LECTURE PRESENTATIONS For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION

Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson

Chapter 24

The Origin of Species

Lectures by Erin Barley Kathleen Fitzpatrick

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Overview: That Mystery of Mysteries

In the Galpagos Islands Darwin discovered plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth Darwin referred to the origin of species as that mystery of mysteries (1), and despite decades of study, evolutionary biologists still cannot agree on the underlying processes that have produced the great diversity of life around us

Video: Galpagos Tortoise

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Figure 24.1

 Speciation, the origin of new species, is at the focal point of evolutionary theory (2) Evolutionary theory must explain how new species originate and how populations evolve Microevolution consists of changes in allele frequency in a population over time Macroevolution refers to broad patterns of evolutionary change above the species level (3)

Animation: Macroevolution
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Concept 24.1: The biological species concept emphasizes reproductive isolation

Species is a Latin word meaning kind or appearance
The biological species concept states that a species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring; they do not breed successfully with other populations (4)

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Limitations of the Biological Species Concept

The biological species concept cannot be applied to fossils or asexual organisms (including all prokaryotes) The biological species concept emphasizes absence of gene flow However, gene flow can occur between distinct species
For example, grizzly bears and polar bears can mate to produce grolar bears

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Figure 24.4

Grizzly bear (U. arctos) Polar bear (U. maritimus)

Hybrid grolar bear

Reproductive Isolation
Reproductive isolation is the existence of biological factors (barriers) that impede two species from producing viable, fertile offspring Hybrids are the offspring of crosses between different species Reproductive isolation can be classified by whether factors act before or after fertilization (5-6)

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Figure 24.3_a

(9)
Prezygotic barriers
Habitat Isolation
Individuals of different species

Postzygotic barriers
Mechanical Isolation Gametic Isolation Reduced Hybrid Viability Reduced Hybrid Fertility Hybrid Breakdown

Temporal Isolation

Behavioral Isolation

MATING ATTEMPT

FERTILIZATION

VIABLE, FERTILE OFFSPRING

(a)

(c)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(l)

(d) (b)

(j)

(k)

 Prezygotic barriers block fertilization from occurring by:

Impeding different species from attempting to mate Preventing the successful completion of mating Hindering fertilization if mating is successful

Postzygotic barriers prevent the hybrid zygote from developing into a viable, fertile adult:
Reduced hybrid viability Reduced hybrid fertility Hybrid breakdown (7)

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 Habitat isolation: Two species encounter each other rarely, or not at all, because they occupy different habitats, even though not isolated by physical barriers Temporal isolation: Species that breed at different times of the day, different seasons, or different years cannot mix their gametes Behavioral isolation: Courtship rituals and other behaviors unique to a species are effective barriers Gametic Isolation: Sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize eggs of another species Mechanical isolation: Morphological differences can prevent successful mating (8 partial)
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Video: Albatross Courtship Ritual Video: Giraffe Courtship Ritual

Video: Blue-footed Boobies Courtship Ritual

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 Reduced hybrid viability: Genes of the different parent species may interact and impair the hybrids development Reduced hybrid fertility: Even if hybrids are vigorous, they may be sterile Hybrid breakdown: Some first-generation hybrids are fertile, but when they mate with another species or with either parent species, offspring of the next generation are feeble or sterile (8 rest)

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Concept 24.2: Speciation can take place with or without geographic separation
Speciation can occur in two ways:
Allopatric speciation Sympatric speciation

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Figure 24.5

(10)

(a) Allopatric speciation. A population forms a new species while geographically isolated from its parent population.

(b) Sympatric speciation. A subset of a population forms a new species without geographic separation.

The Process of Allopatric Speciation

The definition of barrier depends on the ability of a population to disperse (11)
For example, a canyon may create a barrier for small rodents, but not birds, coyotes, or pollen

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 Separate populations may evolve independently through mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift Reproductive isolation may arise as a result of genetic divergence
For example, mosquitofish in the Bahamas comprise several isolated populations in different ponds

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Sympatric (Same Country) Speciation

In sympatric speciation, speciation takes place in geographically overlapping populations This can occur through polyploidy, habitat differentiation, and sexual selection. (12)

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Polyploidy
Polyploidy is the presence of extra sets of chromosomes due to accidents during cell division Polyploidy is much more common in plants than in animals An autopolyploid is an individual with more than two chromosome sets, derived from one species

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Figure 24.UN01

Cell division error

2n = 6

Tetraploid cell 4n = 12

(13)

2n

2n Gametes produced by tetraploids

New species (4n)

Figure 24.11-4

Species A 2n = 6

Species B 2n = 4
Meiotic error; chromosome number not reduced from 2n to n Unreduced gamete with 4 chromosomes

(14)
Normal gamete n=3

Hybrid with 7 chromosomes

Normal gamete n=3

Unreduced gamete with 7 chromosomes

Allopolyploids have more than 2 haploid sets of chromosomes derived from 2 different species.

New species: viable fertile hybrid (allopolyploid) 2n = 10

Sexual Selection
Sexual selection can drive sympatric speciation Sexual selection for mates of different colors has likely contributed to speciation in cichlid fish in Lake Victoria (15)

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Allopatric and Sympatric Speciation: A Review

In allopatric speciation, geographic isolation restricts gene flow between populations Reproductive isolation may then arise by natural selection, genetic drift, or sexual selection in the isolated populations Even if contact is restored between populations, interbreeding is prevented

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 In sympatric speciation, a reproductive barrier isolates a subset of a population without geographic separation from the parent species Sympatric speciation can result from polyploidy, natural selection, or sexual selection

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Concept 24.3: Hybrid zones reveal factors that cause reproductive isolation
A hybrid zone is a region in which members of different species mate and produce hybrids Hybrids are the result of mating between species with incomplete reproductive barriers (16)

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 Many questions remain concerning how long it takes for new species to form, or how many genes need to differ between species The fossil record includes examples of species that appear suddenly, persist essentially unchanged for some time, and then apparently disappear (17) Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould coined the term punctuated equilibria to describe periods of apparent stasis punctuated by sudden change The punctuated equilibrium model contrasts with a model of gradual change in a species existence
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Figure 24.17

(18)
(a) Punctuated pattern

Time

(b) Gradual pattern