS R3 (D) ADD R3, R1 PC STS (D), R3 ..
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Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded RealTime Systems: Microcontrollers

An Example
A C code snippet: if(B < A) { D += A; }
Store the value in register 3 back to memory location D

The Assembly : LDS R1 (A) LDS R2 (B) CP R2, R1 BRGE 3 LDS R3 (D) ADD R3, R1 PC STS (D), R3 ..
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Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded RealTime Systems: Microcontrollers

 Eagle CAD training: one person per group by today

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The Important Stuff

Instructions are the atomic actions that are taken by the processor Many different component work together to execute a single instruction One line of C code typically translates into a sequence of several instructions In the mega 2560, most instructions are executed in a single clock cycle The high-level view is important here: you wont be compiling programs on exams
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Atmel Mega2560 Microcontroller

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Atmel Mega2560

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Atmel Mega2560
Pins are organized into 8-bit Ports: A, B, C L
But no I

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Digital Input/Output
Each port has three special-purpose registers that control its behavior. For port B, they are:
DDRB: data direction register B PORTB: port output register B PINB: port input B

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Data Direction Register: DDRx

8-bit wide register
Controls one pin with each bit

0 -> this is an input pin 1 -> this is an output pin

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Port Output Register: PORTx

Also one pin per bit If configured as an output:
0 -> the pin is held at 0 V 1 -> the pin is held at +5 V

Note: only configure pins as an output if you really mean it!

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Port INput register: PINx

One pin per bit Reading from the register:
0 -> the voltage of the pin is near 0 V 1 -> the voltage of the pin is near +5 V

If nothing is connected to the pin, then the pin will appear to be in a random state

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A First Program
Flash the LEDs at a regular interval How do we do this?

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A First Program
How do we flash the LED at a regular interval? We toggle the state of PC0

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A First Program
main() { DDRC = 0x3; while(1) { PORTC = PORTC | 0x1; // sets PC0 to 1 delay_ms(100); PORTC = PORTC & ~0x1; // set PC0 to 0 delay_ms(100); } }

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A First Program
main() { DDRC = 0x3; while(1) { PORTC = PORTC ^ 0x1; delay_ms(100); } }

// flip PC0 to 1

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A First Program
main() { DDRC = 1; // Set port C pin 0 as an output while(1) { PORTC = PORTC ^ 0x1; delay_ms(500); } }

// XOR bit 0 with 1 // Pause for 500 msec

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A Second Program
main() { DDRC = 3; // Set port C pins 0, and 1 as outputs while(1) { PORTC = PORTC ^ 0x1; delay_ms(500); PORTC = PORTC ^ 0x2; delay_ms(250); PORTC = PORTC ^ 0x2; delay_ms(250); } }

// XOR bit 0 with 1 // Pause for 500 msec // XOR bit 1 with 1 // XOR bit 1 with 1

What does this program do?

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A Second Program
main() { DDRC = 3; // Set port C pins 0, and 1 as outputs while(1) { PORTC = PORTC ^ 0x1; delay_ms(500); PORTC = PORTC ^ 0x2; delay_ms(250); PORTC = PORTC ^ 0x2; delay_ms(250); } }

// XOR bit 0 with 1 // Pause for 500 msec // XOR bit 1 with 1 // XOR bit 1 with 1

Flashes LED on PC1 at 1 Hz on PC0: 0.5 Hz

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Port-Related Registers
Some of the C-accessible registers for controlling digital I/O: Directional control DDRB DDRC DDRD Writing PORTB PORTC PORTD Reading PINB PINC PIND
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Port B Port C Port D

Andrew H. Fagg: Embedded RealTime Systems: Microcontrollers

More Bit Masking

Suppose we have a 3-bit number (so values 0 7) Suppose we want to set the state of B3, B4, and B5 with this number (B3 is the least significant bit) And: we want to leave the other bits undisturbed How do we express this in code?
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Bit Masking
main() { DDRB = 0x38; : : uint8_t val; val = command_to_robot; PORTB = ???? } // // A value between 0 and 7 // Set pins B3, B4, B5 as outputs

Fill this in

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Bit Masking
main() { DDRB = 0x38; : : uint8_t val; val = command_to_robot; PORTB = (PORTB & ~0x38) | ((val & 0x7)<<3); } // A value between 0 and 7 // Set the current B3-B5 to 0s // OR with new values (shifted // to fit within B3-B5 // Set pins B3, B4, B5 as outputs

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Reading the Digital State of Pins

Given: we want to read the state of PB6 and PB7 and obtain a value of 0 3 How do we configure the port? How do we read the pins? How do we translate their values into an integer of 0 .. 3?

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Reading the Digital State of Pins

main() { DDRB = 0x38; // Set pins B3, B4, B5 as outputs // All others are inputs (suppose we care // about bits B6 and B7 only (so a 2-bit // number)

: : unsigned short val, outval; val = ???? // A short is 8-bits wide

// Read the input value of B // Translate to a value of 0 3

outval = ??? }

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Reading the Digital State of Pins

main() { DDRB = 0x38; // Set pins B3, B4, B5 as outputs // All others are inputs (suppose we care // about bits B6 and B7 only (so a 2-bit // number)

: : unsigned short val, outval; val = PINB; outval = (val & 0xC0) >> 6; } // A short is 8-bits wide

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Putting It All Together

Program development:
On your own laptop We will use a C crosscompiler (avr-gcc and other tools) to generate code on your laptop for the mega8 processor

Program download:
We will use in circuit programming: you will be able to program the chip without removing it from your circuit
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Compiling and Downloading Code

Preparing to program: See the Atmel HOWTO (pointer from the schedule page) Windoze: Install AVR Studio and WinAVR OS X: Install OSX-AVR
We will use make for compiling and downloading

Linux: Install binutils, avr-gcc, avr-libc, and avrdude

Same as OS X
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