CIRCUIT THEORY

Jerzy RUTKOWSKI
Institute of Electronics Gliwice
Silesian University of Technology 16.06.2006
2
LIST OF CONTENT
PREFACE ..................................................................................6
1. INTRODUCTION TO CIRCUIT THEORY ..............................8
1.1 CIRCUIT VARIABLES - BASIC TERMS and DEFINITIONS................................... 8
1.2 CLASSIFICATION of CIRCUIT THEORY PROBLEMS......................................... 13
2. DC ANALYSIS.....................................................................15
2.1 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS ................................................................................................... 15
CLASSIFICATION ............................................................................................................. 15
PASSIVE TWO-TERMINAL ELEMENTS........................................................................ 17
Resistor............................................................................................................................. 17
Voltmeter.......................................................................................................................... 18
Ammeter........................................................................................................................... 19
ACTIVE TWO-TERMINAL ELEMENTS ......................................................................... 19
Voltage source.................................................................................................................. 19
Current source .................................................................................................................. 20
2.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM and KIRCHHOFFs LAWS..................................................... 23
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM.......................................................................................................... 23
KIRCHHOFFS LAWS ....................................................................................................... 25
2.3 ANALYSIS of COMPLEX CIRCUITS ......................................................................... 30
GENERALIZED KIRCHHOFFS ANALYSIS.................................................................. 30
NODE VOLTAGE (NODAL) ANALYSIS ........................................................................ 32
2.4 ENERGY/POWER CONSERVATION PRINCIPLE.................................................. 38
2.5 TWO-TERMINAL SUBCIRCUIT, THEVENINs/NORTONs THEOREM........... 40
PASSIVE TWO-TERMINAL SUBCIRCUIT..................................................................... 40
Series connection of resistors, Voltage divider ................................................................ 40
Parallel connection of resistors, Current divider .............................................................. 41
ACTIVE TWO-TERMINAL SUBCIRCUIT ...................................................................... 43
Thevenins theorem.......................................................................................................... 44
Nortons theorem.............................................................................................................. 44
Practical sources............................................................................................................... 47
2.6 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM.......................................................... 53
2.7 TRANSFER FUNCTION, SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE ...................................... 57
TRANSFER FUNCTION.................................................................................................... 57
One-dimensional case ...................................................................................................... 57
Multi-dimensional case .................................................................................................... 58
Multi-dimensional case .................................................................................................... 58
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE.......................................................................................... 58
3
2.8 SEPARATION PRINCIPLE (SOURCE SUBSTITUTION THEOREM) ................. 64
2.9 MULTI-TERMINAL ELEMENTS................................................................................ 67
ELEMENT DESCRIPTION CONDUCTANCE MATRIX............................................. 67
Passive multi-terminal element ........................................................................................ 67
Two-terminal element (one-port)............................................................................................................ 68
Three-terminal element........................................................................................................................... 68
Two-port ................................................................................................................................................. 70
Active multi-terminal element ......................................................................................... 71
OTHER MATRICES OF MULTI-TERMINAL ELEMENT.............................................. 72
ANALYSIS OF CIRCUITS WITH MULTI-TERMINAL ELEMENT(S) ......................... 74
2.10 DEPENDENT (CONTROLLED) ELEMENTS.......................................................... 78
Arbitrary dependent element - description....................................................................... 78
Controlled sources - description....................................................................................... 78
Use of controlled sources to element modeling ............................................................... 79
Transistor ................................................................................................................................................ 79
Operational amplifier.............................................................................................................................. 80
Arbitrary three-terminal or two-port element ......................................................................................... 81
Analysis of circuits containing controlled sources........................................................... 81
2.11 DESIGN TOLERANCES, SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS............................................. 85
Designation of the maximum design deviation of circuit variable .................................. 87
Worst case analysis................................................................................................................................. 87
Sensitivity analysis ................................................................................................................................. 88
Designation of parameter design tolerances..................................................................... 90
2.12 ANALYSIS OF NONLINEAR CIRCUITS................................................................. 93
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS .................................................................................................. 94
Series connection of elements................................................................................................................. 94
Parallel connection of elements .............................................................................................................. 95
Single-loop circuit .................................................................................................................................. 96
Circuit with one nonlinear element ......................................................................................................... 96
ANALYSIS BASED ON PWL APPROXIMATION.......................................................... 98
ANALYSIS BASED ON NEWTON-RAPHSON ITERATION SCHEME ..................... 100
2.13 NETWORK ANALOGIES MAGNETIC CIRCUITS........................................... 106
3. TRANSIENT ANALYSIS....................................................111
3.1 KIRCHHOFFS LAWS and PASSIVE ELEMENT LAWS...................................... 111
KIRCHHOFFS LAWS ..................................................................................................... 111
PASSIVE ELEMENT LAWS............................................................................................ 112
Resistor........................................................................................................................... 112
Capacitor ........................................................................................................................ 114
Coil (Inductor)................................................................................................................ 117
Passive elements Summary ......................................................................................... 120
3.2 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS in CIRCUITS with STEP EXCITATION...................... 125
FORCED RESPONSE....................................................................................................... 126
1
st
order circuit time-domain method.......................................................................... 126
1
st
order circuit s-domain method................................................................................ 129
1
st
order circuit boundary values based method.......................................................... 132
4
2
nd
order circuit s-domain method............................................................................... 136
NATURAL RESPONSE.................................................................................................... 142
COMPLETE RESPONSE: NATURAL RESPONSE + FORCED RESPONSE............... 147
3.3 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS in CIRCUITS with ARBITRARY EXCITATION........ 156
TRANSFER FUNCTION PROPERTIES and SELECTED EXAMPLES..................... 156
Properties........................................................................................................................ 157
Transfer functions of selected circuits............................................................................ 158
Integrator .............................................................................................................................................. 158
Differentiator ........................................................................................................................................ 160
TRANSFER FUNCTION BASED TRANSIENT ANALYSIS - EXAMPLES................ 161
Practical step......................................................................................................................................... 163
Practical pulse....................................................................................................................................... 163
4. AC STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS.......................................170
4.1 ALTERNATING CURRENT RMS VALUE, PHASOR NOTATION.................. 170
4.2 PHASOR ANALYSIS.................................................................................................... 173
KIRCHHOFFS LAWS ..................................................................................................... 173
ELEMENT LAWS............................................................................................................. 173
Resistor........................................................................................................................... 173
Inductor .......................................................................................................................... 174
Capacitor ........................................................................................................................ 175
GENERAL TWO-TERMINAL PHASOR CIRCUIT, PHASOR IMPEDANCE ............. 175
ALGORITHM OF AC STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS.................................................... 180
4.3 AC STEADY-STATE POWER.................................................................................... 185
MEASURES OF POWER ................................................................................................. 185
Instantaneous power ....................................................................................................... 185
Average or real power .................................................................................................... 185
Apparent power .............................................................................................................. 187
Reactive power ............................................................................................................... 188
Complex power .............................................................................................................. 189
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER................................................................................... 189
4.4 FREQUENCY CHARACTERISTICS OF TWO-TERMINAL SUBCIRCUIT...... 192
IDEAL ELEMENTS SUMMARY................................................................................. 192
Resistor........................................................................................................................... 192
Inductor .......................................................................................................................... 193
Capacitor ........................................................................................................................ 195
PRACTICAL COIL and PRACTICAL CAPACITOR...................................................... 197
RESONANT CIRCUITS ................................................................................................... 200
Series-resonant circuit RLC............................................................................................ 201
Parallel-resonant circuit RLC......................................................................................... 206
Complex-resonant circuit ............................................................................................... 208
4.5 TRANSFER FUNCTION IN FREQUENCY DOMAIN-FREQUENCY RESPONSE
................................................................................................................................................ 212
BODE (LOGARITHMIC) PLOT ...................................................................................... 214
FILTERS............................................................................................................................ 217
5
Low-Pass Filter - LPF .................................................................................................... 218
High-Pass Filter - HPF................................................................................................... 218
Band-Pass Filter - BPF................................................................................................... 219
Band-Stop Filter - BSF................................................................................................... 220
4.6 ANALYSIS OF CIRCUIT RESPONSE WHEN ONE CIRCUIT CONSTANT
VARIES................................................................................................................................. 223
4.7 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE AND TRANSFORMERS................................................ 226
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE BASIC TRANSFORMER ................................................. 226
IDEAL TRANSFORMER ................................................................................................. 231
PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER MODELED with IDEAL TRANSFORMER............... 234
4.8 THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS......................................................................................... 237
WYE-WYE SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................... 238
DELTA-DELTA and WYE-DELTA SYSTEMS.............................................................. 243
COMBINATIONAL SYSTEMS....................................................................................... 244
POWER IN THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS.......................................................................... 244
5 TRANSMISSION LINE........................................................247
5.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 247
5.2 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS ............................................................................................. 249
5.3 AC ANALYSIS STANDING WAVES...................................................................... 264
MATCHED LOAD LINE.................................................................................................. 265
ARBITRARY TERMINATION........................................................................................ 266
Open-circuited line......................................................................................................... 268
Short-circuited line......................................................................................................... 269
TRANSMISSION LINE as CIRCUIT ELEMENT, INPUT IMPEDANCE..................... 269
APPENDIX A - LAPLACE TRANSFORM.............................275
DEFINITION..................................................................................................................... 275
PROPERTIES .................................................................................................................... 275
INVERSE TRANSFORMATION - HEAVISIDES FORMULA.................................... 276
LAPLACE TRANSFORM DICTIONARY....................................................................... 277
APPENDIX B COMPLEX NUMBERS.................................283
APPENDIX C TERMS AND CONCEPTS...........................288
REFERENCES.......................................................................306
INDEX.....................................................................................307
6
PREFACE
The aim of this book is to provide introductory, yet comprehensive, treatment of circuit
analysis and design, to lay down some important and necessary foundations for subsequent
use in later engineering courses, such as Signal Theory, Electronics Fundamentals and others.
Since this book is designated primarily for the first or the second year introductory
courses, the presentation is geared to students who are being exposed to the basic concepts of
electric circuits for the first time. However, it is assumed that students have possessed some
elementary knowledge of physics and have some understanding of freshman calculus, such as
differential-integral calculus and vector-matrix formulation and solution of linear systems of
equations. Other more complex mathematical topics, necessary to describe the considered
circuit theory problems, such as i) Laplace transform and singularity functions, ii) algebraic
manipulation of complex numbers, iii) solution of nonlinear systems of equations, are raised
in a limited and self-contained manner, and are not required as prerequisite background. The
first two are the subjects of appendices, the third is developed in the chapter in which it is
needed. The book does not contain proofs of theorems, as they can be found in commonly
available books dealing with the same subject. Resistance from expanding the length of the
book to the extremes sometimes found in current practice was Authors motivation. On the
other hand all the theorems and definitions are illustrated by many practical examples. It
should be emphasized, that while presenting basic components of electric circuits and
introducing different techniques of circuit analysis, particular attention is given to the
practical aspects and the physical interpretation of results.
The main aim of the book is to provide students with essential tools of analysis of circuits
together with many important concepts underlying the theory of electronic circuits. Care has
been taken to fashion the selection and order of content to be of use to the electrical
engineering baccalaureate students, but also to students of other engineering disciplines, as
the analysis and design of electric circuits is a critical skill for all engineers. Nowadays,
English is the binding language in engineering world and the book provides complete
vocabulary of terms and concepts used in the Circuit Theory. They are collected in the
Appendix C glossary, together with Polish equivalents. This makes the book a very useful
educational aid, addressed not only to English speaking students, but also to Polish speaking
students having some minor fluency in written English indispensable for todays engineers.
The book consists of five basic parts chapters and three appendices. The general order of
the content has been selected so that students may learn as many of the techniques of circuit
analysis and design as possible in the simplest context. These logically divide into i) real
numbers domain - dc analysis), ii) time-domain and Laplace transform domain - transient
analysis), iii) phasor or frequency domain - ac analysis. These analyses are discussed first for
circuits with lumped constants, next the transmission line transient and ac analyses are
considered.
In the brief introductory Chapter 1, the electric variables used to describe circuit elements
are revised and problems of circuit analysis and design are classified.
The second Chapter is intended to provide a thorough treatment of circuit analysis based
on direct current (dc) circuits. First, linear circuits are discussed. Then, nonlinear resistive
circuits and their network analogy (magnetic circuits) are studied. Many important definitions
and fundamental principles are given. Various computational techniques are presented with
7
numerous practical examples, such that the student is expected to be conversant with the
principles of circuits before entering the next Chapter 3.
The third Chapter and the fourth Chapter are intended to provide a thorough treatment of
transient analysis and alternate current (ac) analysis, respectively. Some of the concepts
taught in Chapter 1 are revised and extended to more useful and general practical application
in time domain and in frequency domain.
The fifth Chapter is intended to provide a thorough treatment of circuits with distributed
in place (not lumped) constants. Transmission line is discussed, first its transient response to
aperiodic input, then, steady-state sinusoidal response.
It is recommended to organize the material here into a two-semester introductory course,
with 30 hours in Semester 1 and 30-45 hours in Semester 2, and to proceed chapter by
chapter. Appendix A on Laplace transform and singularity functions should be reviewed
before studying Chapter 3, Appendix B on complex numbers should be reviewed before
studying Chapter 4, which relies heavily on complex and phasor algebra.
The major results of the theory may appear quite subtle or even abstract, and to make
them easy to comprehend numerous practical problems have been provided. The problems are
organized into: i) examples and ii) drill problems. Each section of each chapter has numerous
step-by-step solved examples and ends with drill problems which are designed to range over
all topics of the section and they are generally simple. They can be well used as the formative
assessment test or final examination test problems. In all there are more than 50 exercises and
more than 300 drill problems.
8
1. INTRODUCTION to CIRCUIT THEORY
1.1 CIRCUIT VARIABLES - BASIC TERMS and DEFINITIONS
Our physical world may be interpreted in terms of matter and energy, both of which exist in a
variety of forms.
Matter has been defined as anything that occupies space and possesses mass.
Energy is the ability to do work.
In the 18
th
Century, Benjamin Franklin introduced the term charge and Charles Coulomb his
law and terms: electricity, electric or electrostatic field.
Charge is the fundamental unit of matter responsible for electric phenomena.
There are two kinds of charge, positive and negative, Q denotes a positive and fixed charge,
while q or ) (t q denotes a positive and time-varying charge.
Capital letters are used to denote constant (in time) variables, while small letters are used to
denote time-varying variables.
Coulomb [C] is the unit of charge, the accumulated charge on
18
10 24145 . 6 electrons equals
1 [C].
Electricity are physical phenomena arising from the existence of interaction of charges.
Electric field is a region in space wherein a charge, a test charge Q, experiences an electric
force
e
F [N].
Electric field between two fixed unlike charges is presented in Fig. 1.1.1. Path along which a
test charge Q moves when attracted by one charge and repelled by the other is called the
electric line of force. Since a basic phenomenon of charge is that like charges repel and
unlike charges attract, then, the direction of lines of force is always from the positive charge
to the negative charge.
Electric field is uniquely defined in its every point by electric field intensity.
9
Electric field intensity is defined as the electric force per unit charge at a particular point of
space.
Q F K
e
/ = (1.1.1)
Its unit is [N/C]=[V/m].
Fig. 1.1.1 Electric field between two unlike charges with three electric lines of force denoted
Next, work required to move a test charge Q from point A to point B, as shown in Fig. 1.1.2,
will be considered.
Fig. 1.1.2 Two paths between points A and B located in an electric field
} }
= =
B
A
B
A
AB
dl K Q dl F W
e
(1.1.2)
Joule [J] is the unit of this work. The work performed along a closed path (loop) ACBDA is
equal zero.
0
ACBDA
= W (1.1.3)
Then, work performed along the path ACB is equal to the work performed along the path
ADB. In other words, only location of terminal points designates the work performed, not the
path shape.
A work required to move a unit charge Q in an electric field is defined as a voltage.
}
= =
B
A
AB AB
/ dl K Q W U (1.1.4)
+
Q
e
F
C
A B
D
10
In the MKS system of units, a voltage of 1[J/C] is defined to be a volt [V].
If, in an electric field, the reference point P is chosen, then, voltage between this point (node)
and the other one A is called a potential or node voltage and will be denoted as
}
= =
P
A
AP A
dl K U V (1.1.5)
Consider a work performed along a closed path PABP, as shown in Fig. 1.1.3.
Fig. 1.1.3 Closed path crossing points A, B and P located in an electric field
As
0
AP BP AB PABP
= + = W W W W
then,
BP AP AB
W W W =
and finally:
B A AB
V V U = (1.1.6)
Thus, a voltage between (across) A and B, or in other words a voltage drop from A to B is
also called a potential difference.
To define a flow of electric charge across any area, such as a cross-section of a wire, term of
electric current, or simply current is introduced.
A net flow of a charge past a given point, per unit time is defined as electric current. In the
MKS system, the unit of current is an ampere [A]=[C/s].
There are two important current types:
- direct current (dc),
- alternating current (ac).
If a force that moves a charge along a wire is constant, then, the rate of charge transferred is
constant and the direct current (dc) can be defined:
t Q I A A = / (1.1.7a)
A B
P
11
If a rate of flow of charge is varying in time, then, the instantaneous current can be defined:
dt dq i t i / ) ( = = (1.1.7b)
Periodic current is the special case. In this case, the instantaneous value of a waveform
changes periodically, through negative and positive values. Sinusoidal current, so called
alternating current (ac) is the most important case.
Finally, electric power and electric energy delivered to/supplied by a single element or
whole (sub)circuit will be discussed.
Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy:
dt dw p / = , (1.1.8)
dw is the unit energy in joules and dt is the unit time in seconds. Then, p is the instantaneous
power measured in watts [W]=[J/s]. A power associated with a current flow through an
element/subcircuit is:
ui
dt
dq
dq
dw
p = = (1.1.9a)
As can be seen, the instantaneous power absorbed/supplied by element/subcircuit is simply a
product of a voltage across this element/subcircuit and a current flowing through the
element/subcircuit.
For the dc case:
I U P = (1.1.9b)
From (1.1.8), the unit energy:
dt p dw = (1.1.10)
Then, the total energy absorbed/supplied within a time interval from 0
0
= t to arbitrary time
instant t is:
}
=
t
dt p w
0
(1.1.11a)
For the particular T t = , the total energy absorbed/supplied is:
}
=
T
T
dt p W
0
(1.1.11b)
Electric energy absorbed by an element/subcircuit is dissipated as a heat. Such thermal
energy
th
w , in calories [cal], can be converted from electric energy:
w w 239 . 0
th
= (1.1.12)
12
Drill problems 1.1
1. A constant current of 2 A flows through an element. The energy to move the current for 1
second is 10 joules. Find the voltage across the element.
2. Find the energy required to move 2 coulombs of charge through 4 volts.
3. A constant current of I=10 A is delivered to an element for 5 seconds. Find the energy
required to maintain a voltage of 10 V.
4. Voltage of energy absorbing element is constant, V 10 = = U u and its current rises
linearly from 0 to 2 mA within period of 2 s, and then, remains constant. Find the
absorbed energy during the period of 5 s.
5. When fully charged, a car 12 V battery stored charge is 56 Ah. How many times car can
be started if each attempt lasts 10 s and draws 30 A of current from the battery ?
6. The power absorbed by a circuit element is shown. At what time is the net energy
absorbed a maximum, at what time is the net energy supplied a maximum, at what time
the net energy is zero ? Is the total net energy (for the whole period of time) absorbed or
supplied?
Fig. P.1.1.6

7. An element absorbs energy as shown. If the current entering its terminal is t i 10 = mA,
find the element voltage at 1 = t ms and 5 = t ms.
Fig. P.1.1.7
8. A small 1.5-volt alkaline (AA) battery has a nominal life of 150 joules. For how many
minutes will it power a calculator that draws a 2 mA current ?
9. A CD player uses four AA batteries in series to provide 6 V to the player circuit. Each
battery stores 50 watt-seconds of energy. If the player is drawing a constant 10 mA from
the battery pack, how long will the player operate at nominal power ?
10. A circuit element with a constant voltage of 4 V across it dissipates 80 J of energy in 2
minutes. What is the current through the element ?
p [W]
1
2 3 4 5
1 t [s]
1
w [mJ]
15

10
2 6 t [ms]
13
1.2 CLASSIFICATION of CIRCUIT THEORY PROBLEMS
In general, all Circuit Theory problems fall into two categories:
- analog circuit synthesis,
- analog circuit analysis.
Problems related with analog circuit analysis will be discussed. To start a circuit analysis
(simulation), its model should be designated by a design engineer. Problem of circuit
modeling, very important from a practical point of view, will be not discussed. A circuit
model is built of ideal elements, or simply elements, such as resistors, capacitors, coils, etc. -
practical elements are modeled by means of ideal elements. Before proceeding to circuit
analysis problems, the following basic terms have be introduced:
Circuit parameter or circuit constant, denoted by P: a constant describing an element, such
as resistance R, capacitance C, inductance L, etc.
Circuit input signal or circuit excitation, denoted by X: a source of signal, voltage or current
source.
Circuit output signal or circuit response Y: a circuit variable, such as voltage, current, gain,
etc.
Problem of circuit analysis can be expressed by means of block diagram, as presented in Fig.
1.2.1, for one-dimensional (Single Input Single Output SISO) case.
Fig. 1.2.1 Block diagram of SISO circuit
For multi-dimensional (Multiple Input Multiple Output MIMO) case, X and Y are vectors.
According to a character of elements, circuits can be classified into:
linear circuits,
nonlinear circuits,
or
circuits with lumped constants,
circuits with distributed constants.
The meaning of the above terms will be explained in next chapters.
X Y ANALOG
CIRCUIT
14
Then, two different problems of circuit analysis can be formulated:
PROBLEM 1. (Classical analysis)
Given: all circuit constants L i P
i
,..., 1 ; = and input signal(s) M i X
i
,..., 1 ; = .
Find: circuit response(s) N i Y
i
,..., 1 ; = .
PROBLEM 2. (Parameter identification)
Given: L L <
1
circuit constants (parameters) and/or M M s
1
input signals and N N s
1
responses (measurements).
Find:
1 2
L L L = unknown circuit constants and/or
1 2
M M M = input signals and
1 2
N N N = other responses,
1 2 2
N M L = + .
Both problems can be modeled by a system of algebraic equations. For P1 and linear circuit,
the system consists of linear equations. For P2, some constants became variables and the
system is nonlinear, even for linear circuit.
Classification of analyses, subject to a character of excitation is presented in Fig. 1.2.2.
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
1. Direct Current (DC)
Analysis
2. Variable Current
Analysis
2.1. Transient
Analysis
2.2. Steady State Analysis
1.a
Linear Circuit
Analysis
1.b
Nonlinear
Circuit Analysis
2.1.a
Step
Excitation
2.1.b
Other
Aperiodic
Excitation
2.2.a
Sinusoidal
Excitation
Alternate Current
(AC) Analysis
2.2.b
Other
Periodic
Excitation
Fig. 1.2.2 Classification of analyses
All these analyses, except a steady-state analysis in arbitrary periodic excitation case, will be
discussed in next chapters.
15
2. DC ANALYSIS
2.1 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
CLASSIFICATION
An electric circuit or electric network is an interconnection of elements linked together in a
closed path so that an electric current may continuously flow.
Generally, all elements can be classified into two categories:
- two-terminal elements,
- multi-terminal elements.
In further considerations, two-terminal elements are taken into account, while multi-terminal
elements are discussed in details in Chapter 2.9.
A general two-terminal element is presented in Fig. 2.1.1.
Fig. 2.1.1 General two-terminal element
By the convention, an element voltage is denoted by an arrow placed along an element.
Voltage arrowhead points terminal of a higher potential if its value is positive, or terminal of
a lower potential if its value is negative.
Quite often the double subscript notation is used. For the generalized element of Fig. 2.1.1:
BA AB
' , U U U U = = (2.1.1)
Actual flow of free electrons is from negative to positive terminal and this is termed the
electron flow. The flow of current is conventionally represented as a flow of positive charges.
Current arrowhead indicates direction of the conventional flow if the current value is
positive, or direction opposite to the conventional flow if the current value is negative.
Example 2.1.1
The measured potentials (terminal voltages) of Fig. 2.1.1 general element are:
V 3 V, 10
B A
= = V V . Find its voltage and current.

U
I
A B
I
U
16
The element voltage is:
V 7
AB
= = U U , or V 7 '
BA
= = U U .
The element current, both value and sign, are designated by the element U I relationship.
+
Mutual position of voltage and current arrowheads together with their signs decide
whether an element absorbs or supplies energy. Two possible positions of arrows are
presented in Fig. 2.1.2.
Fig. 2.1.2 Two possible mutual positions of voltage and current arrowheads
For the opposite position of Fig. 2.1.2 a, current and voltage are said to satisfy the passive
sign convention, and
an element absorbs power (energy) if 0 > = UI P ,
an element supplies power (energy) if 0 < = UI P .
For the same position of Fig. 2.1.2 b,
an element absorbs power (energy) if, 0 < = UI P ,
an element supplies power (energy) if 0 > = UI P .
According to the direction of energy flow, elements can be classified into two categories:
- passive elements,
- active elements.
An element is said to be passive if the total energy delivered to it from the rest of a circuit is
always nonnegative (zero or positive).
For a passive element, mutual position of voltage and current arrowheads has to be, by the
convention (passive sign convention) opposite, as shown in Fig. 2.1.2 a. Then, the total
energy delivered to passive element is:
0
0
> =
}
t
dt ui w (2.1.2a)
For the dc case:
t UI w = (2.1.2b)
An element is said to be active if the total energy delivered to it is not always nonnegative.
a)
U
I
A B
b)
U
I
A B
17
For an active element, mutual position of voltage and current arrowheads is arbitrary,
however, same position is preferred. Then, for active element and same mutual position of
arrowheads:
0 or 0
0
> < =
}
t
dt ui w (2.1.3)
Fig. 2.1.3 Exemplary U I relationships of passive elements
Passive or active two-terminal element is uniquely described by its U I relationship:
) (U f I = or ) ( ) (
1
I g I f U = =

(2.1.4)
This relationship can be given by the manufacturer or it can be measured. Taking into account
character of U I relationship, elements can be classified into two categories:
- linear elements,
- nonlinear elements.
Fig. 2.1.3 presents exemplary U I relationships of passive elements:
1. linear element,
2. bilateral nonlinear element, ) ( ) ( U f U f = ,
3. unilateral nonlinear element, ) ( ) ( U f U f = .
PASSIVE TWO-TERMINAL ELEMENTS
Linear elements, resistor and meters, voltmeter and ammeter, will be discussed.
Resistor
Linear resistor graphic symbol is presented in Fig. 2.1.4 (mutual position of arrowheads is
always opposite).
I
3 2
1
U
18
Fig. 2.1.4 Graphic symbol of a linear resistor
Its U I relationship (Fig. 2.1.31) is the well known Ohms law, satisfied also for
instantaneous values, in brackets.
I R U = ( ) ( ) ( t i R t u = ) (2.1.5a)
U G I = ( ) ( ) ( t u G t i = ) (2.1.5b)
R and G are constants of proportionality, G R / 1 = .
R is called resistance, its unit is ohm[O],
G is called conductance, its unit is siemens [S].
A resistor power absorbed is
0
2 2
> = = G U R I P ( G u R i p
2 2
= = ) (2.1.6)
Voltmeter
A voltmeter graphic symbol is presented in Fig. 2.1.5 (mutual position of arrowheads is
always opposite).
Fig. 2.1.5 Graphic symbol of voltmeter
Its U I relationship is presented in Fig. 2.1.6, for an ideal voltmeter (horizontal axis) and a
practical voltmeter (dashed line).
Fig. 2.1.6 U I relationship of ideal and practical voltmeter
For an ideal voltmeter: ) ( 0
V V
= = R G , 0 = I
U
I
I +
U
V
I
U
19
For a practical voltmeter: 0
V
> G , 0 > I and voltmeter is represented by the resistor
U G I
V
= . (2.1.7)
Ammeter
An ammeter graphic symbol is presented in Fig. 2.1.7 (mutual position of arrowheads is
always opposite).
Fig. 2.1.7 Graphic symbol of ammeter
Its U I relationship is presented in Fig. 2.1.8, for ideal ammeter (vertical axis) and practical
voltmeter (dashed line).
Fig. 2.1.8 U I relationship of ideal and practical ammeter
For an ideal ammeter: ) ( 0
A A
= = G R , 0 = U and ammeter is the short-circuited branch.
For a practical voltmeter: 0
A
> R , 0 > U and ammeter is represented by the resistor
I R U
A
= (2.1.8)
ACTIVE TWO-TERMINAL ELEMENTS
Linear ideal dc sources, a voltage source, so called electromotive force (emf), and a current
source. will be discussed in this Chapter, while practical sources will be discussed in Chapter
2.5.
Voltage source
An ideal voltage source graphic symbol is presented in Fig. 2.1.9 (mutual position of
arrowheads is arbitrary).
I +
U
A
I
U
20
Fig. 2.1.9 Graphic symbol of ideal voltage source
Its U I relationship is:
E U = (2.1.9)
as presented in Fig. 2.1.10, and the power supplied/absorbed is
0 or 0 s > = I E P . (2.1.10)
Fig. 2.1.10 U I relationship of ideal voltage
source
Current source
An ideal current source graphic symbol is presented in Fig. 2.1.11 (mutual position of
arrowheads is arbitrary).
Fig. 2.1.11 Graphic symbol of ideal current source
Its U I relationship is:
J I = (2.1.11)
as presented in Fig. 2.1.12.
Fig. 2.1.12 U I relationship of ideal
voltage source
A current source power is
0 or 0 s > = J U P (2.1.12)
U
I
E
U
I
J
I
U
E
I
J

U
21
Drill problems 2.1
1. For the given currents that flow through 10 O resistor, calculate the total energy absorbed
by the resistor.
Fig. P.2.1.1
2. The above given currents flows through 10 V emf. Assuming the same position of
arrowheads, find the total power supplied.
3. A heater (resistor) rated 200 V and 100 W is connected to 100V dc supply. Find energy
absorbed in 5 hour. If electric energy costs 10 cents/kWh, find the cost of heating during
the entire 5 hours ?
4. A circuit element labeled with passive sign convention has the current and voltage
waveforms as graphed. Sketch the instantaneous power absorbed and the total energy
absorbed over the interval <0, 4> s.
Fig. P.2.1.4
5. A certain element with i and u that satisfy the passive sign convention is described by the
relationship i u 2 = . For the current shown, sketch the power p. Is this element active or
passive ?
Fig. P.2.1.5
6. Repeat Problem 2.1.5 for ) sgn(
2
i i u = .
7. An automobile battery is charged with a constant current of 2 A for 5 hours. The terminal
voltage is t u 5 . 0 10 + = for 0 > t , where t is in hours. Sketch ) (t w and find the total
) (t i [A]
2
1 2 t [s]
1
) (t i [A]
5
1 t [s]
i [A]
2
2 4 t [s]
u [V]
4
2
2 4 t [s]
i [A]
2
1 2 t [s]
2
22
energy delivered to the battery during the entire 5 hours. If electric energy costs 10
cents/kWh, find the total cost of charging the battery.
8. If the voltage across an element is 10 V and the current i entering the positive terminal is
as shown, find the power delivered to the element at 4 = t s and the total energy delivered
between 0 and 15 s.
Fig. P.2.1.8
9. If the function applied in Problem 2.1.8 is the voltage u in volts and the current entering
the positive terminal is 2 mA, find the power delivered to the element at 4 = t s and the
total energy delivered between 0 and 15 s.
10. The current entering the positive terminal of a 10-volt battery rises linearly from 2 to 10
mA between 0 = t and 10 = t minutes. How much charge passes through the battery
during the first 5 minutes ? What is the power absorbed at 5 = t minutes and 10 = t
minutes ? What is the energy supplied during the first 5 minutes and during the entire 10
minutes ?
11. An electric range has a dc of 10 A entering the positive terminal at a voltage drop of 100V
dc. The range is operated for 4 hours. Find the charge, in coulombs, that passes through
the range. Find the total power and the total energy absorbed.
12. The energy w absorbed by a two-terminal device is shown. If the voltage across the device
is ) cos( 10 t u t = V, where t in ms, find the current entering the positive terminal at
3 , 2 , 1 = t ms (current and voltage satisfy the passive sign convention). Is this element
active or passive ?
Fig. P.2.1.12
13. Sketch the power absorbed or delivered in Problem 2.1.12.
14. Repeat calculations in Problems 2.1.12 and 2.1.13, if the passive sign convention is not
satisfied.
15. The voltage across an element is a constant 15 V. The current leaving the positive
terminal is ) 2 sin( 10 10 t i t = A. Find the instantaneous power p and sketch it in the
interval from 0 to 1 s. Is this element active or passive ? Calculate the energy received or
delivered by the element in the interval from 0.5 to 1 s.
i [mA]
4
1
2 5 t [s]
w [mJ]
10
2 4 6 t [ms]
23
2.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM and KIRCHHOFFs LAWS
Before starting a circuit analysis, its model has to be created and expressed in a form of
diagram. This term and other related terms will be defined at first.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
A drawing that shows schematically the interconnection of circuit elements, represented by
their graphic symbols, is called a circuit diagram.
A circuit structure (element interconnections) can be expressed by a circuit graph. Such
graph is built of branches connected in nodes.
A connection point between two or more elements/branches is called a circuit/graph node.
Number of circuit/graph nodes is denoted as n.
A circuit/graph branch is defined as an element or string of elements connected between two
nodes. Number of circuit/graph branches is denoted as b.
Then, terms of circuit/graph loop, mesh and cutset can be introduced.
Two or more branches that form a closed path is called a loop.
Cutset is a closed line around one or more nodes, crossing two or more branches, each branch
only once.
Planar circuit is a circuit whose graph can be drawn on a plane surface so that no branch
cross. Then, plane is divided by the circuit graph into distinct areas, windowpane areas.
The closed boundary of each windowpane area is called a mesh.
An exemplary circuit is used to illustrate these terms.
24
Example 2.2.1
Diagram of an exemplary circuit, built of five resistors, ammeter, voltmeter and two ideal
sources, is presented in Fig. 2.2.1.
Fig. 2.2.1 Diagram of an exemplary circuit (Example 2.2.1)
The circuit graph is presented in Fig. 2.2.2.
Fig. 2.2.2 Graph of exemplary
circuit (Example 2.2.1)
The graph is built of 8 = b branches, numbered from 1 to 8, connected in 5 = n nodes,
denoted by letters A, B, C, D, E.
Some finite number of loops can be found, e.g. loops built of the following branches:
I: 2,3,4;
II: 3,6,5; (2.2.1)
III: 2,6,5,4.
Loops I and II are independent loops, while loop III is sum of I and II.
C
2 3 6
B 4 D 5 E
1 7 8
A
C


2
R
3
R
6
R

4
R
5
E
B
D E

1
J
7
R
A
A
V
25

i


2
I
1 m
I
i

1
I
m
I


i


2
I
1 m
I
i
1
I
m
I

Some finite number of cutsets can be found, e.g. cutsets around the following nodes:
1: E (crossing branches 5,6,7,8);
2: A (crossing branches 1,8,7); (2.2.2)
3: AE (crossing branches 1,5,6).
Cutsets 1 and 2 are independent cutsets, while cutset 3 is sum of 1 and 2.
+
KIRCHHOFFS LAWS
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)
Fig. 2.2.3 Cutset around node i
Consider the cutset around a single node i, crossing branches m ,..., 2 , 1 , as presented in Fig.
2.2.3. Charge can not accumulate at the node. Then,

-
= A
i
Q 0 , (2.2.3)
where

-i
denotes the algebraic sum of charges/currents entering or leaving the node i,
by the convention:
+ , if current arrowhead is directed to the node/cutset, (2.2.4)
, if current arrowhead is directed from the node/cutset.
After dividing (2.2.3) by t A , the KCL can be formulated.
The algebraic sum of currents entering or leaving arbitrary node i equals zero.

-
=
i
I 0. (2.2.5)
The above KCL can be generalized into arbitrary cutset i crossing branches m ,..., 2 , 1 , as
presented in Fig. 2.2.4.
Fig. 2.2.4 Arbitrary cutset i crossing branches m ,..., 2 , 1
i
26
The algebraic sum of currents entering or leaving arbitrary cutset i equals zero, (2.2.5).
For the given circuit of b branches and n nodes, total of
1 = n t (2.2.6)
independent KCL equations can be formulated, e.g. for all cutsets around individual nodes
except the reference one.
Example 2.2.1 cont.
For the three cutsets of (2.2.2), KCL equations are:
1: 0
8 7 6 5
= + I I I I ;
2: 0
7 8 1
= + + I I I ; (2.2.7)
3: 0
6 5 1
= + + I I I .
Equation (2.2.7-3) is the algebraic sum of (2.2.7-1) and (2.2.7-2).
The total number of independent KCL equations is 4 = t , and they can be equations of any
four from the circuit five nodes.
+
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
Consider the loop i, built of branches m ,..., 2 , 1 , as presented in Fig. 2.2.5.
Fig. 2.2.5 Loop i built of m branches
A work performed along a loop is equal zero. Then, KVC can be formulated.
2

2
U
1 m2

1 m
U

1
U m m1

m
U
i
27
The algebraic sum of voltages around arbitrary loop i equals zero,

O
=
i
U 0 , (2.2.8)
where

Oi
denotes the algebraic sum of voltages around the loop i,
by the convention:
+ , if, voltage arrowhead has clockwise direction, (2.2.9)
, if voltage arrowhead has anticlockwise direction.
The above KVL can be generalized into arbitrary closed path i, as presented in Fig. 2.2.6.
Fig. 2.2.6 Closed path i
The algebraic sum of voltages around arbitrary closed path i equals zero, (2.2.8).
For the given circuit of b branches and n nodes, total of
1 + = n b l (2.2.10)
independent KVL equations can be formulated, e.g. for all meshes.
Example 2.2.1 cont.
For the three loops of (2.2.1), KVL equations are:
I: 0
4 3 2
= + U U U ,
II: 0
5 6 A 3
= E U U U , (2.2.11)
III: 0
4 5 6 A 2
= + U E U U U .
Equation (2.2.11-III) is the algebraic sum of equations (2.2.11-I) and (2.2.11-II).
2

2
U
1 m2


1
U m m1

i
28
The total number of independent KVL equations is 4 = l and they can be equations of all
meshes:
I: 2,3,4;
II: 3,6,5; (2.2.12)
III: 1,4,5,7;
IV: 7,8.
+
Drill problems 2.2
1. Calculate voltage
AB
U .
Fig. P.2.2.1
2. Find indication of an ideal ammeter.
Fig. P.2.2.2
3. What should be the value of R so that current 5 . 0 = I A ?
Fig. P.2.2.3
4. Find
x
E , if the power supplied by 10 = E V is 10 W and A 1 , 5 = O = J R .
Fig. P.2.2.4
A B
2 O
10 V 3 O 1 O 2 O 9 A
7 V 4 O
2 O 1 O
8 O 9 O
25 V
A
2O 6O
R I
5V
R R
J

x
E E
R
29
5. Find the value of R so that the power delivered by the source is 48 W.
Fig. P.2.2.5
6. Suppose the indicated voltage is 12 V. Find R.
Fig. P.2.2.6
7. Find the power absorbed (supplied ?) by the current source.
Fig. P.2.2.7
8. Find the supply voltage of a ladder network shown, so that A 2 = I . Assume O = 5 R .
Fig. P.2.2.8
9. Find R if A 2 = I . Then, find all currents and voltages.
Fig. P.2.2.9
10. By what factor the 6 A current source in Problem 2.2.9 circuit should be increased to
double the power it supplies, by what factor it should be increased to double the current I.
4 A O 6 R
2 A
5 V O 7 O 6 O 4
U R/2 R/2 R/2
R R R/2
I
2 O
6 A 4 O R
I
O 4 O 1
4 A R O 3
30
2.3 ANALYSIS of COMPLEX CIRCUITS
Resistor equations together with 1 = n t KCL equations and 1 + = n b l KVL equations
allow to formulate the well defined system of circuit equations. Two approaches will be
presented: the generalized Kirchhoffs analysis and the commonly used nodal analysis.
GENERALIZED KIRCHHOFFS ANALYSIS
Branch Current Analysis
Algorithm 2.3.1 Branch Current Analysis
1. Assume unknown currents in each branch,
b
I I ,...,
1
. Indicate their directions by arrows
(direction is arbitrary).
2. For each element indicate, by an arrow, its voltage drop (passive elements) or rise (active
elements) that a particular current causes in passing the element.
3. Select the reference node (selection of the node is arbitrary). Write down KCL equations
at all other 1 = n t nodes.
4. Write down KVL equations for all 1 + = n b l meshes.
5. Express resistor voltages by their currents, by means of Ohms law.
6. Solve the set of b equations with resistor currents and voltages of ideal current sources, if
present, as unknown variables.
7. Find circuit responses, if not found already.
Example 2.3.1
Diagram of an exemplary circuit, built of 6 = b branches connected in 4 = n nodes, is
presented in Fig. 2.3.1.
Fig. 2.3.1 Diagram of exemplary circuit (Example 2.3.1)

6
R
6
E
III

1
E B
2
R
A C

5
R
4
R
I II

4
E
3
J
D
III
I II
31
Node D is selected as the reference one. Then, 3 = t KCL equations (2.3.1a) and 3 = l KVL
equations (2.3.2a) can be formulated.
A:
1
I +
5
I +
6
I
= 0
B:
1
I
2
I
4
I +
= 0 (2.3.1a)
C:
2
I +
3
J
6
I +
= 0
I:
1
E +
4 4
E U +
5
U
= 0
II:
2
U
3
U +
4 4
E U +
= 0 (2.3.2a)
III:
1
E
2
U +
6 6
U E +
= 0
Resistor voltages can be expressed by their currents:
6 , 5 , 4 , 2 ; = = i I R U
i i i
Then, KVL equations have the following form:
I:
1
E +
4 4 4
E I R +
5 5
I R
= 0
II:
2 2
I R
3
U +
4 4 4
E I R +
= 0 (2.3.2b)
III:
1
E
2 2
I R +
6 6 6
I R E +
= 0
Equations (2.3.1a) and (2.3.2b) form a system of 6 = b linear equations with six unknowns,
currents:
6 5 4 2 1
, , , , I I I I I and voltage
3
U .
+
Branch Voltage Analysis
Algorithm 2.3.2 Branch Voltage Analysis
1. Assume unknown currents in each branch,
b
I I ,...,
1
. Indicate their directions by arrows
(direction is arbitrary).
2. For each element indicate, by an arrow, its voltage drop (passive elements) or rise (active
elements) that a particular current causes in passing the element.
3. Select the reference node (selection of the node is arbitrary). Write down KCL equations
at all other 1 = n t nodes.
4. Write down KVL equations for all 1 + = n b l meshes.
5. Express resistor currents by their voltages, by means of Ohms law.
6. Solve the set of b equations with resistor voltages and currents of ideal voltage sources, if
present, as unknown variables.
7. Find circuit responses, if not found already.
Example 2.3.1 cont.
Resistor currents can be expressed by their voltages:
6 , 5 , 4 , 2 ; = = i U G I
i i i
32
Then, KCL equations have the following form:
A:
1
I +
5 5
U G +
6 6
U G
= 0
B:
1
I
2 2
U G
4 4
U G +
= 0 (2.3.1b)
C:
2 2
U G +
3
J
6 6
U G +
= 0
Equations (2.3.1b) and (2.3.2a) form a system of 6 = b linear equations with six unknowns,
voltages:
6 5 4 3 2
, , , , U U U U U and current
1
I .
+
NODE VOLTAGE (NODAL) ANALYSIS
In branch voltage analysis, in KCL equations, resistor currents are expressed by
corresponding voltages. These voltages can be expressed by node voltages and that way a
system of t equations with t unknown node voltages is obtained. These equations, the so
called nodal equations, can be formulated straightforward from a circuit diagram. A general
branch, connected between nodes i and j, is presented in Fig. 2.3.2.
Fig. 2.3.2 General branch
From the branch KVL, the resistor voltage drop is
ij j i ij ij G
E V V E U U
ij
+ = + = (2.3.4)
Then, taking into account the branch KCL and the resistor Ohms law, the branch current can
be calculated,
ij s ij j ij i ij ij j i ij G ij ij
I G V G V G E V V J I J I
ij
+ = + + = + = ) ( , (2.3.5)
where,
ij ij ij ij s
G E J I + = (2.3.6)
is the total source current of the branch.

ij
E
ij
G
I
ij
G

ij
I
ij
U
ij
G
U
i j

ij
J

i
V
j
V
0
33
Next, the i-th node KCL can be formulated,
0
0 0 0
= +

=
=
=
=
=
=
t
i j
j
ij j
t
i j
j
ij i
t
i j
j
ij s
G V G V I (2.3.7)
This equation can be formulated for all nodes, 1 ,..., 1 = = n t i , except the reference one,
0 = i . Then, the final version of nodal equations can be written,
si
t
i j
j
ij j ii i
I G V G V =

=
=1
(2.3.8)
where,

=
=
=
t
i j
j
ij ii
G G
0
(2.3.9a)
is the total conductance of the i-th node, sum of conductances of all branches incident with the
i-th node,
ji ij
G G = (2.3.9b)
is the total conductance of branch(es) connected between nodes i and j,

=
=
=
t
i j
j
ij s si
I I
0
(2.3.10)
is the total source current of the i-th node, sum of source currents of all branches incident with
the i-th node. These currents are
ij ij s
J I = or
ij ij
G E (2.3.11)
+ , if arrow of the ij-th branch source is directed to the i-th node,
, if arrow of the ij-th branch source is directed from the i-th node.
Nodal equations in the matrix form are:
s
I V G = (2.3.12)
where,
(
(
(
(
(
(

+
+
+
=
tt ti t
it ii i
t i
G G G
G G G
G G G





1
1
1 1 11
G (2.3.13)
is a circuit conductance matrix, and
34
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
t
i
V
V
V

1
V ,
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
t s
i s
s
s
I
I
I
,
,
1 ,

I (2.3.14)
are vectors of node voltages and node source currents.
Note:
If a branch resistance is zero (conductance is infinity), i.e. if ideal voltage source or ideal
ammeter is the branch only element, then branch current can not be expressed by node
voltages. This special case will be discussed further on.
Algorithm 2.3.3 Nodal Analysis
1. Assume unknown currents in each branch,
b
I I ,...,
1
. Indicate their directions by arrows
(direction is arbitrary).
2. For each element indicate, by an arrow, its voltage drop (passive elements) or rise (active
elements) that a particular current causes in passing the element.
3. Select the reference node (selection of the node is arbitrary). Write down nodal equations
(2.3.8) for all other 1 = n t nodes.
4. Solve the set of t equations, with t node voltages as unknown variables.
5. Find a circuit response(s), if not found already.
Example 2.3.1a
Diagram of an exemplary circuit, built of 6 = b branches connected in 4 = n nodes, is
presented in Fig. 2.3.1a. As can be observed, it is the circuit of Example 2.3.1 with resistor
1
R
added, such that the circuit does not contain resistiveless branches. Designation of all branch
currents is the task.
Fig. 2.3.1a Diagram of exemplary circuit (Example 2.3.1a)

6
R
6
E

1
R
1
E B
2
R
A C

5
R
4
R


4
E
3
J
D
35
Node D is selected as the reference one. Then, nodal equations are:
(2.3.15)
A:
) (
6 5 1 A
G G G V + + +
1 B
G V
6 C
G V =
6 6 1 1
G E G E
B:
1 A
G V ) (
4 2 1 B
G G G V + + + =
4 4 1 1
G E G E + +
C:
6 A
G V
2 B
G V ) (
6 2 C
G G V + + =
6 6 3
G E J +
After solving this system, node voltages
C B A
, , V V V are designated. Then, branch currents
ij
I
can be designated from (2.3.5), i and j are A, B or C.
1 1 B A AB 1
) ( G E V V I I + = = ,
2 C B BC 2
) ( G V V I I = = ,
3 CD 3
J I I = = ,
4 4 B DB 4
) ( G E V I I + = = , (2.3.16)
5 DA 5
G V I I
A
= = ,
6 6 C A AC 6
) ( G E V V I I + = = .
+
Special (resistiveless branch) case
In case of resistiveless branch, = =
ij ij
G R 0 , its voltage is known (
ij ij
E U = or 0),
however the current
ij
I can not be expressed by node voltages
j i
V V , and Algorithm 2.3.3
have to be modified. Two modifications solve the problem.
Modification 1 of Algorithm 2.3.3
Do not consider the resistiveless branch at the left side of nodal equations (2.3.8). Set,
ij s ij
I I
,
=
and add this current to source currents of the i-th node. That way, number of unknowns has
been increased by one variable, the resistiveless branch current.
Supplement the system of nodal equations (2.3.8) with one trivial equation:
ij j i
E V V =
Modification 2 of Algorithm 2.3.3
Select node j as the reference one. Then,
ij i
E V = .
Now, the i-th node voltage is not unknown and the i-th nodal equation can be disregarded. In
case more resistiveless branches exist, the modification can be applied only if they all have
one common node.
Example 2.3.1 cont.
Branch 1, connected between nodes A and B, is the resistiveless branch (ideal voltage source).
36
Modification 1:
In nodal equations (2.3.15) conductance
1
G should be deleted and current
1
I should be
algebraically added to source currents of two nodes (A and B) of the branch. The following
system of nodal equations is obtained:
(2.3.16a)
A:
) (
6 5 A
G G V + +
6 C
G V =
6 6 1
G E I
B:
) (
4 2 B
G G V + + =
4 4 1
G E I + +
C:
6 A
G V
2 B
G V ) (
6 2 C
G G V + + =
6 6 3
G E J +
This system is supplemented by the trivial equation:
1 A B
E V V + = (2.3.16b)
Modification 2:
Node A is selected as the reference one. Then,
1 B
E V = and a brand new system of two nodal
equations with two unknowns is formulated:
C:
2 1
G E ) (
6 2 C
G G V + + =
6 6 3
G E J + (2.3.17)
D:
4 1
G E ) (
5 4 D
G G V + + =
4 4 3
G E J +
+
Drill Problems 2.3
1. Find the formula for U.
Fig. P.2.3.1
2. Find the formula for U.
Fig. P.2.3.2
3. Find the value of R so that 1 = I A
Fig. P.2.3.3

2
G
1
E
5
J

4
E

3
G
1
G U
5
G

U
E J
R
R R
R R R R
2 A 20 V 10 V I
37
4. Draw a planar graph of a circuit shown. How many independent KVL equations can be
formulated ?
Fig. P.2.3.4
5. Find U in the circuit shown, using nodal analysis. Assume C to be the reference node.
Fig. P.2.3.5
6. Find U in the circuit shown.
Fig. P.2.3.6
7. Find the voltage between node A and ground. All resistances are in ohms.
Fig. P.2.3.7

1
R

2
R
E
3
R

4
R

5
R
A 12 O 6 V B
U
8 O 0.5 A 4 O 1 A
C
10 V
U
5 O 3 A 5 O 2 A
A
1 2 14
12 V 7 V
7 20 2 A
3 6
3 V
38
2.4 ENERGY/POWER CONSERVATION PRINCIPLE
In any circuit the algebraic sum of energy/power equals zero:

= = = 0 , 0 P Pt w (2.4.1)
where

means algebraic addition over all elements,

+ , if energy/power is delivered by an element,
, if energy/power is absorbed by an element.
In other words, sum of energy/power absorbed equals sum of energy/power absorbed.
Power balance can be used to check correctness of results of the performed circuit analysis.
Example 2.4.1
For the circuit of Fig. 2.4.1 and the following values of parameters:
V 25 , 5 A, 2 = O = = E R J
find all powers and check the power balance.
Fig. 2.4.1 Circuit for Example 2.4.1

From KVL and Ohms law:

V 15 = = = E JR E U U
R J
(2.4.2)
Then, taking into account the mutual position of arrowheads of the mesh current J I = and
element voltages:
W 30 = =
J J
JU P , power absorbed,
W 20
2
+ = = R J P
R
, power absorbed,
W 50 + = = JE P
E
, power supplied.
The total power absorbed, W 50
abs
= + =
R J
P P P , equals the power supplied (delivered) by
the voltage source.
+
R
J E
39
Drill problems 2.4
1. Find all powers and check the power balance.
Fig. P.2.4.1
2. Calculate power dissipated on the most loaded resistor. Formulate the power balance.
Fig. P.2.4.2
3. An ideal current source J and an ideal voltage source E are connected back to back (+
with +). If 2 = J mA, what would E be so that 72 J/h was being supplied by the
current source to the voltage source ?
4. Find the emf voltage
x
E so that the current 1 = I A. Other parameters are:
A 1 , V 10 , 5 = = O = J E R . Check the power balance.
Fig. P.2.4.4
5. Calculate all dissipated and absorbed powers in Problem 2.3.2 circuit. Check the power
balance, if A 1 , V 10 , 5 = = O = J E R .
6. Calculate all dissipated and absorbed powers in Problem 2.3.3 circuit. Check the power
balance.
7. Calculate all dissipated and absorbed powers in circuits of Problems 2.3.5 and 2.3.6,
check the power balance.
8. If in Problem 2.4.2 circuit the maximum rated power of all resistors is 1 W, what is the
maximum acceptable emf value ?
5 O
2 O 1 V 2 A
1.6 kO
4 V 6 kO 4 kO
R R
J
x
E
E
R
I
40
2.5 TWO-TERMINAL SUBCIRCUIT, THEVENINs/NORTONs
THEOREM
PASSIVE TWO-TERMINAL SUBCIRCUIT
A passive two-terminal subcircuit, a subcircuit built of resistors, connected with the rest of a
circuit in two terminal nodes is presented in Fig. 2.5.1.
Fig. 2.5.1 Two-terminal subcircuit and its total (equivalent) resistance
It can be easily proved, that
for any linear passive two-terminal subcircuit its equivalent or total resistance
t
R can be
found. The subcircuit is characterized by the Ohms law:
I G I I R U
t t
= = , (2.5.1)
Series and parallel connection of resistors are the special cases.
Series connection of resistors, Voltage divider
Consider arrangement of resistors so that the same current passes through each resistor, the so
called series connection, as depicted in Fig. 2.5.2.
Fig. 2.5.2 Series connection of resistors
From KVL and Ohms law,
I
1 1
I
U U

t
R
2 2
I
1 1

1
R
2
R
N
R I

t
R
U
U
2 2
41
t
N
i
i
N
i
i
IR R I U U = = =

= = 1 1
(2.5.2)
Then, the total resistance is

=
=
N
i
i t
R R
1
. (2.5.3)
Circuit of series resistors divides the input voltage by the ratio of the resistance
i
R to the total
resistance,
t
i
i
R
R
U U = (2.5.4)
Two-resistor voltage divider
Fig. 2.5.2a Series connection of two resistors
The total resistance and resistor voltages are as follows:
2 1
R R R
t
+ = (2.5.5)
2 1
1
1
R R
R
U U
+
= (2.5.6a)
2 1
2
2
R R
R
U U
+
= (2.5.6b)
Parallel connection of resistors, Current divider
Consider arrangement of resistors so that each resistor has the same voltage, the so called
parallel connection, as depicted in Fig. 2.5.3.
Fig. 2.5.3 Parallel connection of resistors
From KCL and Ohms law,
I
1
R

1
U
U
2
R
2
U
I
1 1
U
1
R
2
R
N
R U
t
R
I
2 2
42
t
N
i
i
N
i
i
UG G U I I = = =

= = 1 1
(2.5.7)
Then, the total conductance is

=
=
N
i
i t
G G
1
. (2.5.8)
Circuit of parallel resistors divides the input current by the ratio of the conductance
i
G to the
total conductance,
t
i
i
G
G
I I = (2.5.9)
Two-resistor current divider
Fig. 2.5.3a Parallel connection of two resistors
The total resistance and resistor currents are as follows:
2 1
2 1
R R
R R
R
t
+
= (2.5.10)
2 1
2
1
R R
R
I I
+
= (2.5.11a)
2 1
1
2
R R
R
I I
+
= (2.5.11b)
For the given resistive two-terminal subcircuit the total resistance can be: a) calculated or b)
measured.
a) Subcircuit diagram should be given and the total resistance can be normally found by
parallel and series connections of resistors. In some cases, wye-delta or delta-wye
conversion of three resistors is necessary. This exceptional cases are not discussed.
b) Subcircuit diagram may not be given and the total resistance can be measured by
means of the external source. Fig. 2.5.4 presents two possible measurement circuits.
In case of ideal meters, their readings are the subcircuit current and voltage. Then,
A V
/ / I U I U R
t
= = (2.5.12)
In case of practical meters, their resistances
A
R or
V
R have to be taken into account, and
then, only current or only voltage is measured correctly. Thus, respectively:
A A A V
, I I R I U U = = (2.5.13a)
or
V V V A
, / U U R U I I = = (2.5.13b)
1 1
U I U

t
R

1
R
2
R

1
I
2
I I
2 2
43
Fig. 2.5.4 Total resistance measurement circuits: a) correct current, b) voltage measurement
Example 2.5.1
Find the equivalent resistance of the subcircuit presented in Fig. 2.5.5.
Fig. 2.5.5 Passive two-terminal subcircuit
(Example 2.5.1)
At first, the total resistance of parallel resistors is found. Then, this resistance connected in
series with (added to)
1
R gives the following total resistance of the whole subcircuit:
O = + =
+
+ = 4 . 12 4 . 2 10
3 2
3 2
1
R R
R R
R R
t
(2.5.14)
+
ACTIVE TWO-TERMINAL SUBCIRCUIT
An active linear two-terminal subcircuit, a practical linear source or subcircuit built of
resistors and linear source(s) is presented in Fig. 2.5.6. It can be proved that such subcircuit is
characterized by the U I relationship depicted in Fig. 2.5.7. This relationship can by
described by any of the following two equations:
I R E U
t o
= (2.5.15)
U G J I
t s
= (2.5.16)
where
o
s
t
t
E
J
U
I
R
G =
A
A
= =
1
a) b)
A
V
S
O
U
R
C
E
S
O
U
R
C
E
A
V
1
O =10
1
R
O = 4
2
R O = 6
3
R
2
44
Fig. 2.5.6 Active two-terminal subcircuit and its equivalent diagrams
Fig. 2.5.7 U I
relationship of active linear
two-terminal circuit
These equations are KVL and KCL equations respectively. Then, the corresponding
equivalent circuits can be built, as presented in Fig. 2.5.6. Two theorems can be formulated.
Thevenins theorem
Any active linear two-terminal subcircuit can be replaced be the equivalent circuit that
consists of a series connection of an ideal voltage source
o
E and a resistance
t
R , where:
o
E is the subcircuit open-circuit voltage,
0 =
=
I o
U E , (2.5.18a)
t
R is the subcircuit equivalent (internal) resistance.
Nortons theorem
Any active linear two-terminal subcircuit can be replaced be the equivalent circuit that
consists of a parallel connection of an ideal current source
s
J and a conductance
t
G , where:
s
J is the subcircuit short-circuit current,
0 =
=
U s
I J (2.5.18b)
t
G is the subcircuit equivalent (internal) conductance.
I 1
1 1 I
U
t
R U U

s
J
t
G

o
E
2 2 2
I
s
J
1
2

o
E U
45
Applications of Thevenins/Nortons theorem:
1. Linear dc circuit analysis: replacement of a complex two-terminal subcircuit by Thevenin
equivalent or Norton equivalent circuit, what simplifies calculations.
2. Designation of the maximum power transfer condition.
3. Nonlinear dc circuit analysis: replacement of a linear part by the Thevenin or Norton
equivalent.
4. Transient analysis of the 1
st
order circuit: replacement of a resistive part by the Thevenin
or Norton equivalent.
Parameters of Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuit can be: a) calculated or b) measured.
a) It is assumed that subcircuit diagram is given.
- To find the open-circuit voltage, subcircuit analysis is performed.
- To find the equivalent resistance, subcircuit source(s) is(are) deactivated at first.
Deactivation (zeroing) of a voltage source means shorting of its terminals, deactivation
of a current source means opening of its terminals. Then, the equivalent resistance can
be found, the same way as for a passive subcircuit,
0
) / (
=
=
o
E t
I U R (2.5.19)
b) A circuit is loaded by two different resistances and its current and voltage are measured,
as presented in Fig. 2.4.8 (correct current measurement is applied).
Fig. 2.5.8 Measurement circuit for two-terminal element
For two different values of the load resistance,
1
l
R and
2
l
R , the current and the voltage are
measured. That way, coordinates of two points on U I line are given, as presented in
Fig. 2.5.7. These coordinates are set into equation (2.5.15) or (2.5.16), to form a system of
two equations. Then,
t o
R E and or
t s
G J and are designated, respectively.
In the special case:
1
l
R can be an open-circuit and
2
l
R can be a short-circuit.
For a practical ammeter, its internal resistance
A
R has to be taken into account. Then, the
subcircuit voltage U has to be corrected, the same way as for a passive subcircuit,
following equation (2.5.13a).
I
U
l
R
A
V
46
Example 2.5.2
The subcircuit built of two practical sources and one resistor is presented in Fig. 2.5.9 -
A 2 V, 5 , 7 , 4 , 3
3 1 3 2 1
= = O = O = O = J E R R R Find: a) Thevenin equivalent, b) Norton
equivalent.
Fig. 2.5.9 Example 2.5.2 subcircuit

a)
To find
o
E , first, the Norton equivalent ) , (
3 3
R J can be converted into the Thevenin
equivalent ) , (
3 3
R E , following equations (2.5.20).
t s o
R J E = (2.5.20a)
t t
G R / 1 = (2.5.20b)
Then, the source O = = 7 V, 14
3 3
R E replaces the source
3 3
, R J , as presented in Fig. 2.5.9a.
Fig. 2.5.9a Example 2.5.2 subcircuit
after Norton-Thevenin
transformation
Fig. 2.5.9b Example 2.5.2 subcircuit
with sources zeroed

2
R
1
R
3
R


3
J
o
E

1
E

3
U
2
R
1
R
3
R


o
E

1
E
3
E

2
R
1
R
3
R

t
R

47
Finally, the subcircuit open-circuit voltage is:
V 7 . 7
3
3 1
3 1
3 3
=
+

+ = = R
R R
E E
E U E
o
(2.5.21a)
To find
t
R , both sources have to be zeroed, the passive subcircuit presented in Fig. 2.5.9b is
obtained. Then, the equivalent resistance is
O =
+
+ = 1 . 6
3 1
3 1
2
R R
R R
R R
t
. (2.5.21b)
b)
For the calculated parameters of Thevenin equivalent circuit (2.5.21), parameters of Norton
equivalent circuit can be calculated from the following equations:
t o s
R E J / = . (2.5.22a)
, / 1
t t
R G = (2.5.22b)
Then, A 26 . 1 =
s
J , S 16 . 0 =
t
G .
+
Practical sources
An U I relationships of practical sources, a voltage source and a current source, are shown
in Fig. 2.5.10.
Fig. 2.5.10 U I relationship of: a) practical voltage source, b) practical current source
Then, any of these sources can be described by any of equations (2.5.15) or (2.5.16) and
therefore, can modeled by the Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit. A source-load single
loop circuits are presented in Fig. 2.5.11.
Now, the source voltage or current are not fixed at the values of
s o
J I E U = = or , as for an
ideal voltage or current source, respectively. For the given practical source, they are functions
of the load resistance,
t l
l
o
R R
R
E U
+
= (2.5.23a)
t l
t
s
R R
R
J I
+
= (2.5.23b)
I a) I b)

s
J
U U

o
E
48
Fig. 2.5.11 Source-load single loop circuits
Fig. 2.5.12 graphs the voltage of a loaded practical voltage source and the current of a loaded
practical current source versus load resistance-to-source resistance ratio.
Fig. 2.5.12 Graphs of practical voltage (current) source voltage (current) versus load-to-
source resistance ratio
Then, for a practical voltage source, to maintain the supply voltage at the fixed level of
o
E U ~ , the load resistance has to be much greater than the source internal resistance,
t l
R R >> , (2.5.24a)
for a practical current source, to maintain the supply current at the fixed level of
s
J I ~ , the
load resistance has to be much less than the source internal resistance,
t l
R R << . (2.5.24b)
Example 2.5.3
Given an V 9 =
o
E battery, its internal resistance is O = 2
t
R . Draw the U I relationship
and the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits.

a) b)
SOURCE I LOAD SOURCE I LOAD

t
R
t
R
U
l
R or U
l
R

o
E
s
J
t
G
I
s
J
2
s
J

t
l
R
R
1
U
o
E
2
o
E

t
l
R
R
1
49
The battery U I relationship and equivalent circuits are presented in Fig. 2.5.13.
Fig. 2.5.13 Battery (Example 2.5.3): a) U I relationship, b) Thevenin, c) Norton equivalent.
+
Example 2.5.3 cont.
Convert voltage source of Example 2.5.3 into 1 mA current source.

The conversion can be done by series connection of a resistance

s
R , its resistance being much
greater than the load resistance
l
R . The internal resistance of the modified source is
s s t t
R R R R ~ + =
*
, (2.5.25)
and its short-circuit current is
s o t o s
R E R E J / /
* *
~ = (2.5.26)
Fig. 2.5.14 Modified source (Example 2.4.3): a) source-load single loop circuit, b) U I
relationship.
a) b) I
I

s
R

t
R U
l
R
1 mA

o
E
U
9 V
I a) b) c)
U I I U
3 A O 3 3 A
9 V
9 V U

1/3 S
50
Then, for mA 1
*
=
s
J and V 9 =
o
E the required series resistance is O = k 9
s
R . The source-
load single loop circuit is presented in Fig. 2.5.14a, the modified source U I relationship is
presented in Fig. 2.5.14b.
+
Drill problems 2.5
1. Two 1 W resistors: O = O = 50 , 100
2 1
R R are connected in series. What maximum
voltage can by safely supplied to such combination?
2. Two 1 W resistors: O = O = 50 , 100
2 1
R R are connected in parallel. What maximum
current can by safely supplied to such combination?
3. Determine resistance of a resistor that must be placed in series with R=100 O resistor
supplied by 120 V, in order to limit its power dissipation to 90 W.
4. Two heaters (resistors) are each rated 1 kW and 220 V. What is the total dissipated power
when the they are connected in series across 220 V?
5. An electric meter of 20 = R O resistance produces a maximum needle deflection with 10
mA flowing through its terminals. What resistance must be connected in series with the
meter so that the maximum needle deflection occurs when series combination is
connected to 150 V?
6. What resistance must be connected in parallel with the meter of the preceding problem so
that the maximum needle deflection occurs when 100 mA current flows into the
combination?
7. Two resistors, O = k 2 . 9
1
R rated 1W and O = k 1 . 5
2
R rated 0.5 W are connected in
series. What maximum current can safely flow in the combination? What maximum
voltage can by safely supplied?
8. Resistors of Fig. 2.5.5 circuit are rated 1 W. What maximum voltage can by safely
supplied to such circuit?
9. Voltages and currents measured at terminals of a linear source at two different loads are:
(2V, 6A); (6V, 2A). Find the current drawn by the O = 6 R load.
10. Current entering the positive terminal of 10 = E V battery (ideal source) raises linearly
from 3 to 9 mA between t=0 and t=15 minutes. How much energy, in joules, is supplied to
the battery during the entire period of time?
11. Given a 1.5 V AA battery (ideal source) with a nominal life of 150 J. For how many days
will it power a calculator that draws 1 mA current?
12. A 12 V supply is used to charge 6 V battery of 0.8 O internal resistance. What series
resistance is necessary to limit the charging current to 600 mA?
13. Two practical sources characterized by the following parameters: O = = 2 V, 10
t o
R E and
S 3 / 1 A, 5 = =
t s
G J are connected in parallel, + with +. Find the open-circuit voltage
and the short-circuit current of the obtained active circuit.
51
14. For the given I U relationship of a practical source that satisfies passive sign
convention find Norton and Thevenin equivalents.
Fig. P.2.5.14
15. A linear circuit that satisfies passive sign convention is found experimentally to have the
U I relationship shown. Find its Norton and Thevenin equivalents.
Fig. P.2.5.15
16. Find Thevenin and Norton equivalents.
Fig. P.2.5.16
17. A source with open-circuit voltage of 50 V and short-circuit current of 25 A is connected
to 2 O load. What resistance should be connected in series to limit the power absorbed by
the load to 50 W ?
18. Find the Thevenin equivalents of the circuits shown.
Fig. P.2.5.18
19. An alternator with o.c. (open-circuit) voltage of 20 V and s.c. current of 10 A dc is to be
used to charge car battery with o.c. voltage of 12 V and internal resistance ranging from 1
to 5 O. What resistance should be connected in series to limit the charging current to 2 A ?
U 4 A I
5 V
a
O 2
4 V O 6
2 A O 4
b
a
2 A
2 O
2 O
4 V
b
a
3 A
4 O
7 V 4 O
b
I [A]
U [V]
2
5
52
20. Find the equivalent resistance
t
R if terminals a-b are: a) opened, b) shorted.
Fig. P.2.5.20
21. Use a series of Norton-Thevenin and series/parallel transformations to reduce a circuit
shown into the single-loop circuit. Then, find current I.
Fig. P.2.5.21
22. Find the value of R for which the two circuits shown are equivalent.
Fig. P.2.5.22
23. Suppose that voltage u of a car battery varies linearly from 14 to 12V as t varies from 0 to
10 min, and the constant current 5 . 0 = I A is entering the positive terminal. Find, a) the
total energy supplied, b) the total charge delivered to the battery.
24. If a current 5 . 0 = I A is entering the positive terminal of 12 =
o
E V, O = 2
t
R battery,
find the energy supplied to the battery in 2 h.
25. A 6 V battery has an internal resistance of 0.1 O. Find the load resistance which would
reduce its terminal voltage to 5 V.
26. Find the voltage needed to charge the battery of Problem 2.5.25 with current of 0.5 A.
27. A source produces a terminal voltage of 10 V when supplying a current of 1 A. When the
current increased to 2 A the voltage falls to 8 V. Find the Norton equivalent of the source.
28. A current source is made by connecting a voltage source of 10 V and negligible internal
resistance in series with resistance of 100 O. Find the allowed range of load resistance if
the current is to remain constant within 10% of its maximum value. For the calculated
range of load resistance, find the range of its voltage.

1
R
2
R

t
R a b

3
R
4
R
2 O 2 O
1 A 4 O 6 O 4 V
I
6 O 4 O
12 O 6 O R
53
2.6 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
Consider a source-load single loop circuit, as presented in Fig. 2.5.11a and the following
problem:
For the given source, characterized by parameters
t o
R E , , find the load resistance
l
R such
that the maximum power available from the source is transferred to this load.
The power absorbed by the load is:
) (
2
2
l l
l t
o
l l
R f R
R R
E
R I P =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= = . (2.6.1)
To find the value of
l
R that maximizes this power, the differential calculus to find where the
derivative
l l
R P d / d equals zero can be used:
t l l l
R R dR dP = = 0 / (2.6.2)
The maximum power delivered by a source represented by its Thevenin equivalent is attained
when the load resistance
l
R is equal to the internal resistance
t
R .
The normalized plot ) / ( /
max
t l l l
R R f P P = is presented in Fig. 2.6.1, together with the system
efficiency plot.
Fig. 2.6.1 Plots of the transferred power (dashed curve) and power transfer efficiency vs. load
resistance
% q
max
/
l l
P P
100 1
50

t l
R R /
1
54
Efficiency of power transfer is defined as ratio of the power delivered to a load from a
practical source to the power supplied by the emf.
% 100 % 100 % 100 %
2
t l
l l
E
l
R R
R
E I
R I
P
P
+
= = = q (2.6.3)
At the maximum power transfer condition:
l
o
l l
R
E
P P
4
2
max
= = ,
t
o
R
E
I
2
= (2.6.4a)
% 50 % = q (2.6.4b)
As it is clear, at the maximum power transfer condition only 50% of the power supplied is
delivered to a load, the remaining 50% is lost on internal resistance. There is a tradeoff
between power company and power consumer goals. Power company tries to keep its losses
low by operating at high efficiency:
1 >>
t
l
R
R
(2.6.5)
Power consumer (electronic system) wants to absorb the maximum power available from a
source, i.e. wants to operate under the maximum power transfer condition (2.6.2).
The presented maximum power transfer theorem considers
l
R as the independent variable,
resistance of a single resistor. There is, however, an alternate approach. It is assumed that the
load is a general two-terminal linear subcircuit, active or passive, and it contains one
adjustable parameter,
x
E or
x
J or
x
R or
x
G , which varies the terminal voltage U. To find the
value of U that maximizes the transferred power
t
o
l
R
U E
U UI P

= = (2.6.6)
the differential calculus to find where the derivative dU dP
l
/ equals zero can be used:
2 / 0
2
/
o
t
o
l
E U
R
U E
dU dP = =

= (2.6.7)
which is the condition on U for the maximum power transfer. At this voltage, the
corresponding terminal current, the maximum power and the efficiency are given by
equations (2.6.4).
For the given terminal voltage and current, the value of adjustable parameter can be calculated
from subcircuit equations. Separation principle, discussed in Chapter 2.8, may be utilized.
Example 2.6.1
For the active subcircuit of Example 2.6.2 (Fig. 2.5.9), find a load resistance
l
R such that
maximum power is dissipated in
l
R . Calculate the value of maximum power.

55
O = = 1 . 6
t l
R R , 43 . 2
1 . 6 4
7 . 7
2
max
=

=
l
P W
+
Example 2.6.2
In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.6.2, suppose
x
E is adjustable. Find its value such that the
maximum power is transferred from A to B. What is the value of
max
l
P .
Fig. 2.6.2 Thevenin equivalent of A connected to loading subcircuit B with adjustable
x
E

At the maximum power transfer condition, from (2.6.7), V 10 2 / 20 = = U .

Then, from (2.6.4), the terminal current is A 1 . 0 100 / 10 = = I .
Applying KCL to the top terminal of B yields
V 5 . 7
50
10
200
10
1 . 0 =

+ =
x
x
E
E
.
Finally, from (2.6.4), W 1
max
=
l
P .
+
Drill problems 2.6
1. What should be the load of a practical source S 1 A, 10 = =
t s
G J , such that the system
efficiency is % 75 % = q .
2. A practical linear source has been loaded, first by an ideal voltmeter, then, by ammeter of
O =100
A
R . The indications are 15 V and 0.1 A, respectively. Draw U I relationship,
find load resistance and the power transferred at the maximum power transfer condition.
3. A practical source 10 =
o
E V, O =10
t
R has been loaded by a resistor of variable
resistance O > e< 8 , 2 R . Find the minimum and the maximum power supplied.
4. A practical source 4 =
o
E V, O = 2
t
R has been loaded by a resistor. Find range of its
resistance > <
max min
, R R so that the power transferred is 1 5 . 0 s s
R
P W.
5. A battery has open-circuit voltage of 9 V and short-circuit current of 3 A. Find the load
resistance at 25% efficiency of the system.
6. Find the minimum and the maximum power transferred from a S 25 . 0 , A 5 . 1 = =
t s
G J
source to a variable load ranging from 4 to 6 O.
A 100 O 50 O B
U
20 V 200 O
x
E
56
7. Calculate the efficiency of the system presented in Fig. 2.5.14.
8. Find the maximum power absorbed by the load resistor.
Fig. P.2.6.8
9. If a practical current source: S 5 . 0 , A 2 = =
t s
G J , and a voltage source: O = = 4 ?,
t o
R E
are connected back to back (+ with +), is it a value of
o
E for which there is no power
transfer between them ? If so, find the voltage.
10. Find R such that maximum power is dissipated in R. Calculate its value.
Fig. P.2.6.10
11. In a circuit of Problem 2.6.10, resistance R varies from 4 to 8 O. Find the minimum and
the maximum power dissipated on this resistance.
12. Find an expression for the maximum power available from two identical sources, each
characterized by emf
o
E and internal resistance
t
R , if they are connected: a) in series, b)
in parallel.
13. Two active subcircuits characterized by Thevenin equivalents are as shown. Suppose
V 2 , 3 , V 12
2 1 1
= O = =
o t o
E R E and
2 t
R adjustable. Find the value of
2 t
R such that the
maximum power is transferred from subcircuit 1 to subcircuit 2. What is the value of this
power ?
Fig. P.2.6.13
14. Two active subcircuits characterized by Thevenin equivalents are as shown in Fig.
P.2.6.13. Suppose O = = O = 2 V, 2 , 3
2 2 1 t o t
R E R and
1 o
E adjustable. Find the value of
1 o
E such that the maximum power is transferred from subcircuit 2 to subcircuit 1. What is
the value of this power ?
15. A subcircuit characterized by the Thevenin equivalent: O = = 4 . 2 , V 10
t o
R E , is loaded
by two resistors
2 1
,
l l
R R connected in parallel. Suppose O = 6
1 l
R and
2 l
R adjustable.
Find the value of
2 l
R such that the maximum power is transferred. What is the value of
this power ?
3 O 11 O
11 V 1 A
l
R
6 O
12 O 5 O
5 A R 10 V
5 O

1 t
R U
2 t
R
1 o
E
2 o
E
57
2.7 TRANSFER FUNCTION, SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
TRANSFER FUNCTION
A circuit equations relate the circuit response(s) with its excitation(s),
for one-dimensional (SISO) case:
) ( X f Y = (2.7.1a)
for multi-dimensional (MIMO) case:
) (X f Y = (2.7.1b)
For a linear circuit and the voltage or current output (response), this relationship is linear and
term of transfer function can be introduced.
One-dimensional case
Block diagram of a linear SISO circuit is presented in Fig. 1.2.1, Its output-input relationship
X K Y = (2.7.2)
is presented in Fig. 2.7.1, where J E X or = , I V U Y or , = and K is the so called transfer
function.
Fig. 2.7.1 Linear circuit output-input relationship
Example 2.7.1
Find the transfer function of a two-resistor voltage divider (Fig. 2.5.2a), with
1
U as the
output.

For the two-resistor voltage divider, relationship between the input voltage and the output
voltage (2.5.6) can be expressed by means of transfer function, as presented in Fig. 2.7.2.
Fig. 2.7.2 Block diagram of two-
resistor voltage divider
+
Y
X
U U K U =
1

2 1
1
R R
R
K
+
=
58
Multi-dimensional case
Block diagram of MIMO circuit is presented in Fig. 2.7.3, where M i J E X
i i i
,..., 1 ; or = =
and N j I V U Y
j j j j
,..., 1 ; or , = = .
Fig. 2.7.3 Block diagram of MIMO circuit
A linear circuit of M inputs and N outputs is uniquely characterized by MN transfer functions.
Transfer function
i
X
j
ij Y X
X
Y
K K
i
j i
= = (2.7.3)
uniquely describes a linear circuit with respect to one input and one output signal, voltage or
current.
Then, the output-input relationship is
N j Y X K Y
M
i
X
j
M
i
i ij j
i
,..., 1 ;
1 1
= = =

= =
(2.7.4)
where the i-th component of the j-th output is:
i k M k
X
j
X
j
k
i
Y Y
= =
=
=
; ,..., 1
0
(2.7.5)
Now, the superposition principle can be formulated.
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
For a linear circuit excited from M independent sources, any voltage or current can be
obtained by adding all individual voltages or currents, each caused by one source acting alone
with all other sources set to zero. Zeroing of voltage source means shorting of its terminals,
while zeroing of current source means opening of its terminals.

1
X
11
K
1
Y

1 M
K
N
K
1

M
X
MN
K
N
Y
59
Example 2.7.2
A two-loop circuit is presented in Fig. 2.7.4. Find voltage
3
U , by means of: a) nodal analysis,
b) superposition principle.
Fig. 2.7.4 Circuit for Example 2.7.2

a)
Nodal equation:
J
R
E
R R
U + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
1 3 1
3
1 1 1
. (2.7.6)
Then,
3 1
3 1
3 1
3
3
R R
R R
J
R R
R
E U
+
+
+
= . (2.7.7)
Block diagram of the circuit is presented in Fig. 2.7.5
Fig. 2.7.5 Block diagram for Example
2.7.2
b)
Two auxiliary circuits obtained from the original one by zeroing one source are presented in
Fig. 2.7.6.
Fig. 2.7.6 Auxiliary circuits (Example
2.7.2) obtained by zeroing J or E

1
R
2
R
E
3
R J
E
3 1
3
R R
R
+

3
U
J

3 1
3
R R
R
+

3 1
3 1
R R
R R
+

1
R
2
R
E
3
R

1
R
2
R

3
R J
60
From analyses of Fig. 2.7.6 circuits:
E
R R
R
U
E
3 1
3
3
+
= (2.7.8a)
J
R R
R R
U
J
3 1
3 1
3
+
= (2.7.8b)
When adding these two components, the total voltage
3
U is obtained.
J E
U U U
3 3 3
+ = (2.7.9)
+
Applications of superposition principle:
1. Replacement of a complex (multiple-input) circuit analysis by series of analyses of single
input circuits.
2. Incremental analysis finding of increments of circuit responses resulting from an
increment of single excitation (source).
Incremental analysis Problem 1
For the given increment of the i-th excitation:
1 2
i i i
X X X = A , (2.7.10)
find the corresponding increment of the j-th response:
i
X
j j
Y Y A = A . (2.7.11a)
Fig. 2.7.7 Increments of circuit excitation and response

i
X
j
Y

2
i
X
j
Y

i
X
j
Y A

1
i
X
j
Y

i
X

1
i
X
2
i
X

i
X A
61
Increments of circuit excitation and response are depicted in Fig. 2.7.7. Then, increment of a
circuit response is
i ij j
X K Y A = A (2.7.11b)
Incremental analysis Problem 2
For the given increment of the i-th excitation:
1 2
i i i
X X X = A , (2.7.12a)
find increment of the k-th excitation:
1 2
k k k
X X X = A , (2.7.12b)
such that
0 = A + A = A
k i
X
j
X
j j
Y Y Y . (2.7.13a)
An increment of a circuit response resulting from increments of the i-th and the k-th excitation
has to be zero, i.e. no change in a circuit response should be observed:
0 = A + A = A
k kj i ij j
X K X K Y (2.7.13b)
Then, the k-th excitation increment, necessary to compensate the effect of the i-th excitation
increment, is
kj
i ij
k
K
X K
X
A
= A , (2.7.14)
Positive value of the increment means increase of the excitation, negative value means its
decrease.
Example 2.7.2 cont.
Find the increment of
3
U caused by the increment of E, if value of E increases three times.
Then, find the increment of J necessary to compensate this increment of E.

For the assumed increment of the voltage source:

E E E E 2 3 = = A (2.7.15)
the corresponding increment of the voltage
3
U (2.7.8a) is
E
R R
R
U 2
3 1
3
3
+
= A (2.7.16)
The increment of J necessary to compensate this change is:
1
2
R
E
J = A , (2.7.17)
sign means that decrease of the current source value is necessary.
+
62
Drill problems 2.7
1. The emf has increased its value two times (up to 2E). Calculate the increment (value and
sign) of the current I. Then, calculate the increment of the current source necessary to
compensate this change.
Fig. P.2.7.1
2. Find the gain K of the voltage adder, ) (
2 1
U U K U + = .
Fig. P.2.7.2
3. All independent sources (circuit inputs) and a shorted branch with the current
x
I (circuit
output) are extracted from a linear circuit, as shown. With sources J and
1
E on and
0
2
= E : A 20 =
x
I , with J and
2
E on and 0
1
= E : A 5 =
x
I , with all three sources on:
A 12 =
x
I . Find
x
I if, a) J is doubled, b)
2
E is reversed.
Fig. P.2.7.3
4. Use the superposition principle to find the voltage in Problems 2.3.5 and 2.3.6.
5. All independent sources (circuit inputs) and a load branch with the current
l
I (circuit
output) are extracted from a linear circuit, as shown. This current is measured for two
different values of E and J:
1. A 3 , V 7 = = J E : A 1 =
l
I ,
2. A 1 , V 9 = = J E : A 13 =
l
I .
2 O I
10 = E V 2 O 1 O 10 A
1
1
U R
2

2
U R
2R U

x
I
J
1
E

2
E
63
Find, a) transfer functions
l l
JI EI
K K , , b)
l
I when A 9 , V 15 = = J E , c) increment of J
necessary to compensate increase of E from 7 to 9 V.
Fig. P.2.7.5
6. The circuit shown is driven by two independent sources. Find transfer functions in the
linear relationship: J K E K U
JU EU
+ = .
Fig. P.2.7.6

l
I
l
R
J E
2 O U
2 A
12 O 12 V 6 O
7 O
2 O
64
2.8 SEPARATION PRINCIPLE (SOURCE SUBSTITUTION THEOREM)
Consider a circuit built of two subcircuits connected in m nodes, as presented in Fig. 2.8.1.
Fig. 2.8.1 A circuit built of two subcircuits connected in m nodes
The following separation principle, also called the source substitution theorem, can be
formulated.
Two subcircuits connected in m nodes can be separated by means of 1 m pairs of voltage
and/or current sources connected between the m-th node (selected arbitrarily reference node)
and each of the other 1 m nodes. Value of such voltage source equals the voltage in original
circuit,
i
U . Value of such current source equals the current entering/leaving the node,
i
I .
Fig. 2.8.2 Separated subcircuits, 3 = m


1
I 1

2
I 2

1
U
2
U
m
SUBCIRCUIT
A
SUBCIRCUIT
B


1
I 1 1
1
I

2
I 2 2
2
I

2
U
1
U
1
U
2
U
m m
SUBCIRCUIT
A
SUBCIRCUIT
B
65
For 3 = m , subcircuits can be separated by means of two pairs of sources, as presented in Fig.
2.8.2 for voltage separating sources. Then, for calculation of voltages and currents inside
subcircuit A, the subcircuit B may be replaced by two independent voltage sources and vice
versa.
Applications of separation principle:
1. Independent analyses of subcircuits, if separating voltages/currents are given, measured or
pre-calculated or set by ideal sources.
2. Calculation or measurement of the power transferred from subcircuit A to subcircuit B.
For subcircuit A presented in Fig. 2.8.2, the power balance is:
2 2 1 1 A
2 1
U I U I P P P
U U
+ = + = . (2.8.1)
If 0
A
> P , then subcircuit A supplies power, subcircuit B absorbs.
If 0
A
< P , then subcircuit A absorbs power, subcircuit B supplies.
In general,
If two subcircuits are connected in m nodes, then power transferred from one to the other can
be measured by 1 m wattmeters or calculated, through calculation of 1 m pairs
i i
U I , .
Example 2.8.1
For subcircuits presented in Fig. 2.8.3 and the given measurements: V 18 A, 5 . 0
V A
= = U I
(both meters are ideal), calculate the transferred power.
Fig. 2.8.3 Circuit for Example 2.8.1

1
1
I SUBCIRCUIT B

1
U
O 5 16.5 V 1.2 A
2
2
I 3.3 A 6 V

2
U O 3 1.5 V
O 10 12 V
O 10
3
SUBCIRCUIT A
A
V
66
By alternate application of KCL, KVL and Ohms law, subcircuit B currents and voltages can
be calculated, as presented in Fig. 2.8.3. Then,
V 5 . 1 , A 8 . 2 5 . 0 3 . 3
1 1
= = + = U I ; (2.8.2)
V 18 A, 5 . 4 3 . 3 2 . 1
2 2
= = + = U I ,
and the power supplied by subcircuit A is:
W 8 . 76 81 2 . 4
A
= + = P . (2.8.3)
+
Drill problems 2.8
1. Two subcircuits are modeled by Thevenin and Norton equivalents. Calculate the
transferred power, its value and direction of transfer.
Fig. P.2.8.1
2. Find the power transferred from subcircuit A to subcircuit B.
Fig. P.2.8.2
3. A subcircuit is separated from the rest of a circuit by entering/leaving currents, as shown.
Find I and the power produced (or absorbed) by the 1 A current source.
Fig. P.2.8.3
4. Find the current of 4 O resistor.
Fig. P.2.8.4
A B
3 O
5 V 2 O 5 A
A B
2A
5O 20V
5O
A
I 4 O 4 A
4 V 1 A
1 A 2 O 2 A
0.8 O
2 A 4 V 4 O 6 O
0.8 O
67
2.9 MULTI-TERMINAL ELEMENTS
A multi-terminal element is an element with m terminals available for external connections.
After general description of multi-terminal elements, three-terminal element and four-terminal
element are considered. Then, analysis of circuits containing multi-terminal elements is
discussed.
ELEMENT DESCRIPTION CONDUCTANCE MATRIX
Passive multi-terminal element
A general passive m-terminal element is presented in Fig. 2.9.1, node m is the reference one
and the terminal currents and voltages satisfy the passive sign convention.
Fig. 2.9.1 Passive m-terminal element
The element can be uniquely described by 1 m equations relating external variables,
1 ,..., 1 ; , = = m n i U I
i i
. These equations can be equations expressing current by voltages:
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(

n nn n
n
n
U
U
G G
G G
I
I

1
1
1 11 1
(2.9.1)
U G I = (2.9.1a)
Then, an element is described by the conductance matrix G. Its diagonal element
n i G
ii
,..., 1 ; = , is a conductance between the i-th node and the reference one with all other
nodes shorted to this m-th node:

1
I
1
1
U

2
I
2
U
2

i
I i

i
U

m
68
i k n k U
i
i
ii
k
U
I
G
= = =
=
; ,..., 1 ; 0
. (2.9.2)
The off-diagonal element j i n j i G
ij
= = ; ,..., 1 , ; , is the so called trans-conductance, ratio of
the i-th terminal current to the j-th terminal voltage, with all nodes except the j-th shorted to
the reference one:
j k n k U
j
i
ij
k
U
I
G
= = =
=
; ,.. 1 ; 0
(2.9.3)
For an m-terminal circuit of resistors, the conductance matrix is symmetrical,
ji ij
G G = . Then,
the total number of its parameters (conductances) is:
2
) 1 (
1 2 / )] 1 ( ) 1 [(
2

= + =
m m
m m m M (2.9.4)
These parameters can be
a) measured,
b) calculated, if a circuit structure is known.
Before discussing in details two, three and four-terminal element term of port will be
introduced.
Port is a pair of terminals at which same current may enter and leave an element.
Two-terminal element (one-port)
A general two terminal element with voltage and current that satisfy the passive sign
convention is presented in Fig. 2.1.2a. For this element: 1 , 2 = = M m and the equation
relating external variables (2.9.1) is simply the Ohms law equation (2.1.5).
Three-terminal element
A general three terminal element is presented in Fig. 2.9.2.
Fig. 2.9 2 Passive three-terminal element
1

1
I
1
U

2
I 2

2
U


3
69
For this element: 3 , 3 = = M m and equations relating external variables are:
2 12 1 11 1
U G U G I + = (2.9.5)
2 22 1 21 2
U G U G I + =
This element is characterized by three conductances:
22 21 12 11
, , G G G G = .
a)
Measurement circuits are presented in Fig. 2.9.3a and 2.9.3b, for
11
G and
21
G , respectively.

Fig. 2.9.3 Measurement circuits for measurement of: a)
11
G , b)
21
G
The conductance
11
G is
A A V 1 A 1
1
1
11
, ; R I U U I I
U
I
G = = = (2.9.6a)
The conductance
22
G can be measured in the similar way, by shorting 1-3 and measuring
2 2
,U I . Finally, the conductance
21
G is
V 1 A A 2 A 2
1
2 22 2
21
, , ; U U R I U I I
U
U G I
G = = =

= (2.9.6b)
For an ideal ammeter, 0
A
= R , and equations (2.9.6) can be simplified.
b)
Example 2.9.1
Consider three resistors circuit of the T-shape structure, as presented in Fig. 2.9.4a.
b)
1


1
U

2
I 2


3
a)
1

1
I

1
U
2


3
A
V
A
V
70
Fig. 2.9.4 T-shape circuit (Example 2.9.1) and circuit for calculation of
11
G and
21
G
The conductances
11
G and
21
G can be designated from Fig. 2.9.4b circuit. The terminal
currents are
) /(
3 2
3 2
1 1 1
R R
R R
R U I
+
+ = , (2.9.7a)
1
3 2
3
2
I
R R
R
I
+
= , (2.9.7b)
then, the conductances are
3 2 3 1 2 1
3 2
1
1
11
R R R R R R
R R
U
I
G
+ +
+
= = (2.9.8a)
3 2 3 1 2 1
3
1
2
21
R R R R R R
R
U
I
G
+ +
= = (2.9.8b)
The conductance
22
G , conductance seen from terminals 2-3 when 1-3 are shorted, can be
calculated from Fig. 2.9.4b subcircuit, with branches 1-3 and 2-3 swapped, and this
conductance is
3 2 3 1 2 1
3 1
2
2
22
R R R R R R
R R
U
I
G
+ +
+
= = . (2.9.8c)
+
Two-port
A general two-port, presented in Fig. 2.9.5, is the special case of four-terminal element. It is
described by the same set of equations as a three-terminal element (2.9.5).
Fig. 2.9.5 Two-port
Port 1 between nodes 1 and 3 is the input port, port 2 between nodes 2 and 4 is the output
port.
a) 1 2

1
R
2
R

3
R

3
b) 1 2

1
I
1
R
2
R
2
I

3
R

1
U
3
1
1
I
2
I 2

1
U
2
U
3 4
71
Active multi-terminal element
For an active multi-terminal element, terminal short-circuit currents should be added to
equations (2.9.1).
GU I = +J (2.9.9)
Now, the conductances, short-circuit currents and the total number of parameters are
0 J=
= = =
=
i k n k U
i
i
ii
k
U
I
G
; ,..., 1 ; 0
. (2.9.10)
0 J=
= = =
=
j k n k U
j
i
ij
k
U
I
G
; ,... 1 ; 0
(2.9.11)
0 U=
=
i i
I J (2.9.12)
1
2
) 1 (
+

= m
m m
M (2.9.13)
a)
To identify M parameters, no external source is necessary, M linearly independent
measurements have to be performed, five measurements for a three-terminal element.
b)
Example 2.9.1b
Consider three resistors active circuit of the T-shape structure, as presented in Fig. 2.9.6a.
After zeroing the voltage source, passive subcircuit of Fig. 2.9.4a is obtained and elements of
conductance matrix can be found (2.9.8).
Short-circuit currents can be designated from Fig. 2.9.4b circuit, and they are
3 2 3 1 2 1
2
1
R R R R R R
ER
J
+ +
= (2.9.14a)
3 2 3 1 2 1
1
2
R R R R R R
ER
J
+ +
= (2.9.14b)
Fig. 2.9.6 T-shape subcircuit (Example 2.9.1) and circuit for calculation of J.
+
a) 1 2

1
R
2
R

3
R

E
3
b) 1 2

1
R
2
R

1
J
3
R
2
J

E
3
72
OTHER MATRICES OF MULTI-TERMINAL ELEMENT
A multi-terminal element of 1 + = n m terminals or a multi-port of 2 / m n = ports can be
described by 1 = m n equations that express n external variables by other n external
variables. Than, total of
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
n
n
N
2
(2.9.15)
descriptions are possible.
The conductance matrix description, that expresses external currents by external voltages, has
been discussed already.
The resistance matrix description, that expresses external voltages by external currents, is the
other primary way of multi-terminal or multi-port description:
E RI U + = (2.9.16)
All other 2 N descriptions are the so called hybrid descriptions:
Z HX Y + = (2.9.17)
where,
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
+ + +
n
k
k
n
k
k
nn n
n
n
k
k
E
E
J
J
I
I
U
U
H H
H H
U
U
I
I

1
1
1
1
1
1 11
1
1
, , , Z X H Y . (2.9.17a)
For three-terminal or two-port element, four hybrid descriptions can be formulated. The so
called cascade matrix description (2.9.18), that expresses output variables by input variables,
is frequently used.
(

+
(

=
(

2
1
1
1
22 21
12 11
2
2
J
E
I
U
C C
C C
I
U
(2.9.18)
For a resistive m-terminal circuit, both capacitance matrix and resistance matrix are
symmetrical. Hybrid matrix is non-symmetrical, however it also contains M (2.9.4) linearly
independent parameters. In general, having one matrix description the other one can be found.
The following relationships between the conductance matrix description and the resistance
matrix description can be given:
J G E G R
1 1
,

= = (2.9.19a)
E R J R G
1 1
,

= = (2.9.19b)
Example 2.9.1a cont.
73
The circuit of Fig. 2.9.6a can be described by the resistance matrix:
1 2 12 1 11 1
E I R I R U + + = (2.9.20)
2 2 22 1 21 2
E I R I R U + + =
The parameters
21 11
, R R can be designated from Fig. 2.9.7a circuit. They are
3 1
0 1
1
11
2
R R
I
U
R
I
+ = =
=
=
0 E
(2.9.21a)
12 3
0 1
2
21
2
R R
I
U
R
I
= = =
=
=
0 E
(2.9.21b)
Fig. 2.9.7 (Example 2.5.1) Circuits for calculation of: a)
21 11
, R R , b) E
The resistance
22
R , resistance seen from terminals 2-3 when 1-3 are opened, can be calculated
in the similar way as
11
R :
3 2
0 2
2
22
1
R R
I
U
R
I
+ = =
=
=
0 E
(2.9.21c)
The open-circuit voltages can be designated from Fig. 2.9.7b circuit.
E E E = =
2 1
(2.9.21d)
+
a) 1 2

1
R
2
R

3
R
1
I
1
U
2
U

3
b) 1 2

1
R
2
R

3
R
E

1
E
2
E
3
74
ANALYSIS OF CIRCUITS WITH MULTI-TERMINAL ELEMENT(S)
Consider a circuit built of two-terminal elements, with one three-terminal element extracted,
as presented in Fig. 2.9.8.
Fig. 2.9.8 Circuit with three terminal element extracted
The circuit nodal equations are:
I I GV =
s
(2.9.22)
where: G is the circuit conductance matrix,
s
I is vector of the circuit source currents at its nodes, internal nodes and nodes 1,2,3
I is vector of the m-terminal element currents, supplemented by m t zeroes:
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(

=
m
I
I

1
*
*
,
0
0
I
I
I . (2.9.22a)
A general multi-terminal element equations (2.9.9) are
* * * *
J U G I + = . (2.9.23)
For 3 = m , taking into account that:
2 1 3 3
*
3 3 2
*
2 3 1
*
1
, , , I I I V U V V U V V U = = = = (2.9.24)
a three-terminal element equations are
1
1
I

*
1
U
2
2
I

*
2
U
3
3
I
0
SUBCIRCUIT

s
I G,
MULTI-
TERMINAL

* *
, J G
75
(
(
(

+
+
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(

+ +
+
+
=
(
(
(

= =
) (
) ( ) (
) (
) (
*
2
*
1
*
2
*
1
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
* *
22
*
12
*
21
*
11
*
22
*
21
*
22
*
21
*
12
*
11
*
12
*
11
3
2
1
J J
J
J
V
V
V
G G G G G
G G G G
G G G G
I
I
I
i j
ij
(2.9.25)
Taking into account these equations in (2.9.22), the circuit nodal equations can be formulated.
The strategy can be generalized into arbitrary number of multi-terminal elements case and the
following algorithm can be formulated.
Algorithm 2.9.1 Nodal analysis of circuits with m-terminal element(s)
1. Disconnect (extract) multi-terminal elements, find G and
s
I of the obtained subcircuit.
2. Designate
i
G and
i
J of all multi-terminal elements; N i ,..., 1 = .
3. Overlap matrices
i
G onto matrix G and vectors
i
J onto vector
s
I , for N i ,..., 1 = .
Example 2.9.2
All conductances and sources of the circuit presented in Fig. 2.9.9 are given, as well as the
conductance matrix and the short-circuit currents of the three-terminal active element its
reference node is denoted by an asterisk. Find the circuit nodal equations.
Fig. 2.9.9 Circuit for Example 2.9.2

Circuit nodes are numbered: 0,1,2,3,4 node 0 is the reference one. Three-terminal element
nodes are numbered: (1), (2), (3). Then, nodal equations (2.9.26) can be formulated.
2

7
G

3
G
7
E
3 (2)

1
G 1 (1)


6
G


1
E
2
G 4 (3) *

5
G
0

* *
, J G
76
1 (1) 2 3 (2) 4 (3) (2.9.26)
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+ + +
+ + +
+ +
+ + + + +

= =
*
2
*
1
*
2
7 7
*
1 1 1
4
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
*
5
*
22
*
12
*
21
*
11
*
22
*
21
*
22 6 4 4
*
21
4 4 3 1 3
*
12
*
11
*
12 3
*
11 3 2 1
) ( 0 ) (
) (
0
) (
J J
J
E G
J E G
V
V
V
V
G G G G G G
G G G G G G G
G G G G G
G G G G G G G G
i j
ij
+
Drill problems 2.9
1. Find matrix R and vector E.
Fig. P.2.9.1
2. What is the total number of parameters that characterize an active four-terminal element.
3. The three-terminal passive element is characterized by the following resistances:
O = = 1
22 11
R R , O = = 5 . 0
21 12
R R . Find an ideal voltmeter indication.
Fig. P.2.9.3
4. A three-terminal element is characterized by the resistances O = = = 1
21 12 11
R R R ,
O = 2
22
R and the open-circuit voltages: V 2 , V 1
2 1
= = E E . An ideal ammeter is
connected between terminals 1 and 3, an ideal voltmeter is connected between terminals 2
and 3. Find their indications.
5. Find matrix G and vector J for the subcircuits shown in Fig. P.2.9.1.
1 2
10 V
3
V
1 2

1
R

3
R
E
3
1 2
E

1
R
2
R
3
77
6. Find matrices R, G and C of the two-port shown. Find the expressions and values for
O = O = O = 10 , 20 , 5
3 2 1
R R R
Fig. P.2.9.6
7. Find matrix C of the passive two-port for which
(

=
2 2
2 1
R in O.
8. If the passive two-port shown has the conductance matrix
(

=
20 5
5 10
G in mS, what are
the indications of ideal meters ?
Fig. P.2.9.8

3
R

1
R
2
R

10 V
V
A
78
2.10 DEPENDENT (CONTROLLED) ELEMENTS
Arbitrary dependent element - description
Two-terminal elements are normally characterized by an analytic function, linear or nonlinear,
of one argument (2.1.4). Another category of elements can be distinguished, namely
dependent or controlled elements. A controlled element is described by the following
relationship:
) , ( or ) , ( X I g U X U f I = = (2.10.1)
Then, such element is described by a family of U I characteristics, with X as the second
parameter, so called control variable, which can be: temperature t, lightning flux , other
voltage
c
U or other current
c
I . The two latter elements are called the controlled sources and
they will be discussed in details.
Controlled sources - description
Controlled source is a source that provides a current or voltage that is dependent on other
current or voltage elsewhere in the circuit.
Four types of controlled sources can be distinguished:
a) Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS),
b) Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS),
c) Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS),
d) Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS).
Then, two branches are assigned to each controlled source: source branch and control variable
branch, as depicted in Fig. 2.7.1a, b, c, d, for ideal (resistiveless) sources. These elements
equations are:
VCVS:
c UE
U k E U = = (2.10.2a)
CCVS:
c IE
I k E U = = (2.10.2b)
VCCS:
c UJ
U k J I = = (2.10.2c)
CCCS:
c IJ
I k J I = = (2.10.2d)
where, ] A/A [ ], A/V [ V/A], [ V/V], [
IJ UJ IE UE
k k k k are control coefficients, constants
characterizing corresponding sources.
79
Fig. 2.10.1 a) VCVS, b) CCVS, c) VCCS, d) CCCS
Families of U I relationships characterizing VCVS and CCCS are presented in Fig. 2.10.2a
and d.
Fig. 2.8a) Family of U I relationships
characterizing VCVS, b) CCCS
Fig. 2.10.2 Family of U I relationships characterizing a) VCVS, d) CCCS
Use of controlled sources to element modeling
Controlled sources are used in modeling of circuit elements, such as transistor, operational
amplifier or any other multi-terminal element.
Transistor
A transistor circuit symbol and the simplified model, for the common emitter mode of
operation, are presented in Fig. 2.10.3. As can be seen, the CCCS is used. Then, after
linearization of a diode characteristic (2.12.1c), i.e. its replacement by the voltage source
f
U ,
the transistor equations are:
B BE B B
/ ) / 1 ( R U U R I
f
= (2.10.3)
B BE B C
/ ) / ( R U U R I
f
| | = .
a)
E
c
U
b)
E
c
I
c)
J
c
U
d)
J
c
I
a) I
1 c
U
2 c
U
3 c
U
4 c
U
5 c
U
6 c
U

1 c
kU
6 c
kU U
d) I
4 c
kI
4 c
I

3 c
I

2 c
I
1 c
kI
1 c
I
U
80
Fig. 2.10.3 Transistor a) circuit symbol, b) simplified model
For the assumed model, the transistor is characterized by the following conductance matrix
and short-circuit current vector:
(

=
(

=
B
B
B
B
/
/
,
0
0 / 1
R U
R U
/R
R
f
f
|
J G (2.10.3a)
and then, practically by two parameters ( for a silicon transistor 7 . 0 =
f
U V):
- current gain | ,
- Base resistance
B
R .
It should be observed, that resistance matrix R does not exist.
Operational amplifier
An operational amplifier (op amp) symbol and the simplified model are presented in Fig.
2.10.4. As can be seen, the VCCS is used.
Fig. 2.10.4 Op amp a) circuit symbol, b) simplified model
For the assumed model, an op amp is characterized by equations (2.10.4), i.e. by two
conductances and one control coefficient.
a) C
B
E
b) C

C
I
CE
U

B
I |

B
I
B

B
R

BE
U
E
1
in
I a)

out
I 2
in
U
out
U
3 4
+

1
in
I
out
I 2 b)
in
U
out
U

in
G
in
kU
out
G
3 4
81
in in in
U G I = (2.10.4)
out out in out
U G kU I + =
(

=
out
in
G k
G 0
G (2.10.4a)
Arbitrary three-terminal or two-port element
An arbitrary linear active three-terminal element (Fig. 2.9.2) or two-port (Fig. 2.9.5) can be
described by equations (2.9.20). These equations are KVL equations and equivalent circuit
built of two-terminal elements can be constructed, as presented in Fig. 2.10.5. For a two-port
element, connection denoted by the bold line should be removed.
Fig. 2.10.5 Model of three-terminal or two-port element
Analysis of circuits containing controlled sources
If a circuit contains controlled source(s), then such circuit nodal equations should be
supplemented by equation(s) of controlled source(s), with controlling variable(s) expressed by
nodal voltages.
Example 2.10.1
Find nodal equations of the circuit presented in Fig. 2.10.6.
Fig. 2.10.6 Circuit for Example 2.10.1

For the assumed 0

C
= V , the circuit nodal equations are:
5 1 1 2 B 2 1 A
) ( J G E G V G G V + = + (2.10.5)
4 4 4 3 2 B 2 A
) ( G E G G G V G V = + + +

1
I
2
I
1 2

1
E
11
R
22
R
2
E
1
U
2
U

2 12
I R
1 21
I R
3 3(4)
A B

1
G
2
G
4
G

1
E
3 5 5
U k J =
3
G
3
U
1 4 4
I k E =

1
I
C
82
Equations of the controlled sources, with controlling variables expressed by nodal voltages
are:
B 5 3 5 5
V k U k J = = (2.10.6)
1 A 1 4 1 4 4
) ( G V E k I k E = =
After setting equations (2.10.6) into (2.10.5) and reordering, the following system is obtained:
1 1 5 2 B 2 1 A
) ( ) ( G E k G V G G V = + + (2.10.7)
4 4 1 1 4 3 2 B 4 4 1 2 A
) ( ) ( k G G E G G G V k G G G V = + + +
It should be observed, that the conductance matrix is not symmetrical,
21 12
G G = . This is due
to the presence of the controlled sources.
+
The next example illustrates a strategy of determination of the Thevenin equivalent when
two-terminal circuit contains dependent sources.
Example 2.10.2
Find the circuit I U relationship and then the Thevenin equivalent.
Fig. 2.10.7 Circuit for Example 2.10.2

By attaching a fictitious external current I, KVL can be formulated

1 1 1 2
I R kI IR U + = (2.10.8a)
From KCL
I J I =
1
(2.10.8b)
and the circuit I U relationship is
I k R R J k R k R I J k R IR U ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1 1 1 1 2
+ = + = (2.10.9)
Then, the Thevenin equivalent parameters are:
k R R R J k R E
t o
+ = =
2 1 1
, ) ( (2.10.10)
+
The next example illustrates the proper use of superposition when there are dependent sources
present in a circuit.
I

1
kI

2
R
U
J
1
R

1
I
83
Example 2.10.3
Two subcircuits are separated by an ideal voltage source as shown. Find
E
I . The circuit
parameters are: O = O = = = = 10 , 3 , V/V 2 , V 20 , A 5
2 1
R R k E J .
Fig. 2.10.8 Circuit for Example 2.10.3 and its superposition components

An ideal voltage source separates two subcircuits, however the separation principle can not be
applied as the controlling variable and the dependent source are located in different
subcircuits.
When superposition is applied, then only independent sources give the superposition
components. Thus, the example circuit can be divided into two subcircuits, as shown. The
computed components of the current are:
A 8
2
1
2
= + = + =
R
J kR
J
R
kU
J I
J
J J
E
, A 1
2 2
=

=
R
E kE
R
E kU
I
E
J E
E
. (2.10.11)
Then, the total current is: A 9 = + =
E
E
J
E E
I I I
+
Drill problems 2.10
1. Find model of a three-terminal/two-port element, if the element is described by the
conductance matrix and short-current vector.
2. Draw U I characteristic or a practical controlled source: a) VCCS, b) VCVS, c) CCCS,
d) CCVS, characterized by the following parameters: 2 , 10 = O = k R
t
[X/X], for the
controlling variable of 5 [X], where X means V or A.
3. Model a passive two-port characterized by the following resistances:
O = = O = 2 , 5 . 0
21 12 11
R R R , O = 4
22
R . Use controlled sources and resistors.

J
U
1
R
E
I
2
R
J E
J
kU

J
J
U
1
R
J
E
I
2
R
J
J
J
kU

E
J
U
1
R
E
E
I
2
R
E
E
J
kU
84
4. Find the power absorbed by the load resistance O =1
l
R .
Fig. P.2.10.4
5. Find the mesh current.
Fig. P.2.10.5
6. Find the collector resistance
C
R that gives V 5
CE
= U . Assume a diode voltage drop of
V 7 . 0 . The supply voltages are V 10 , V 7 . 1
C B
= = E E and the Base resistance is
O = k 100
B
R .
Fig. P.2.10.6
7. A practical source of O = = 5 mV, 1
t o
R E is connected across the input terminals of an op
amp and the load resistance of O = k 1
l
R is connected between the output and ground.
Determine the load voltage
l
U . Use the ideal voltage op amp model, as shown, with open-
loop gain of V/V 10
5
= k .
Fig. P.2.10.7
I
4 V O 2 2I
l
R

O = 5 R
V 20 = E
R
kU

C
R
C

B
I |
C
E

B
R
B

C
E
E

t
R 1 0 =
in
I
2

o
E
in
U
l
U
3
in
kU
l
R
4
+

85
2.11 DESIGN TOLERANCES, SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
A MIMO circuit of Fig. 2.7.3 is uniquely characterized by its L constants (primary
parameters)
L
P P ,...,
1
. Any transfer function
ij
K (secondary parameter) is a function of these
constants, ) ,..., (
1 L ij ij
P P K K = , any output signal is a function of these constants and input
signals, ) ,..., , ,..., (
1 1 L M j j
P P X X Y Y = . Both transfer functions and output signals can be
considered as circuit variables designated by circuit constants and/or circuit inputs
L l P X X X F F
l l M P k k
,..., 1 ; ); ,..., (
1
= = =
+
(2.11.1)
Example 2.11.1
A voltage divider presented in Fig. 2.11.1 is characterized by two parameters, resistances
2 1
, R R . Then, two circuit variables, transfer functions are selected:
- input resistance:
2 1 1
/ R R I U R F
in in
+ = = = (2.11.2a)
- gain:
2 1
2
2
/
R R
R
U U K F
in out
+
= = = (2.11.2b)
Fig. 2.11.1 Voltage divider
+
Then, ideal and practical circuits are distinguished.
Ideal circuit: All circuit parameters have nominal values:
P i X X
n
i i
,..., 1 ; = = (2.11.3)
Practical circuit: All circuit parameters are characterized by nominal values and design
tolerances, i.e. their values lay within tolerance margins:
P i X X X
i i i
,..., 1 ; , = > e<
+
(2.11.4)
Based on tests, made during the manufacturing process, the probability distribution for each
parameter can be found. Presented in Fig. 2.11.2 normal or Gauss distribution is the most
commonly used. This distribution is described by the following equation (index i has been
omitted for simplicity of description):
I
1
R

in
U
2
R
out
U
86
2
2
2
) (
exp
2
1
) (
o t o
n
X X
X p

= (2.11.5)
where o is the so called standard deviation.
Fig. 2.11.2 Normal distribution of circuit (element) parameter
For the given standard deviation, tolerance margins are related with the probability
distribution by the following equation:
}
A +
A
=
X X
X X
n
n
dX X p q ) ( (2.11.6)
where q is the production yield, e.g. for 95 . 0 = q , 95% of the production is classified as
healthy.
For the assumed parameter deviation X A , production yield q can be calculated from (2.11.6).
If q is assumed, then the acceptable deviation can be calculated, practically deviation of
o 3 2 = AX (2.11.7)
is accepted.
An element is normally characterized by its parameter deviation to nominal value ratio, so
called parameter tolerance:
n
X
X
X
tol
A
= (2.11.8)
For P parameters characterizing a circuit, its tolerance region can be defined.
Tolerance region (tolerance box) is a parallelepiped in the parameter space
P
9 with planes
parallel with coordinate axes, and designated by tolerance margins of circuit parameters
P
X X ,...,
1
.
) ( X p
1
q

X
n
X
+
X X
87
Example 2.8.1 cont.
The nominal values of resistances and their tolerances are: O = = 1
2 1
n n
R R ,
05 . 0 , 1 . 0
2 1
= = tol tol . Graph the tolerance region.

The tolerance region is presented in Fig. 2.11.3, nominal point is denoted.

Fig. 2.11.3 Tolerance region for
Example 2.11.1
+
Presence of design tolerances has to be taken into account at a circuit design stage. Two
approaches are possible:
1. Parameter design tolerances are given by the design-engineer. Finding of maximum
deviations of circuit variables, caused by these tolerances, is the task.
2. Design specifications, acceptable deviations of circuit variables, are given by the
design-engineer. Finding of parameter design tolerances is the task.
Designation of the maximum design deviation of circuit variable
For each circuit variable F (index has been omitted for simplicity of description), its
maximum deviations, due to design tolerances of circuit parameters, can be found. Two
different techniques are possible:
- worst case analysis,
- sensitivity analysis.
Worst case analysis
It is assumed that within the tolerance region, first derivatives of a circuit variable function
(2.11.1) do not change sign:
const ) / sgn( = c c
i
X F for P i X X X
i i i
,..., 1 ; , = > e<
+
(2.11.9)
Then, the boundary values of a circuit variable, due to a presence of parameter design
tolerances, are calculated by setting in function (2.11.1) the boundary values of parameters:

2
R
1.05
0.95
0.5 0.9 1.1
2
R
88
) ,..., (
* *
1 P
X X F F =
+
(2.11.10a)
where,

< c c
> c c
=

+
0 ) / ( if
0 ) / ( if
*
n
i i
n
i i
i
X F X
X F X
X
) ,..., (
* *
1 P
X X F F =

(2.11.10b)
where,

> c c
< c c
=

+
0 ) / ( if
0 ) / ( if
*
n
i i
n
i i
i
X F X
X F X
X
and
F
X
n
i
i
S X F = c c ) / ( (2.11.11)
is the 1
st
derivative calculated at the nominal point
n
X , the so called sensitivity of a circuit
variable F with respect to small changes of parameter
i
X in a close neighborhood of the
nominal point, the 1
st
order sensitivity. For M circuit variables and P circuit parameters, the
P M sensitivity matrix can be created
(
(
(

=
M
P
M
P
F
X
F
X
F
X
F
X
S S
S S

1
1 1
1
S (2.11.11a)
Finally, the maximum deviation caused by parameter tolerances is
n n
F F F F F ~ = A
+
max
(2.11.12)
Example 2.11.1 cont.
The boundary values of circuit variables are calculated from the following equations:
O = + = =
+ + + + +
15 . 2 ) , (
2 1 2 1
R R R R R R
in in
(2.11.13a)
O = + = =

85 . 1 ) , (
2 1 2 1
R R R R R R
in in
V/V 5366 . 0 ) , (
2 1
2
2 1
=
+
= =
+
+
+ +
R R
R
R R K K (2.11.13b)
V/V 4634 . 0 ) , (
2 1
2
2 1
=
+
= =
+

+
R R
R
R R K K
and the maximum deviations, caused by the design deviations of parameters are:
V/V 0366 . 0 , 15 . 0
max max ,
= A O = A K R
in
(2.11.14)
+
Sensitivity analysis
Consider the 1
st
order approximation of the circuit variable function (2.11.1), its Taylors
series expansion around the nominal point:

=
A c c + ~ +
P
i
i
n
i
n n
X X F F F
1
) / ( ) ( ) ( X X X (2.11.15)
89
Then, the deviation of a circuit variable can be expressed by the 1
st
order sensitivities and
parameter deviations:

=
A ~ + = A
P
i
i
F
X
n n
X S F F F
i
1
) ( ) ( X X X (2.11.16)
The relative sensitivity can be introduced:
n
n
i F
X
n
i
n n
i
F
X
F
X
S X F X F Sr
i i
= c c = ) / /( ) / ( (2.11.17)
and then, the relative deviation of a circuit variable is

=
~ A
P
i
X
F
X
n
i i
tol Sr F F
1
/ (2.11.18)
To find the maximum deviation, signs of sensitivities should be disregarded:
i
P
i
F
X
X S F
i
A ~ A

=1
max
(2.11.19)

=
~ = A
P
i
X
F
X F
n
i i
tol Sr tol F F
1
max
) / ( (2.11.20)
Example 2.11.1 cont.
Sensitivities of the selected circuit variables are:
O O = = / 1
2 1
in in
R
R
R
R
S S (2.11.21a)
O =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

+
= O =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= / 1
4
1
) (
1
, / 1
4
1
) (
2
2 1
2
2 1
2
2 1
2
2 1
n
K
R
n
K
R
R R
R
R R
S
R R
R
S (2.11.21b)
Then, the maximum deviations are:
O ~ A 15 . 0
max , in
R , V/V 0375 . 0 4 / 15 . 0
max
= ~ AK .
As can be seen, these values are very close the exact values obtained from the worst case
analysis (2.11.14).
+
Normally, an analytic form of a circuit variable function (2.11.1) is not known. Then, two
different methods of sensitivity calculations, other than the explicit one, are used.
- Adjoint Circuit method, based on Tellegens Theorem.
- Incremental method.
In the Tellegens theorem based adjoint circuit method, an adjoint circuit is created. This
circuit is obtained from the original (nominal) one by zeroing all sources (shorting voltage
sources, opening current sources). Its excitation is designated by the considered circuit
variable. Next, based on analyses of two circuits, the adjoint and the original one, all
90
sensitivities of this variable, one row of the sensitivity matrix, are calculated, Tellegens
Theorem is applied. Details of this method are not discussed.
As M circuit variables are considered, then, to find all P M sensitivities, 1 + M analyses
have to be performed: original circuit analysis + M analyses of adjoint circuits.
In the incremental method, two analyses are performed, the original (nominal) circuit
analysis and analysis of the nominal circuit with an increment added to one parameter:
i
n
i i
X X X A + = , i j P j X X
n
j j
= = = ; ,..., 1 ; (2.11.22)
From the results of analyses, increments of all circuit variables are designated and sensitivities
with respect to small increment of
i
X , one column of the sensitivity matrix, are calculated:
i
X k
F
X
X
F
S
i
k
i
A
A
=
,
(2.11.23)
As P circuit variables are considered, then, to find all P M sensitivities, 1 + P analyses have
to be performed: original circuit analysis + P analyses of circuits with one parameter
incremented.
Designation of parameter design tolerances
It is assumed that for the selected M circuit variables, design specifications are set by the
design-engineer:
M j F F F
j j j
,..., 1 ; ,
max min
= > e< (2.11.24)
That way, the acceptability region in the circuit variable space
M
9 is defined. Next, this
region is mapped into the parameter space. Finally, design centering and tolerancing is
performed. The greatest parallelepiped (tolerance box) that can be included in the obtained
region, for the assumed 100% production yield, or the greatest parallelepiped that overlaps
this region and secures the yield less than 100% but greater than the assumed value, is
designated. Various methods of mapping and then design centering and tolerancing are used
and they are not discussed here.
Example 2.11.2
Voltage divider presented in Fig. 2.11.1 is considered and the following specifications are
assumed:
% 10 V/V 5 . 0 %, 10 2 = O = K R
in
(2.11.24)
Then, the acceptability region in the parameter space is defined by the following inequalities:
2 . 2 8 . 1
2 1
s + s R R (2.11.25a)
55 . 0 45 . 0
2 1
2
s
+
s
R R
R
(2.11.25b)
From (2.11.25a) the following two boundary lines are designated:
2 . 2 :
1 2
max
+ = R R R
in
(2.11.26a)
8 . 1 :
1 2
min
+ = R R R
in
91
From (2.11.25b) the other two boundary lines are designated:
1 2
max
22 . 1 : R R K = (2.11.26b)
1 2
min
82 . 0 : R R K =
This boundary lines and the obtained acceptability region are presented in Fig. 2.11.4.
Fig. 2.11.4 Example 2.11.2 acceptability region with marked tolerance regions
Design centering and tolerancing is the next step. For this simple example, central location of
the nominal point can be easily deduced: O = = 1
2 1
n n
R R , as marked by +++ lines. Then, for the
assumed 100% yield, the greatest tolerance box included in the acceptability region can be
found: O = A = A 1 . 0
2 1
R R , as marked by the dotted lines. Another tolerance box:
O = A = A 2 . 0
2 1
R R , marked by the dashed lines, overlaps the acceptability region. For this
box, the production yield is less than 100%.
+
Drill problems 2.11
1. Given the voltage divider: O = O = 20 , 10
2 1
R R , find all four voltage sensitivities

2
R
2.2
2.0
max
in
R
1.8
1.6
max
K
1.4
min
in
R
min
K
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
1
R
92
2. In the voltage divider of Problem 2.11.1, V 30 =
in
U and resistors have 10% tolerance.
Find the design deviations of both voltages. Use both the worst case and sensitivity
approach.
3. Given the current divider: O = O = 20 , 10
2 1
R R , find all four current sensitivities.
4. In the current divider of Problem 2.11.3, A 30 =
in
I and resistors have 10% tolerance.
Find the design deviations of currents. Use both the worst case and sensitivity approach.
93
2.12 ANALYSIS OF NONLINEAR CIRCUITS
Before discussing different approaches to analysis of nonlinear circuits, i.e. circuits that
contain at least one nonlinear element, two nonlinear elements commonly used in electronic
circuits are presented.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
A circuit symbol and U I relationship of a semiconductor diode are presented in Fig.
2.12.1, for both ideal and practical diode.
Fig. 2.12.1 Semiconductor diode circuit symbol and U I relationship
Ideal diode (bold line) U I relationship:
0 for 0 < = U I (inverse polarization), (2.12.1a)
0 for 0 > = I U (forward polarization)
Then,
forward polarized ideal diode is a short-circuit,
inverse polarized diode is an open-circuit.
Practical diode (thin line) U I relationship:
) 1 (exp
0
/
=
U U
i
I I (2.12.1b)
where,
12 15
10 10

=
i
I A (inverse current),
25
0
~ U mV (in ambient temperature of 20
o
C).
The practical diode U I relationship can be linearized, and then,
forward polarized diode is practically an ideal voltage source
f
U ,
inverse polarized diode is practically an open-circuit:
0 for 0 < = U I (inverse polarization), (2.12.1c)
0 for > = I U U
f
(forward polarization)
For a silicon diode, its forward voltage is equal to 7 . 0 =
f
U V.
U I
I

i
I
f
U U
94
SEMICONDUCTOR ZENERS DIODE
A circuit symbol and U I relationship of a semiconductor Zeners diode are presented in
Fig. 2.12.2, for both ideal and practical diode.
Fig. 2.12.2 Semiconductor Zeners diode circuit symbol and U I relationship
Three different approaches to nonlinear circuit may be distinguished.
1. Graphical analysis.
2. Analysis based on Piece-Wise-Linear (PWL) approximation of nonlinearities.
3. Analysis based on the Newton-Raphson iteration technique.
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS
A series and a parallel connection of elements is considered at first. Then, graphical analysis
of a single-loop circuit is discussed, and finally, analysis of a complex circuit with only one
nonlinear element is considered.
Series connection of elements
Fig. 2.12.3 Two nonlinear elements connected in series, their U I relationships (thin solid
and dashed line) and total U I relationship (bold line)
U I
1
U I U

2
U
1
2
1
+
2
U I
I

Z
U


f
U U
I
) (
1
I g
) (
2
I g
2
1

2 1
,U U
0.5 1 2 2.5 3 U
95
Consider two bilateral nonlinear elements characterized by PWL U I relationships and
connected in series, as presented in Fig. 2.12.3. The element U I relationships are
) ( ), (
2 2 1 1
I g U I g U = = (2.12.2)
Then, taking into account KVL, characteristic of the equivalent element is
` ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1 2 1
I g I g I g U U U = + = + = (2.12.2a)
The total U I relationship for the series connection of nonlinear elements is obtained by
graphical adding the voltages of elements at various values of current.
For PWL relationships, these values are designated by coordinates of the bending points.
Parallel connection of elements
Consider the same two bilateral nonlinear elements characterized by the PWL U I
relationships, connected this time in parallel, as presented in Fig. 2.12.4.
Fig. 2.12.4 Two nonlinear elements connected in parallel, their U I relationships (thin solid
and dashed line) and total U I relationship (bold line)
The element U I relationships are
) ( ), (
2 2 1 1
U f I U f I = = (2.12.2)
Then, taking into account KCL, characteristic of the equivalent element is
) ( ) ( ) (
2 1 2 1
U f U f U f I I I = + = + = (2.12.2a)
The total U I relationship for the parallel connection of nonlinear elements is obtained by
graphical adding the currents of elements at various values of voltage.
For PWL relationships, these values are designated by coordinates of the bending points.
U I I U

1
I
2
I
1
+
2
1 2
I
2 1
, I I
3
2
1

1 2 U
96
Single-loop circuit
A single-loop nonlinear circuit is presented in Fig. 2.12.5a. The nonlinear element U I
relationship (2.12.3a) is presented in Fig. 2.12.5b.
) (U f I = (2.12.3a)
Fig. 2.12.5 a) Single-loop circuit, b) Nonlinear element U I relationship and load line
From the mesh KLV equation and the resistor Ohms law, its current can be expressed by the
nonlinear element voltage:
R
U E
I

= (2.12.3b)
The nonlinear element U I relationship (2.12.3a) and the linear element equation (2.12.3b),
the so called load line equation, form a set of two equations describing the circuit. This set
can be solved graphically, coordinates of a crossing point designate the circuit operating
point, the so called Q (quiescent)-point.
Circuit with one nonlinear element
Consider a circuit built of two parts: a linear part and a nonlinear part, as presented in Fig.
2.12.6.
Fig. 2.12.6 Nonlinear circuit separated into
linear and nonlinear part
It is assumed that the nonlinear part is built of few nonlinear elements. If so, its total U I
relationship can be found by graphically adding of the component characteristics, as discussed
previously.
a)
R I U
E
I
b)
R
E
Q
Q
I

Q
U E U
I
U
LINEAR
PART
(SOURCE)
NON-
LINEAR
PART
(LOAD)
97
The Thevenin equivalent of the linear part can be found and then, the nonlinear circuit of Fig.
2.12.6 can be transformed into the single-loop circuit of Fig. 2.12.5a, and then, the graphical
method can be utilized to find the Q-point.
Algorithm 2.12.1 Graphical analysis of nonlinear circuit
Step 1. If nonlinear part consists of more than one element, find graphically the total U I
relationship.
Step 2. Find the Thevenin equivalent of the linear part.
Step 3. Find, graphically the Q-point voltage
Q
U of the obtained single-loop circuit.
Step 4. To find voltages and/or currents inside the linear part, separate this part by means of
the voltage source
Q
U , and perform analysis of the obtained linear circuit.
Example 2.12.1
A nonlinear circuit is shown in Fig. 2.12.7. For the given parameters of linear elements:
V 12 , 5 , 10
2 2 1
= O = O = E R R , and nonlinear element U I relationship presented in Table
2.12.1, find the power supplied by the voltage source.
Table 2.12.1 Example 2.12.1 U I relationship
I [A] 0.0 0.1 0.5 0.5
U [V] 0.0 6 10 12
Fig. 2.12.7 Example 2.12.1 nonlinear circuit

The linear part open-circuit voltage and total resistance are

V 8
2
2 1
1
=
+
= E
R R
R
E
o
, (2.12.4a)
3
10
2 1
2 1
=
+
=
R R
R R
R
t
O. (2.12.4b)
To draw the load line, voltage increment of 1 V has been assumed, as denoted in Fig. 2.12.8.
For this increment and the calculated resistance of 10/3 O, the current increment is
3 . 0 / = A = A R U I A. (2.12.5)
From the graphical construction, as presented in Fig. 2.12.8, the Q-point coordinates are:
V 25 . 7 A, 225 . 0
Q Q
= = U I .
I
U

1
R


2
E
2
R
98
Fig. 2.12.8 Graphical designation of Example 2.12.1 Q-point.
To find the power supplied by the source, a circuit shown in Fig. 2.12.9 is analyzed.
Fig. 2.12.9 Example 2.12.1 linear circuit
after separation of nonlinear element
The source current, calculated by means of the superposition principle, is:
95 . 0
2
Q
2
2
2
= =
R
U
R
E
I A, (2.12.6)
and then, the power supplied by
2
E is
4 . 11
2 2
2
= = E I P
E
W. (2.12.7)
+
ANALYSIS BASED ON PWL APPROXIMATION
A nonlinear element can be characterized by an analytic function (2.1.4) or by its tabularized
PWL approximation. Each linear segment is located on a straight line described by equation
(2.12.8a) or (2.12.8b).
RI E U + = (2.12.8a)
GU J I + = (2.12.8b)

Q
U

2
I
1
R


2
E
2
R
I
0.5
0.3
0.1
5 6 7 8 10 12 U
99
This means that a nonlinear element operating at the given linear segment can be replaced by
its Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit depicted in Fig. 2.5.6 (for simplicity of description
indices in (2.12.8) have been omitted). Then, the PWL approximation based algorithm of
nonlinear circuit analysis can be formulated.
Algorithm 2.12.2 PWL approximation based analysis of nonlinear circuit
Step 1. Perform PWL approximation of characteristics of all nonlinear elements.
Step 2. For each nonlinear element, assume location of the Q point, i.e. choose one segment of
each linearized characteristic and then, replace nonlinear element by its Thevenin or
Norton equivalent.
Step 3. Perform a linear circuit analysis, designate its Q-point.
Step 4. Compare the obtained location of the Q-point with the assumed one. If locations are
the same, save the obtained solution.
Step 5. Repeat Steps 2, 3 and 4, for all combinations of segments.
Remarks.
- Steps 2, 3 and 4 have to be repeated if a circuit has multiple solutions. If a circuit has only
one solution, then, the algorithm is terminated after finding it. The question of whether a
circuit has one solution or multiple solutions is not discussed.
- For circuits with multiple solutions, there are effective algorithms that allow significant
reduction of combinations of segments that have to be analyzed. This subject is not
discussed.
- The PWL approximation based analysis is the only approach that allows to find all the
solutions.
Example 2.12.1 cont.
The PWL approximation based analysis is applied. The tabularized U I relationship (Table
2.12.1) has three segments. These segments are described by the following equations:
I. I U 60 = (2.12.9-I)
II. I U 10 5 + = (2.12.9-II)
III. 5 . 0 = I (2.12.9-III)
Thevenin or Norton equivalents are presented in Fig. 2.12.10.

Fig. 2.12.10 Thevenin and Norton equivalents of Table 2.12.1 U I relationship
I. U
I
60O
II. U
I
10O
5V
III. U
I
0.5A
100
At first, location of the Q-point on the segment I is assumed,
V 6 0 s s U (2.12.10-I)
Then, the circuit of Fig. 2.12.11-I is analyzed. The obtained voltage is
V 58 . 7
1
1
2
1
1
2
=
+
+
+
=
R R
RR
R
R R
RR
E U (2.12.11-I)
Fig. 2.12.11 Example 2.12.1 linear circuits for the 1
st
two segments of nonlinear element
The voltage is located outside the assumed range (2.12.10-I) and the next segment has to be
assumed,
V 10 6 s s U (2.12.10-II)
Then, circuit presented in Fig. 2.12.11-II is analyzed. The obtained voltage is
V 25 . 7 25 . 1 6
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
1
1
2
1
1
2
= + =
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
R R
R R
R
R R
R R
E
R R
RR
R
R R
RR
E U (2.12.11-II)
That way, the solution has been found. This solution is consistent with the solution obtained
by means of the graphical method.
+
ANALYSIS BASED ON NEWTON-RAPHSON ITERATION SCHEME
It is assumed that all nonlinear elements are characterized by analytic functions (2.1.4). In a
close neighborhood of the Q-point nonlinear characteristic can be linearized, by means of
Taylors expansion (2.12.12), as presented in Fig. 2.12.12.
U G J U U dU dI I I
Q Q Q Q Q
) ( ) / ( + = + = (2.12.12)
where
Q Q
) / ( G dU dI = (2.12.12a)
is called the dynamic conductance at the Q-point and
I. I O = 60 R
U

1
R


2
E
2
R
II. I O = 10 R V 5 = E
U

1
R


2
E
2
R
101
Q Q Q Q
U G I J = (2.12.12b)
is the short-circuit current at the Q-point. Then, for the given Q-point, Norton (or Thevenin)
equivalent of each element can be found, as depicted in Fig. 6.12.13.
Fig. 2.12.12 Nonlinear characteristic
linearized at the Q-point
Fig. 2.12.13 Norton equivalent at the Q-point
Newton-Raphson iteration scheme will be formulated, first, for one-dimensional case, then for
multi-dimensional case.
Algorithm 2.12.3a Newton-Raphson iteration scheme, one-dimensional case
Step 1. Set 0 = i . Assume a trial solution
0
U .
Step 2. Linearize ) (U f I = at
i
U , find the Norton equivalent.
Step 3. Find solution of the obtained linear circuit,
* i
U .
Step 4. Check a distance between the assumed
i
U and the obtained
* i
U :
i i
U U
*
(2.12.13)
If this distance is greater than the assumed c , then set 1 + = i i ,
)* 1 (
=
i i
U U (2.12.14)
and GO TO Step 2, end the algorithm otherwise.
I
Q

Q
I

Q
U U
I U

Q
G

Q
J
102
Example 2.12.2
Find the Q-point of the single-loop circuit presented in Fig. 2.12.14 - diode is characterized by
equation (2.12.1b).
Fig. 2.12.14 Single-loop circuit of Example 2.12.2

At each iteration ( n i ,..., 2 , 1 , 0 = ), for the given coordinates of the i-th iteration starting-point
) , (
i i
U I , parameters of the diode Norton equivalent (
i i
G J , ) are designated and system of the
following linear equations is solved;
U G J I
i i
+ = (2.12.15)
R
U E
I

= .
The obtained solution:
* i
U designates location of the next iteration starting-point (2.12.14).
The graphical construction of the first two iterations is presented in Fig. 2.12.15.
Fig. 2.12.15 Example 2.12.2 Graphical construction of the first two iterations
E R
I
1

R
E
2
n
1
*

0
*
0

0
U
2
U
* 0 1
U U = E U
103
For the assumed trial solution denoted by 0, solution denoted by 0
*
is obtained. This solution
designates starring point of the 1
st
iteration, denoted by 1. Then, next solution, denoted by 1
*
is obtained and the process repeats. As can be observed, iterations converge to the circuit Q-
point, denoted by n. Practically, this point is reached after the 3
rd
iteration.
+
In multi-dimensional case, after linearization of nonlinearities by means of Taylors
expansion, i.e. after replacement of nonlinear elements by their Norton equivalents, nodal
equations are formulated and solved, to find the new solution.
Algorithm 2.12.3a Newton-Raphson iteration scheme, multi-dimensional case
Step 1. Set 0 = i . Assume a trial solution
0
V .
Step 2. Linearize nonlinear characteristics at
i
V , find Norton equivalents.
Step 3. Find solution of the obtained linear circuit,
* i
V .
Step 4. Check the distance between the assumed
i
V and the obtained
* i
V :
* i i
V V (2.12.13a)
If this distance is greater than the assumed c , then, set 1 + = i i ,
)* 1 (
=
i i
V V (2.12.14a)
and GO TO Step 2, end the algorithm otherwise.
Remarks
- Simple iteration scheme (2.12.14) can be replaced by the more complex one, where the
new starting point
i
V is calculated from the previous one
1 i
V and the last obtained
solution
)* 1 ( i
V .
- Iterations may diverge and assumption of the maximum number of iterations is necessary.
These problems are beyond the scope of this book.
Drill problems 2.12
1. Calculate the power supplied by the ideal current source 7 . 2 = J mA, and powers
absorbed by the resistor O = k 1 R and diode given by the U I characteristic.
Fig. P.2.12.1
I
1 mA
0.7 V U
104
2. Calculate mesh currents - diode U I characteristic is the same as in Problem 2.12.1.
Fig. P.2.12.2
3. Draw the total U I relationships for: a) ideal (2.12.1a), b) practical (2.12.1c) diodes.
Fig. P.2.12.3
4. Find Thevenin and Norton equivalents for both segments of practical sources given by the
presented U I relationships.
Fig. P.2.12.4
5. Practical sources of Problem 2.12.4 are loaded by a O = 2 R resistor. Find the power
absorbed.
6. Find the series resistance R, so that 10V Zeners diode operates at 10 mA current. Supply
voltage is 12.5 V, load resistance is 1000 O.
Fig. P.2.12.6
1 kO
2.8 V
1 kO
2.7 V
I [A]
10
U
20 40 [V]
I [A]
4
2
6 U [V]
R
U
l
R
105
7. In Problem 2.12.6 circuit, find the acceptable range of load resistance so that the diode
current ranges from 5 to 15 mA when the supply voltage ranges from 10 to 15 V.
8. Find the coordinates of the nonlinear element Q point.
Fig. P.2.12.8
9. Find the acceptable range of the load resistance, if the acceptable range of its voltage is
V 5 . 0 5 and the supply voltage may deviate from the nominal value of 12 V by 1 V.
Fig. P.2.12.9
10. Resistor O = 2 R and the nonlinear element, characterized by the given Table, are
connected in series. Find the range of current that flows through the combination if the
supply voltage ranges from 7 to 13 V.
Table P.2.12.10
I [A] 11. 0 12. 0.25 13. 1 14. 3
U [V] 15. 0 16. 5 17. 8 18. 10
3 O
2 O
40 V
10 A U
I
I [A]
2
10 20 U [V]
O =100 R
U
l
R
I [mA]
40
4 6 U [V]
106
2.13 NETWORK ANALOGIES MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
The presented laws, principles and theorems of dc circuits can be applied to circuits and
networks other than electric (electronic), such as pneumatic network, hydraulic network or
magnetic circuit. Table 2.13.1 presents analogies between electric circuit variables and non-
electric circuit/network variables. Such circuit/network is described by nonlinear equations
and can be analyzed by means of methods presented in Chapter 2.12.
Table 2.13.1 Analogous electrical and pneumatic/hydraulic or magnetic circuit quantities
Electric circuit
Pneumatic
or hydraulic network
Magnetic circuit
voltage drop U pressure difference P A magnetic voltage
m
U
potential V pressure P ------
electromotive force E
pump capacity
p
P A
magnetomotive force F
current I flow magnetic flux
resistance R ------ magnetic resistance
m
R
Magnetic circuits will be discussed in details.
Magnetic field is a region in space wherein a magnetic body (pole) M [Wb] experiences a
magnetic force
m
F [N].
Magnetic field is uniquely defined in its every point by the magnetic field intensity or
magnetizing force.
Magnetic field intensity is defined as the magnetic force per unit magnetic body at a particular
point of space.
M F H
m
/ = (2.13.1)
Its unit is newton per weber or ampere-turn per meter, [N/Wb] ] At/m [ =
Magnetic line of force is the path along which an isolated magnetic pole moves within a
magnetic field. It is considered that magnetic lines of force are passing perpendicularly
through the given magnetic element, as presented in Fig. 2.13.1 South and North poles are
denoted. Magnetic flux and magnetic flux density can be defined.
Fig. 2.13.1 Magnetic element with denoted
poles and magnetic lines of force
l
S N u S
107
Magnetic flux u is total number of lines passing through an area S. Its unit is weber
[Wb]=[Vs].
Magnetic flux density B is defined as number of lines passing perpendicularly through an
area of 1
2
m :
S B / = (2.13.2)
Its unit is tesla, [T]=[Vs/
2
m ].
Magnetic element material is characterized by its magnetization curve or H B curve:
) (H f B = (2.13.3)
In case of diamagnetics, H B relationship is linear:
H H B
o r
= = (2.13.3a)
where,
r
- dimensionless relative magnetic permeability of the material,
7
10 4

= t
o
[Vs/Am] - magnetic permeability of the free space,
- absolute permeability of the material.
Fig. 2.13.2 H B curve of sheet steel, cast steel and cast iron
In case of ferromagnetics, H B relationship is nonlinear. Magnetization curves of three
most common ferromagnetics are presented in Fig. 2.13.2. Operating point should be located
on the steepest segment, not on the saturation part of the characteristic. The higher is material
permeability, designated by the steepest segment, the better are its magnetic properties. Then,
sheet steel reveals the best magnetic properties. Its relative permeability is 3500 and it is
B [T]
1.6
sheet steel
1.4
cast steel
1.1
1.0
0.8
0.6 cast iron

250 1000 3000 5500 7000 H [At/m]
108
seven times greater than the cast iron permeability, which equals 480. For comparison, an air
core relative permeability is 1.
For the given magnetic flux flowing through an element its magnetic voltage can be defined:
Hl U
m
= (2.13.4)
Its unit is ampere-turn [At].
Then, a magnetic element of Fig 2.13.1 can be modeled by a nonlinear resistor, as presented
in Fig. 2.13.3. Its
m
U relationship can be found by rescaling the material H B curve,
taking into account the element dimensions, cross section area S and mean magnetic length l,
as shown in Fig. 2.13.1 and Fig. 2.13.6 for different cores.
Fig. 2.13.3 Electrical model of magnetic element
For a linear (diamagnetic) element, from (2.13.3a):
m
U
l
S
S
l
Hl
BS

= = = . (2.13.5)
Then, magnetic element Ohms law can be formulated:
m m
R U / = (2.13.6)
where,
S
l
R
o r
m

= (2.13.7)
is the so called magnetic resistance or reluctance, in [At/Wb].
Magnetic field induced around a current carrying conductor is further considered. Fig. 2.13.4
presents such conductor perpendicularly crossing the plane, with conventional current
direction, a) from the plane, b) to the plane. Direction of the magnetic field can be specified
by the right hand rule.
Fig. 2.13.4 Current carrying conductor
perpendicularly crossing the plane
u

m
U
a) b)

109
If a current carrying conductor is grasped in the right hand, with the thumb pointing in the
direction of the conventional current, the fingers will then point in the direction of the
magnetic lines of force.
Fig. 2.13.5 Solenoid coil
Fig. 2.13.5 presents electromagnet or solenoid coil or simply coil, a wire wound around a
core, with the total number of z turns. Such coil exhibits the magnetic field when energized.
The value of flux that develops in a coil depends on the current I and the number of turns z.
The product of I and z is called the magnetomotive force (mmf):
Iz F = (2.13.8)
Its unit is ampere-turn, [At] and it is an analog to emf.
A coil as an element of electric circuit is considered in next chapters. In this chapter analysis
of magnetic circuit is considered. Electric model of such circuit is built of nonlinear resistors,
mmf and eventually a linear resistor, if an air gap is present. A nonlinear resistor is described
by an element
m
U relationship, a linear resistor is described by Ohms law (2.13.6),
fluxes are related by KCL (2.13.9) and magnetic voltages are related by KVL (2.13.10).
The algebraic sum of magnetic fluxes entering or leaving arbitrary node i equals zero.

-
=
i
0 (2.13.9)
where,

-i
denotes algebraic sum of fluxes entering or leaving the node i.
The algebraic sum of magnetic voltages around arbitrary loop i equals zero,

O
=
i
m
U 0 , (2.13.10)
where,

Oi
denotes algebraic sum of magnetic voltages around the loop i.
N S
u
z
I
110
Then, methods of nonlinear circuit analysis, presented in Chapter 2.12, can be applied.
Graphical method is preferred, due to simplicity of magnetic circuit, which is practically
always a single-loop circuit or eventually two-loop circuit. Toroidal-core single-loop circuit
and exemplary rectangular-core single-loop circuit and two-loop circuit are presented in Fig.
2.13.6a, b and c, respectively, together with their equivalent diagrams.
Fig. 2.13.6 Exemplary magnetic circuits and their electric models, a) toroidal core circuit,
b) single-loop circuit, c) two-loop circuit
Drill problems 2.13
1. A coil of 200 turns is wrapped on a homogenous sheet-steel core having a cross section of
2
cm 2 and mean length of 20 cm. If a flux of Wb 10 5 . 2
4
is developed in the core, what
current must flow in a coil of 100 = z turns.
2. A cast iron core has a cross section of
2
cm 5 . 0 and mean length of 10 cm. If a coil placed
on the core develops 100 At, determine the flux produced in the core.
b)
2
S

2
l
I
1
l
3
S

3
l o

1
S z

3
l
l
a) S
I
o
z
l
c)

1
l
1
l

2
l
S I S
z
S
u
m
U
Iz F =
o
R
o
U

2 m
U
u

1 m
U
3 m
U

o
R
o
U
Iz
3 m
U

2 m
U

1

1

2 m
U
1 m
U

1 m
U
2

Iz F =
111
3. TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
Transient analysis is unsettled or temporary state of a circuit after throwing a switch or
change in the applied voltage or current excitation.
Transient analysis is considered in the time period starting from the initial time, taken as
0 0
0
= =
+
t , and ending at the steady state time

t . Then, any transient response (circuit
variable in a transient state) is characterized by time-domain function ) (t y y = . Its boundary
values are:
- initial value,
0
) 0 ( Y y = ,
- steady state value,

= Y y ) ( .
A circuit transient analysis equations are integro-differential equations. These equations can
be solved in the original time-domain or in operator-domain, after Laplace transformation.
Definition and properties of the Laplace transform, together with transforms of the selected
singularity functions and ordinary functions that describe circuit excitations and responses are
presented in Appendix A.
At first, analysis of a transient state caused by changing topology of a circuit with time-
invariant (dc) excitation, by opening or closing a switch or simply moving it from one
position to the other, will be considered.
Then, methods of transient analysis in circuits with arbitrary aperiodic excitation will be
discussed.
Before presenting methods of transient analysis, i-u relationships of circuit elements and
Kirchhoffs laws in time-domain and operator-domain are presented.
3.1 KIRCHHOFFS LAWS and PASSIVE ELEMENT LAWS
KIRCHHOFFS LAWS
Kirchhoffs laws, discussed in Chapter 2.2 for constant values of currents and voltages, can be
generalized into time-varying values.
Kirchhoffs Current Law
At any instant of time, the algebraic sum of currents entering or leaving arbitrary node or
cutset equals zero:

-
=
j
i 0 . (3.1.1)
where,
112

- j
denotes algebraic sum of instantaneous currents entering or leaving the j-th node
(cutset), by the convention:
+ , if current arrowhead is directed to the node (cutset),
, if current arrowhead is directed from the node (cutset).
Using the linearity rule (A3), in the s-domain KCL law becomes

-
=
j
s I 0 ) ( . (3.1.1a)
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
At any instant of time, the algebraic sum of voltages around arbitrary loop or closed path
equals zero,

O
=
j
u 0 , (3.1.2)
where,

O j
denotes algebraic sum of voltages around the j-th loop (closed path), by the
convention:
+ , if, voltage arrowhead has clockwise direction,
, if voltage arrowhead has anticlockwise direction.
Using the linearity rule (A3), in the s-domain KCL law becomes

O
=
j
s U 0 ) ( , (3.1.2a)
PASSIVE ELEMENT LAWS
Ideal passive circuit elements are considered. These elements can be divided into two classes:
- Energy dissipating elements: resistors.
- Energy storage elements: capacitors and coils.
Resistor
A linear resistor presented in Fig. 3.1.1 is characterized by Ohms law (3.1.3):
Ri u = (3.1.3a)
Gu i = (3.1.3b)
113
Fig. 3.1.1 Circuit symbol for a linear resistor
A resistor is uniquely characterized by its resistance R, in ohms [O]=[V/A], or conductance G,
in siemens [S]=[A/V]. Resistance (conductance) is a circuit constant, constant of
proportionality relating the current and the voltage.
Fig. 3.1.2 Voltage, current and instantaneous power waveforms in a 1O resistor.
The resistor instantaneous power is:
0
2 2
> = = G u R i p (3.1.4)
u
i
R
u [V] a)
2
t [s]
2 4 6 7
2
i [A] b)
2
t [s]
2 4 6 7
2
p [W] c)
4

+ +
t [s]
2 4 6 7
114
Then, energy dissipated between the initial time 0
0
= t and arbitrary time < t is always
nonnegative
} }
= = =
t t
dt u G dt i R w t w
0 0
2 2
) ( (3.1.5)
The total energy dissipated is
} }

= =
0 0
2 2
dt u G dt i R W (3.1.5a)
Fig. 3.1.2 presents exemplary plots of u, i and p in 1O resistor - the total energy dissipated is
equal to the hatched area, 3 / 38 =

W J.
Transforming both sides of Ohms law (3.1.3) (linearity rule (A3) is utilized), yields
) ( ) ( s RI s U = (3.1.6a)
) ( ) ( s GU s I = (3.1.6b)
The s-domain equivalent of a resistor is presented in Fig. 3.1.3
Fig. 3.1.3 s-domain equivalent of a resistor
Capacitor
A capacitor is an element that consists of two conducting bodies (plates) that are separated by
a dielectric. A linear capacitor presented in Fig. 3.1.4 is characterized by u q relationship
(3.1.7):
Fig. 3.1.4 Circuit symbol for a capacitor
Cu q = (3.1.7)
A capacitor is uniquely characterized by its capacitance C, in farads [F]=[C/V]=[Asec/V].
Capacitance is a circuit constant, constant of proportionality relating the charge and the
voltage.
Differentiating (3.1.7), a capacitor u i relationship can be found:
dt
du
C i = (3.1.8a)
The voltage in terms of the current can be found by integrating both sides of (3.1.8a) between
times 0
0
= t and t:
) (s U
) (s I R
u
i C
115
}
+ =
t
U idt
C
u
0
0
1
(3.1.8b)
where
C q u U / ) 0 ( ) 0 (
0
= = (3.1.8c)
is the voltage on C at time 0
0
= t , the capacitor initial condition. The integral term in (3.1.8b)
represents the voltage that accumulates on the capacitor in the interval from 0
0
= t to t,
whereas
0
U is that, which accumulates from = t to
0
t . The voltage ) ( u is taken to be
zero.
The principle of conservation of charge implies that the voltage on a capacitor is always
continuous, may not change abruptly, even though the current may be discontinuous.
In particular, the voltage on a capacitor may not change abruptly at the inception of transient
state, at 0
0
= = t t . If

= 0 t is an instant of time just before 0 = t , then

) 0 (
0
= u U (3.1.8d)
what means that a capacitor initial condition is designated by its voltage just before inception
of the transient state.
Capacitor is the energy storage element. The energy stored in the electric field between
= t and arbitrary time < t is
} }


= = =
t t
t
Cu
du u C dt iu w
2
2
(3.1.9)
As 0 ) ( = u , then,
2
2
Cu
w = (3.1.9a)
It should be observed, that energy stored at time t is always nonnegative and it is designated
by the capacitor constant and instantaneous value of voltage, the way of reaching this value is
meaningless. Energy stored at the steady state condition is:
const
CU
W = =

2
2
(3.1.9b)
This energy can be fully recovered. Assume that voltage across a 1 F capacitor changes as
presented in Fig. 3.1.2a. Then, the current and power waveforms are as presented in Fig.
3.1.5b and c.
The capacitor stores energy ( 0 > p ), then gives it back ( 0 < p ), stores again and gives back.
In Fig. 3.1.5, energy stored is denoted by +, energy given back is denoted by .
- 0 = t : no energy is stored, 0
0
= W J,
- ) 2 , 0 ( e t : capacitor is charged, energy is absorbed,
- 2 = t : 2
2
= W J,
116
- ) 4 , 2 ( e t : no flow of energy, 2 = = const w J,
- : 4 = t 2
4
= W J,
- ) 5 , 4 ( e t : discharging of capacitor, energy is given back,
- 5 = t : no energy is stored, 0
5
= W J,
- ) 6 , 5 ( e t : capacitor is charged, energy is absorbed,
- : 6 = t 2
6
= W J,
- ) 7 , 6 ( e t : discharging of capacitor, energy is given back,
- 7 > t : no energy is stored, 0 = w J.
Fig. 3.1.5 Current and power waveforms in a 1 F capacitor for Fig. 3.1.2a voltage waveform
Transforming both sides of capacitor law (3.1.8a) (linearity rule (A3) and differentiation rule
(A5) are utilized), yields
0
) ( ) ( CU s sCU s I = (3.1.10a)
Solving this equation for ) (s U or applying integration rule (A4) to (3.1.8b), yields
s
U
s I
sC
s U
0
) (
1
) ( + = (3.1.10b)
i [A] b)
2
1
4 t [s]
2 6 7
2
p [W] c)
4
2
+ +
2 4 6 7 t [s]

4
117
Then, based on Kirchhoffs equations, capacitor s-domain equivalents can be found. They are
presented in Fig. 3.1.5.
Fig. 3.1.6
s-domain equivalents of a capacitor
Coil (Inductor)
A coil or inductor is an element that consists of a coiled conducting wire around a core. A
coil with toroidal core is presented in Fig. 3.1.7, together with its electric analog.
Fig. 3.1.7 Toroidal core coil and its electric analog
A current flowing through the coil produces a magnetic flux |. The total flux linked by the z
turns of the coil, denoted by
t
| , is
| | z
t
= (3.1.11)
This total flux is commonly referred to as the flux linkage.
A linear core characterized by the linear H B relationship (2.13.3a) is considered. Then, for
the given dimensions, the core magnetic resistance (2.13.7) can be designated. Finally, taking
into account electric analogies, Ohms law and KVL, the total flux can be expressed by the
coil current. For the core presented in Fig. 3.1.7, this flux is
l
S z
i
R
iz
o r
m
t

|
2 2
= = (3.1.12)
Then, constant of proportionality relating the total flux and the current, a circuit constant
characterizing uniquely the coil, can be introduced. This constant L is called the inductance.
Its unit is henry [H]=[Wb/A]=[Vs/A].
Li
t
= | (3.1.13)
) (s U ) (s U
) (s I

sC
1


sC
1

0
CU

s
U
0
) (s I
S
i
u z
l
l
|
|
iz f =
m
R
m
u
118
In general, inductance is directly proportional to the square of the number of turns and core
permeability, then it is proportional to the core dimensions. For the core presented in Fig.
3.1.7, the inductance is
l
S z
L
o r

2
= (3.1.14)
Fig. 3.1.8 Circuit symbol for a coil
Circuit symbol for a coil is presented in Fig. 3.1.8. To find a coil u i relationship,
Faradays law should be recalled.
When the magnetic flux linking a coil changes, a voltage directly proportional to the rate of
flux change is induced in a coil:
dt
d
dt
d
z u
t
| |
= = (3.1.15)
Faradays law (3.1.15) with (3.1.13) yields a coil u i relationship:
dt
di
L u = (3.1.16a)
The current in terms of the voltage can be found by integrating both sides of (3.1.16a)
between times 0
0
= t and t:
}
+ =
t
I udt
L
i
0
0
1
(3.1.16b)
where
L i I
t
/ ) 0 ( ) 0 (
0
| = = (3.1.16c)
is the current at time 0
0
= t , the coil initial condition.
The principle of conservation of flux implies that the current through a coil is always
continuous, may not change abruptly, even though the voltage may be discontinuous.
In particular, the current may not change abruptly at the inception of transient state, at
0
0
= = t t . If

= 0 t is an instant of time just before 0 = t , then

) 0 (
0
= i I (3.1.16d)
what means that a coil initial condition is designated by its current just before inception of the
transient state.
u
i L
119
Coil is the energy storage element. The energy stored in the magnetic field between = t
and arbitrary time < t is
} }


= = =
t t
t
Li
di i L dt iu w
2
2
(3.1.17)
As 0 ) ( = i , then,
2
2
Li
w = (3.1.17a)
It should be observed, that energy stored at time t is always nonnegative and it is designated
by the coil constant and instantaneous value of current, the way of reaching this value is
meaningless. Energy stored at the steady state condition is:
const
LI
W = =

2
2
(3.1.17b)
Fig. 3.1.9 Voltage and power waveforms in a 1 H coil and Fig. 3.1.2b current waveform
This energy can be fully recovered. Assume that the current through a 1 H coil changes as
presented in Fig. 3.1.2b. Then, the voltage and power waveforms are as presented in Fig.
3.1.9a and c.
p [W] c)
4
1
+ +
2 4 6 7 t [s]

4
u [V] a)
2
1
4 t [s]
2 6 7
2
120
The coil stores energy ( 0 > p ), then gives it back ( 0 < p ), stores again and gives back. In
Fig. 3.1.9, energy stored is denoted by +, energy given back is denoted by .
- 0 = t : no energy is stored, 0
0
= W J,
- ) 2 , 0 ( e t : energy is absorbed,
- 2 = t : 2
2
= W J,
- ) 4 , 2 ( e t : no flow of energy, 2 = = const w J,
- : 4 = t 2
4
= W J,
- ) 5 , 4 ( e t : energy is given back,
- 5 = t : no energy is stored, 0
5
= W J,
- ) 6 , 5 ( e t : energy is absorbed,
- : 6 = t 2
6
= W J,
- ) 7 , 6 ( e t : energy is given back,
- 7 > t : no energy is stored, 0 = w J.
Transforming both sides of coil law (3.1.16a) (linearity rule (A3) and differentiation rule (A5)
are utilized), yields
0
) ( ) ( LI s sLI s U = (3.1.18a)
Solving this equation for ) (s I or applying integration rule (A4) to (3.1.16b), yields
s
I
s U
sL
s I
0
) (
1
) ( + = (3.1.18b)
Then, based on Kirchhoffs equations, capacitor s-domain equivalents can be found. They are
presented in Fig. 3.1.10.
Fig. 3.1.10
s-domain equivalents of a coil
Passive elements Summary
The three passive elements: resistor, capacitor and coil, are characterized by three circuit
constants: resistance R, capacitance C and inductance L, and described by four circuit
variables: voltage, current, charge and total flux. Graph depicted in Fig. 3.1.11 presents
relationships between these variables. As should be observed, only total flux and charge are
not related.
) (s U ) (s U
) (s I
sL
sL
s
I
0

0
LI
) (s I
121
Fig. 3.1.11
Graph representation of
relationships between
four circuit variables
It has been assumed that all elements are ideal. Practical capacitor and coil are discussed in
Chapter 4, their circuit models built of ideal elements are presented.
Coil and Capacitor boundary behavior
Taking into account u i relationships of energy storage elements and flux or charge
conservation principle, their boundary behavior can be analyzed.
- At the initial time, 0
0
= = t t , the capacitor voltage is equal to the initial condition
(3.1.8c), the coil current is equal to the initial condition (3.1.16c), what results from the
charge or flux preservation principle. Then, at this instant of time, capacitor may be
replaced by the dc voltage source
0
U , coil may be replaced by the dc current source
0
I
and the dc analysis can be performed, to find all other circuit variables.
- At the steady state, at

= 0 t or = t , all circuit variables are constant, including coil

currents and capacitor voltages. Then, the coil voltage is zero and it can be replaced by the
short circuit, the capacitor current is zero and it can be replaced by the open circuit.
Coil and capacitor models at boundary conditions are presented in Table 3.1.1.
Table 3.1.1 Capacitor and coil models at boundary conditions
Element

= 0 t 0 = t = t
u
0
U

0
U

0
I

0
I
Knowledge of the circuit order and the response boundary values allow to predict the general
form of the response. In the 1
st
order circuit this knowledge, together with knowledge of the
time constant, allows to give the exact solution. This approach is discussed in the next section
of this Chapter.
i
Ri u =
i u
Cu q =
dt
dq
i =
dt
d
u
t
|
=
Li
t
= |
q
t
|
122
All three s-domain element equations, (3.1.6), (3.1.10) and (3.1.18), contain a term that relates
the voltage ) (s U and the current ) (s I . Energy storage element equations also contain a term
designated by the element initial condition. The factor of proportionality between the voltage
and the current in the first term is the element impedance ) (s Z . Impedance is defined as the
ratio of ) (s U to ) (s I when initial condition
0 0 0
or I U X = is zero.
0
0
) ( / ) ( ) (
=
=
X
s I s U s Z (3.1.19a)
The reciprocal of the impedance is called the admittance ) (s Y
0
0
) ( / ) ( ) ( / 1 ) (
=
= =
X
s U s I s Z s Y (3.1.19b)
Impedances and admittances of the three elements are presented in Table 3.1.2
Table 3.1.2 Impedances and admittances of passive elements
Element Impedance ) (s Z Admittance ) (s Y
Resistor R R G / 1 =
Capacitor sC / 1 sC
Coil sL sL / 1
A resistor equivalent consists only of the impedance R. The energy storage element equivalent
consists of a pure impedance connected in series with an initial condition designated voltage
source or a pure admittance connected in parallel with an initial condition designated current
source.
For zero initial conditions and the introduced term of impedance/admittance, an element
equations in the s-domain can be presented in the generalized form
) ( ) ( ) ( s I s Z s U = (3.1.20a)
) ( ) ( ) ( s U s Y s I = (3.1.20b)
also called Ohms low in s-domain.
Term of impedance/admittance can be generalized on arbitrary two-terminal passive circuit.
Its equivalent impedance or admittance can be found, in the same way as equivalent resistance
or conductance in the dc circuit. Such impedance or admittance is a complex function of s.
Homogenous circuits are exceptions any combination of resistors can be replaced by a
single resistor, any combination of capacitors can be replaced by a single capacitor and any
combination of inductors can be replaced by a single inductor.
Drill problems 3.1
1. Find equivalent capacitance of two capacitors connected in series (parallel).
2. Write down (with reasoning) the dc voltage divider equations for two capacitors
connected in series.
3. Find equivalent inductance of two coils connected in series (parallel).
4. Write down (with reasoning) the dc current divider equations for two inductors connected
in parallel.
123
5. A coil of 200 turns of wire is wound on a steel core having a mean length of 0.1 m and a
cross section of 4 10
-4
m
2
. The relative permeability at the rated current of the coil is
1000. Determine the inductance of the coil.
6. Constant current of 5 mA produces flux of
4
10 5 . 2

Wb in a coil of 200 turns. What
energy is stored in this coil.
7. Constant current of 5 mA charges F 1 capacitor for 10 seconds. What energy is stored
after this period of time (energy initially stored is zero).
8. A coil of 200 turns is wrapped on a sheet-steel core ( H B curve - Fig. 2.9.2) having a
cross section of 2 cm
2
and a mean length of 20 cm. If a flux of
4
10 5 . 2

Wb is developed
in a core, what current must flow in the coil ?
9. A cast iron-core ( H B curve - Fig. 2.9.2) has a cross section of 0.5 cm
2
and a mean
length of 10 cm. If a coil placed on the core develops 100 A
t
, determine the flux produced
in the core. Find cast iron permeabilities and inductances for z=10
4
turns (I=10 mA).
10. What constant current is required to charge a F 2 from 0 to 5 V in 2 ms.
11. A constant current of 10 mA is charging a 2F capacitor. If the capacitor initial voltage is
zero, find the charge, voltage and energy stored after 10 ms.
12. Two capacitors, 10 and F 40 , are connected in series to a 100 V source. What energy is
stored in each ? What charge is stored in each ?
13. The given current flows through 1F capacitor. Calculate the maximum energy stored and
the total energy stored, if the initially stored energy is zero.
Fig. P.3.1.13
14. If the voltage across an F 1 capacitor changes as shown, plot its current, designate the
maximum energy stored.
Fig. P.3.1.14
i [A]
2
1 2 t [s]
1
u [V]
2
t
1 3 5 8 [s]
3
124
15. For the given current that flows through an F 1 capacitor, plot the corresponding voltage
(assume 0
0
= U ).
Fig. P.3.1.15
16. If the current in an 0.1 H coil changes as shown, plot voltage across the coil and designate
the maximum energy stored.
Fig. P.3.1.16
17. Find the current i in a 0.5 H inductor if 0 ) 0 ( = i and the voltage is as shown. What is the
maximum energy stored and at what time ?
Fig. P.3.1.17
18. The voltage across a F 1 capacitor is the triangular waveform. Draw the current
waveform. What is the maximum energy stored and at what times ? Assume: 2 = T ms,
10
max
= U V.
Fig. P.3.1.18
20. Given a coil of 10 turns and 0.5 mH. Find the inductance after adding/subtracting of 5
turns.
u
max
U
T 2T t
)) ( ) ( ( / 2 sin T t t T I i
m
= 1 1 t
[A]
1
t
2 [s]
i [A]
1
4 6 t
2 [s]
2
i [A]
2
2 3 t
1 [ms]
1
u [V]
4
2 4 t [s]
2
125
3.2 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS in CIRCUITS with STEP EXCITATION
The transient response caused by changing topology of a circuit with time-invariant (dc)
excitation, by moving a switch at 0 = t , is considered at first. It is generally assumed that at

= 0 t , all circuit variables (currents and voltages) are zero or/and constant.
In general, such response may be sum of two components:
- natural response or zero-input response,
- forced response or zero-state response.
Natural response or zero-input response
n n
y t y = ) ( (3.2.1a)
is the result of initial capacitive and/or inductive energy stored within a circuit.
Forced response or zero-state response
f f
y t y = ) ( (3.2.1b)
is the result of excitation, independent sources acting within a circuit.
Then, the total response, so called complete response
f n
y y y + = (3.2.1)
is a superposition of the initial condition response with all independent sources zeroed and the
response to independent sources with the initial conditions zeroed. Block diagram
interpretation of this strategy is presented in Fig. 3.2.1, where x is the excitation,
0
x is the
initial condition.
Fig. 3.2.1 Block diagram of single output (transient response) double input (excitation +
initial condition) circuit
A forced response with zero initial conditions will be considered at first, 0
0
= x . Analysis of
the 1
st
order circuits, and then, analysis of the 2
nd
order circuits will be discussed in details.
Next, natural response with excitation being switched off, i.e. no forced response case, 0 = x ,
will be considered.
x
LINEAR PASSIVE
y
CIRCUIT

0
x with no energy stored
126
Finally, the general case, with both responses present will be discussed.
It is assumed, that a circuit to be analyzed is modeled by its diagram, built of ideal elements.
Then, taking into account element u i relationships (3.1.3), (3.1.8), (3.1.16) and Kirchhoffs
laws (3.1.1), (3.1.2), the circuit can be described by the system of differential or integro-
differential equations. This system may be solved
- in time-domain or
- Laplace transforms may be used.
In the latter case, the equation or equations are first Laplace transformed, and then, solved by
straightforward algebraic means. The inverse transform of the solution is the last step of
circuit transient analysis.
The order of the highest-order derivative of differential equations describing a circuit, denoted
by n, determines the circuit order. The n-th order circuit can be also identified by the
presence of n energy storage elements (after series-parallel simplification of homogeneous
two-terminal subcircuit(s) built of coils or capacitors, if present).
FORCED RESPONSE
After throwing a switch, the dc voltage source E may be described by the unit step function
(3.2.3a) and the current source J may be described by the unit step function (3.2.3b).
) ( ) ( t E e t e 1 = = (3.2.3a)
) ( ) ( t J j t j 1 = = (3.2.3b)
Three different methods of transient analysis can be distinguished:
- Time-domain method,
- Laplace Transform or Operator method,
- Method based on boundary values determination.
First two are applicable to both 1
st
order circuit and higher-order circuit, the last one is
applicable only to the 1
st
order circuit. Use of all three methods will be presented on
exemplary circuits.
1
st
order circuit time-domain method
Example 3.2.1
The simple one-loop RL circuit is presented in Fig. 3.2.2. Find the coil current and voltage
after closing the switch, by means of the time-domain method.

There is no energy initially stored in the coil, 0

0
= I . Then, only forced response should be
considered. The dc circuits at boundary, initial and steady state, conditions are presented in
Fig. 3.2.3. The boundary values of the circuit responses are collected in Table 3.2.1.
127
Fig. 3.2.2 RL circuit for Example 3.2.1
Fig. 3.2.3 Example 3.2.1 circuit at boundary conditions
Table 3.2.1 Boundary conditions for Example 3.2.1
0 = t = t
t
I 0 R E /
t
U E 0
For 0 > t , the circuit equations are
E u u
R
= + (3.2.4a)
dt
di
L u = (3.2.4b)
Ri u
R
= (3.2.4c)
From these equations, the circuit equation (KVL equation) can be formulated
E Ri
dt
di
L = + (3.2.5)
The 1
st
order equation has been obtained, its solution consists of two components:
- Particular solution, the steady state response (3.2.6a)
R E I / =

. (3.2.6a)
- Solution of the homogeneous equation (3.2.5a), the transient exponential response
(3.2.6b).
0 = + i
dt
di
o , T L R / 1 / = = o (3.2.5a)
) / exp( ) exp( T t B t B i = =
~
o (3.2.6b)
R
i u
E L
R
0
I
0
U
E
R

U
E
128
Then, the total solution is
) / exp( / T t B R E i I i + = + =
~
(3.2.6c)
Constant B can be calculated from the second boundary condition
R E B B R E I / /
0
= + = (3.2.6d)
and the final obtained solution of (3.2.5) is
) / exp( T t
R
E
R
E
i = (3.2.7)
where,
R L T / = (3.2.8)
is the time constant for the RL circuit.
The coil voltage can be calculated from (3.2.4b)
) / exp( T t E u = (3.2.9)
Please note, that both responses (3.2.7) and (3.2.9) start at 0 = t . They are not multiplied by
the unit step for simplicity of description. The responses are graphed in Fig. 3.2.4.
Fig. 3.2.4 Responses for Example 3.2.1
From (3.1.17b), the total energy stored is
2
) / (
2
R E L
W =

(3.2.10a)
The total energy supplied/dissipated at

> t t is
t
R
E
w
2
~ (3.2.10b)
+
i u

R
E
E
T t T t
129
1
st
order circuit s-domain method
The following algorithm of the s-domain method can be formulated.
Algorithm 3.2.1 s-domain method
Step 1. Predict the response(s):
a) evaluate the circuit order,
b) designate initial condition(s), if present,
c) designate boundary values

Y Y ,
0
.
To find initial condition(s) and boundary values, perform dc analysis three times with
each energy storage element replaced by a short-circuit or an open-circuit or an ideal
source, as presented in Table 3.1.1.
In the zero initial condition case:
dc analysis at

= 0 t is omitted,
at 0 = t , coil is replaced by an open-circuit and capacitor by a short-circuit.
Step 2. Build the circuit diagram at s-domain, formulate the analysis equations generalized
Kirchhoffs analysis or nodal analysis can be utilized.
Step 3. Solve the equations to find the response in s-domain, ) (s Y .
Step 4 Find the inverse transformation y t y = ) ( dictionary approach or Heavisides
formula can be utilized.
Step 5. Plot the response(s). Check whether the obtained boundary values match the predicted
ones.
Example 3.2.2
The simple one-loop RC circuit is presented in Fig. 3.2.5. Find the capacitor current and
voltage after closing the switch, by means of the s-domain method. Then, find total energy
supplied, stored and dissipated.

There is no energy initially stored in the capacitor, 0

0
= U . Then, only forced response should
be considered. The dc circuits at boundary, initial and steady state, conditions are presented in
Fig. 3.2.6. The boundary values of the circuit responses are collected in Table 3.2.2.
Fig. 3.2.5 RC circuit for Example 3.2.2 in time-domain and s-domain
R
i u
E C
R
I(s) U(s)

s
E

sC
1
130
Fig. 3.2.6 Example 3.2.2 circuit at boundary conditions
Table 3.2.2 Boundary conditions for Example 3.2.2
0 = t = t
t
I R E / 0
t
U 0 E
From Fig. 3.2.5 circuit, the mesh current is
sT
T
R
E
sC
R
s
E
s I
+
=
+
=
1
1
) ( (3.2.11)
The current inverse transform can be found in the dictionary (A10a):
) / exp( T t
R
E
i = (3.2.12)
where
RC T = (3.2.13)
is the time constant for the RC circuit.
The capacitor voltage is
}
= =
t
T t E E idt
C
u
0
) / exp(
1
(3.2.14)
After closing the switch, the capacitor is charged, through the resistance R, the value equal to
the source value of E is reached after RC T t 5 5 = =

. The smaller is the resistance, the

shorter is the charging period > e<

t t , 0 , the larger is the current initial value R E I /
0
= .
Large resistance case and small resistance case, at const C = , are depicted in Fig. 3.2.7.
R

U
E
R
0
I
0
U
E
131
Fig. 3.2.7 RC circuit response, large resistance and small resistance case
In the ideal case, when 0 = R , then
EC
sC
s
E
s I = =
1
) ( (3.2.11a)
and the time-domain response is the impulse
) (t EC i o = , (3.2.12a)
an infinitely tall and infinitely narrow pulse of EC area.
Regardless the value of resistance, total charge that flows in the circuit (hatched area) is the
same
}

= = =
0
const EC dt i Q (3.2.15)
Total energy supplied by the source is:
C E dt i E W
E
2
0
= =
}

(3.2.16)
Half of this energy, total energy stored on the capacitor, can be fully recovered. From
(3.1.9b), this energy is:
2
2
CE
W =

(3.2.16a)
The other half is dissipated as a heat, on the resistor:
}

= =
0
2
2
2
CE
dt i R W
R
(3.2.16b)
+
i i
R R
Q
Q
132
1
st
order circuit boundary values based method
Single energy storage element may be extracted from the 1
st
order circuit, and then such
circuit can be considered as a resistive subcircuit loaded with an energy storage element.
Thevenins theorem can be utilized and an arbitrary 1
st
order circuit can be reduced to the
one-loop RL or RC circuit. The circuits described in the s-domain are presented in Fig. 3.2.8,
where,
t
R is the Thevenin resistance - the resistance seen from terminals of the energy
storage element after deactivating all sources.
Fig. 3.2.8 The 1
st
order circuit reduced to one-loop circuit
The obtained circuits have been already considered (Examples 3.2.1 and 3.2.2).Their time
constants are given by equations (3.2.8) and (3.2.13).
Fig. 3.2.9 Decaying and rising exponential responses
y
0
Y

Y
T t

t
R
I(s) U(s)

s
E
o
sL

t
R
I(s) U(s)

s
E
o

sC
1
y

Y
0
Y
T t
133
The 1
st
order circuit arbitrary response y t y = ) ( , voltage or current, is the exponential
function (A7b) uniquely described by the time constant T and boundary values

Y Y ,
0
:
) / exp( ) (
0
T t Y Y Y y + =

, 0 > t (3.2.17)
For

> Y Y
0
, decaying function is obtained, for

< Y Y
0
, the rising one, as presented in Fig.
3.2.9. The special case,
0
Y Y =

is not considered. Then, algorithm of the boundary values

method can be formulated.
Algorithm 3.2.2 - Boundary values based method
Step 1. Predict the response(s):
a) evaluate the circuit order,
b) designate initial condition(s), if present,
c) designate boundary values

Y Y ,
0
.
To find initial condition(s) and boundary values, perform dc analysis three times with
energy storage element replaced by a short-circuit or an open-circuit or an ideal
source, as presented in Table 3.1.1.
In the zero initial condition case:
dc analysis at

= 0 t is omitted,
at 0 = t , coil is replaced by an open-circuit and capacitor by a short-circuit.
Step 2. Find
t
R , equivalent resistance of the resistive part, with all sources deactivated. Then,
the time constant is given by (3.2.8) or (3.2.13).
Step 3. Plot the response connect the boundary values

Y Y ,
0
by the exponential curve with
time constant T (Fig.3.2.9).
Step 4. Express the response algebraically (3.2.17).
Example 3.2.3
The circuit, presented in Fig. 3.2.10, consists of the series connection of a dc practical voltage
source that is switched at time 0 = t across a practical coil. Find the response, voltage u
across the practical coil.
Fig. 3.2.10 Circuit for Example 3.2.3

It is the 1
st
order circuit with no energy initially stored. The dc circuits at boundary, initial and
steady state, conditions are presented in Fig. 3.2.11. Then, the response boundary values are:
E
R R
R
U E U
L
L
+
= =

,
0
(3.2.18)
R
L
R u
L
E
134
Fig. 3.2.11 Example 3.2.3 circuit at boundary conditions
The total resistance, seen from the ideal coil terminals is
L t
R R R + = (3.2.19)
and the circuit time constant is
L t
R R
L
R
L
T
+
= = (3.2.20)
The response is presented in Fig. 3.2.12.
Fig. 3.2.12 Example 3.2.3 response, practical coil voltage
Its algebraic expression is
) / exp( T t E
R R
R
E
R R
R
u
L L
L

+
+
+
= (3.2.21)
+
R
L
R
0
U
E
R
L
R

U
E
u
E
E
R R
R
L
L
+
T t
135
Example 3.2.4
Find the source current i and the capacitor current
C
i for 0 > t .
Fig. 3.2.13 Circuit for Example 3.2.4

Fig. 3.2.14 Example 3.2.4 circuit at boundary conditions

It is the 1
st
order circuit with no energy initially stored. The dc circuits at boundary conditions
are presented in Fig. 3.2.14. From dc analyses of these circuits the boundary values are
designated. They are collected in Table 3.2.3.
Table 3.2.3 Boundary conditions for Example 3.2.4
0 = t = t
t
I
R
E
R
E
R
E
3
5
5 . 1
= +
R
E
R
E
R
E
2
3
2
= +
Ct
I
R
E
3
0
Equivalent (Thevenin) resistance the resistive part is:
R R R R R R
t
5 . 1 ) ) 2 / 2 / (( = + + = (3.2.22)
Then, the time constant is:
RC T 5 . 1 = (3.2.23)
2 / R R

0 C
I
R E R

0
I
2 / R
2 / R R

C
I
R E R C

I
2 / R
2 / R R

C
i
R E R C
i
2 / R
136
and responses can be plotted and expressed algebraically.
Fig. 3.2.15 Example 3.4.4 responses
) / exp(
6
1
2
3
T t
R
E
R
E
i + = (3.2.24a)
) / exp(
3
1
T t
R
E
i
C
= (3.2.24b)
+
2
nd
order circuit s-domain method
The 2
nd
order circuit contains two energy storage elements, after an optional series-parallel
simplification of homogeneous two-terminal circuit(s). Such circuit, in time-domain is
described by the 2
nd
order differential equations. In the s-domain, denominator of the obtained
solution is of the 2
nd
order. Use of Algorithm 3.2.1 to series RLC circuit analysis will be
discussed in details.
i
R E 6 / 10
R E 6 / 9
T t

C
i
R
E
3
T t
137
Example 3.2.5
Series RLC circuit is presented in Fig. 3.2.16a. Find the capacitor voltage and current after
closing the switch at 0 = t .
Fig. 3.2.16a Series RLC circuit (Example 3.2.5)

There is no energy stored initially in the circuit, 0 , 0

0 0
= =
C
U I . At 0 = t coil is an open-
circuit, at = t capacitor is an open-circuit. The boundary values of the responses are
collected in Table 3.2.4.
Table 3.2.4 Boundary conditions for Example 3.2.4
0 = t = t
t
I 0 0
Ct
U 0 E
The circuit s-domain diagram is presented in Fig. 3.2.16b. From element equations and KVL
equation, the mesh current is
) )( (
1
1
1
1
1
) (
2 1
2
2
s s s s
K
LC
s
L
R
s
L
E
sCR LC s
EC
sC
sL R
s
E
s I

=
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +
= (3.2.25)

Fig. 3.2.16b Series RLC circuit (Example 3.2.5) in Laplace-domain
R L
C
u
E C
i
R sL ) (s U
C
E/s 1/sC
) (s I
138
The current gain is
L
E
K = (3.2.25a)
and its poles are
| o = =
LC L
R
L
R
s
1
4 2
2
2
2 , 1
(3.2.25b)
where,
L
R
2
= o (3.2.25c)
is the so called damping coefficient,
e o e e o | j j = = =
2 2
0
2
0
2
and
T
d
t
e e
2
= = ,
0
0
2 1
T
LC
t
e = = (3.2.25d)
are the so called damped resonant frequency and undamped resonant frequency or natural
frequency, respectively.
The inverse transform of this function is discussed in Appendix A - equations (A15) and
(A16). Three different cases have to be considered, subjected by the character of poles.
1. two simple real poles - response with two terms exponentially decaying to zero, the so
called overdamped response,
2. simple pair of complex conjugate poles damping is accompanied by oscillations, the
so called underdamped response,
3. two repeated poles dividing line between overdamped and underdamped case, the so
called critically-damped response.
1. Overdamped response
0 , 2
1
> = > > | o
c
R
C
L
R
LC
(3.2.26a)
where,
c
R is called the critical resistance. Then,
2 2 1 1 2 1
/ 1 , / 1 )]; / exp( ) / [exp(
2
1
s T s T T t T t K i = = =
|
(3.2.27a)
2. Underdamped response
e | o j R
C
L
R
LC
c
= = < < , 2
1
(3.2.26b)
Then,
t t K i e o
e
sin ) exp(
1
= (3.2.27b)
139
2a. Undamped response
LC
j j R
1
, 0 0
0
= = = = e | o (3.2.26c)
Then,
t
L
C
E i
0
sine = (3.2.27c)
3. Critically-damped response
0 , 2
1
= = = = | o
c
R
C
L
R
LC
(3.2.26d)
Then,
) exp( t Kt i o = (3.2.27d)
The nonoscillatory, overdamped and critically-damped responses are presented in Fig. 3.2.17a
and b. The oscillatory, underdamped and undamped responses are presented in Fig. 3.2.17c
and d.
Fig. 3.2.17 Nonoscillatory responses in the series RLC circuit
i a)

| 2
K

2
T
1
T
t

| 2
K

i b)
t
140
Fig. 3.2.17 cont. Oscillatory responses in the series RLC circuit
The capacitor voltage can be found from the integral formula (3.1.8b). The overdamped,
critically-damped and undamped voltages are presented in Fig. 3.2.18.
For the undamped case ( 0 = R ), the mesh current and the capacitor voltage are oscillating
with the constant amplitude. Period of this oscillations
0
T is given by (3.2.25d) and the
maximum values reached are
L
C
E I =
max
, E U 2
max
= (3.2.28)
The energy is oscillating between the source and energy storage elements.
i c)

e
K
T 1/o
t

e
K

i d)

L
C
E

0
T t
L
C
E
141
- At : ,... 2 , 1 ;
4
) 1 2 (
0
= + = n
T
n t
C L
W
C E L I
W = = =
2 2
2 2
max
max
.
- At : ,... 2 , 1 ;
2
) 1 2 (
0
= + = n
T
n t
2
4
2
2 2
max
max
C E C U
W
C
C
= = , 0 =
L
W .
- After : ,... 2 , 1 ;
0
= = n nT t total energy supplied=total energy stored=zero.
Fig. 3.2.18 Transient capacitor voltage in the series RLC circuit; overdapmed, critically-
damped (bold curve) and undamped case
It should be observed, that the critically-damped circuit demonstrates the fastest convergence
to the steady state. Assume F 1/4 H, 1 = = C L and consider overdamped case, critically-
damped case, underdamped case and undamped case.
- Overdamped case, O = = 5 25 . 1
c
R R :
s 4 / 1 s, 1
2 1
= = T T and the steady state time s 5 5
1
= =

T t .
- Critically-damped case, O = = 4
c
R R :
s 2 / 1 / 1 = o and the steady state time s 5 . 2 / 5 = =

o t .
- Underdamped case, O = = 2 5 . 0
c
R R :
s 1 / 1 = o , s / rad 7 . 1 3 = = e and the steady state time s 5 5
1
= =

T t .
- Undamped case, O = 0 R :
0 = o , rad/s 2
0
= e and oscillations are not vanishing.
As can be observed, for two resistances, O = 5 R and O = 2 R , the steady state condition is
reached after the same period of time, however in the latter case the transient is oscillatory.
+

C
u
2E
E

0
T t
142
NATURAL RESPONSE
The transient state after switching off all the excitations is considered. Then, the energy
initially stored is dissipated on resistors, as a heat. All the circuit variables decay to zero, i.e.
all steady state values are zero. Two exemplary circuits, source free RC circuit and source free
RL circuit, will be considered.
Example 3.2.6
Find the mesh current after throwing the switch.
Fig. 3.2.19 Circuit for Example 3.2.6 in time-domain and in s-domain

The dc circuits for

= 0 t and 0 = t are presented in Fig. 3.2.19a.

Fig. 3.2.19a Example 3.2.6 dc circuits at

= 0 t and 0 = t
The energy initially stored is
2
2
0
C E
W = (3.2.29)
After changing position of the switch, this energy is dissipated on the resistor, as a heat. The
mesh current initial value is
R
E
I =
0
(3.2.30)
Its steady state value is zero and the transient response is
RC T T t
R
E
i = = ), / exp( (3.2.31)


0
I R

E U
C
=
0

0
I R

E E U
C
=
0
) (s I R

sC
1

s
E
1
2 R

E C
143
This transient response is presented in Fig. 3.2.20, for small and large value of resistance R
( const C const E = = , ).
Fig. 3.2.20 Example 3.2.6 mesh current, large resistance and small resistance case
From the s-domain circuit (Fig. 3.2.19) analysis, the mesh current for the resistanceless case,
0 = R , can be found
EC
sC
s
E
s I = =
1
) ( (3.2.31a)
and the time-domain response is the impulse
) (t EC i o = , (3.2.31b)
an infinitely tall and infinitely narrow pulse of EC area. In practice, if resistance is very small,
then the absolute initial value of the current is very large. For example:
if O = = = 0.1 V, 10 F, 1 R E C , then A 100
0
= I !!!, s 1 . 0 = T .
This phenomenon, called overcurrent, can be utilized in welding of thin wires. In an electric
(electronic) circuit, when short-circuiting the charged capacitor by a switch (relay), its
terminals can be welded !!! +
Example 3.2.6 cont.
Find the mesh current after changing position of the switch, taking into account the capacitor
residual inductance
C
L .
Fig. 3.2.21 Circuit for Example 3.2.6, after taking into account the residual inductance
i i
R R
Q=EC
Q=EC
t t
1
2 R

E C

C
L L =
) (s I R

sC
1
sL
s
E
144

The initial conditions are: 0

0 0
= = I I
L
, E U
C
=
0
. Then, the s-domain circuit presented in Fig.
3.2.21 is obtained. This circuit is identical with the circuit of Example 3.2.5, presented in Fig.
3.2.16b, the source arrowhead direction is the only difference. Then, for a very small
resistance (underdamped case), from (3.2.27b), the mesh current is
t t
L
E
i e o
e
sin ) exp( = (3.2.31c)
LC L
R 1
,
2
0
= ~ = e e o
This current (multiplied by 1) is presented in Fig. 3.2.17d. Its value starts from zero, as the
coil current may not change abruptly. After 4 /
0
T t = , the maximum current, given by
(3.2.28), is reached. For the same exemplary values of R C E , , and the residual inductance of
1 . 0 = L mH, the maximum current and the time constant are
1
max
~ I A, 2 / 1 = o ms.
In the practical circuit, the overcurrent is much less than in the ideal circuit, however it is still
not acceptable for electric (electronic) circuit. The overcurrent can be limited by series
connection of resistance.
+
Example 3.2.7
Find the coil voltage after moving the switch, the circuit is presented in Fig. 3.2.22
Fig. 3.2.22 Circuit for Example 3.2.7 in time-domain and in s-domain

Fig. 3.2.22a Example 3.2.7 dc circuits for

= 0 t and 0 = t

t
R

0
I
E

0
U

0
I R
) (s U
sL
s
I
0
R
1 2

t
R u
E R
L
145
The dc circuits for

= 0 t and 0 = t are presented in Fig. 3.2.22a. The coil current initial value
is
t
L
R
E
I I = =
0 0
(3.2.32a)
The coil voltage initial value is
t
R
ER
R I U = =
0 0
(3.2.32b)
Its steady state value is zero and the transient response is
R L T T t
R
ER
u
t
/ ), / exp( = = (3.2.33)
Fig. 3.2.23 Example 3.2.7 mesh current, large resistance and small resistance case
This transient response is presented in Fig. 3.2.23, for small and large value of resistance R
( const L const R const E
t
= = = , , ).
From the s-domain circuit (Fig. 3.2.22) analysis, the coil voltage at conductanceless case,
0 / 1 = = R G , can be found
L
R
E
s
I
sL s U
t
= =
0
) ( (3.2.34a)
and the time-domain response is the impulse
) (t L
R
E
u
t
o = , (3.2.34b)
an infinitely tall and infinitely narrow pulse. In practice, if resistance is very large, then the
absolute initial value of voltage is very large. For example:
if O = O = = = k 100 , 100 V, 10 mH, 100 R R E L
t
, then kV 10
0
= U !!!, sec 1 . 0 = T .
This phenomenon, called overvoltage, may cause damage to the coil loading circuit
represented by the resistance R. Methods of overvoltage protection will be presented further
on.
+
u u
R R


t t
146
Example 3.2.7 cont.
Find the coil voltage after moving the switch, taking into account the coil residual capacitance
(the circuit is presented in Fig. 3.2.24).

Fig. 3.2.24 Circuit for Example 3.2.7, after taking into account the residual capacitance
The initial conditions are:
t L
R E I I /
0 0
= = , 0
0 0
= = U U
C
. Then, the s-domain circuit
presented in Fig. 3.2.24 is obtained. The coil voltage is
) )( (
1
1
1
) (
2 1
2
0
s s s s
K
LC
s
C
G
s
C
I
s U

=
+ +
= (3.2.35a)
This equation is identical as equation (3.2.25), with R replaced by G, E replaced by
t
R E I /
0
= and L swapped with C. Then, for a very small conductance (the underdamped case
- equation (3.2.27b)) the coil time-voltage is
t t
C R
E
u
t
e o
e
sin ) exp( = (3.2.35b)
LC C
G 1
,
2
0
= ~ = e e o
This curve (multiplied by 1) is presented in Fig. 3.2.17d. The voltage value starts from zero,
as the capacitor voltage may not change abruptly. After 4 /
0
T t = , the maximum, given by
(3.2.28) with E replaced by
0
I , is reached. For the same exemplary values of R L R E
t
, , , and
the residual capacitance of 100 = C nF the maximum voltage and the time constant are
100
max
~ U V, 20 / 1 = o ms
In the practical circuit of Fig. 3.2.24, the overvoltage is much less than in the ideal circuit of
Fig. 3.2.22, however its value is still not acceptable for electric (electronic) circuit. The
overvoltage can be limited by parallel connection (to the coil) of capacitance
p
C . Then, total
capacitance
p t
C C C + = . Even better effect can be achieved by connecting a diode in parallel
to the coil, as presented in Fig. 3.2.25. For the position 1 of the switch, the diode is inversely
polarized and can be replaced by an open-circuit. After changing the switch position, from 1
to 2, energy stored in the coil is dissipated through a diode, practically immediately.
1 2

t
R u
E G
C C
L
= L
) (s U
sL G

sC
1

s
I
0
147
Fig. 3.2.25
Example 3.2.7, overvoltage protection
+
COMPLETE RESPONSE: NATURAL RESPONSE + FORCED RESPONSE
In general (complete response) case, superposition principle can be utilized. However, for the
1
st
order circuit analysis, boundary values based approach is suggested. Use of Algorithm
3.2.2 to a general case will be illustrated by two examples.
Example 3.2.8
Find currents
C
i and i after closing the switch.
Fig. 3.2.26
Circuit for Example 3.2.8

Following Step 1 of Algorithm 3.2.2, three dc circuits are constructed, as presented in Fig.
3.2.27. The calculated boundary values are collected in Table 3.2.5.
Table 3.2.5 Boundary values for Example 3.2.8

= 0 t 0 = t = t
C
U
E/2
E/2 E/3
C
I 0
R
E
R
E
R
E
4 3 / 2
2 /
2
= 0
I 0
R
E
2 R
E
3
1 2

t
R u
E R
L
2R
C
i R
C i
E R
148
Fig. 3.2.27 dc circuits for Example 3.2.8
Then, the total resistance of the resistive part is
R R R R
t
3
2
2 = = (3.2.36)
and the time constant is
RC T
3
2
= (3.2.37)
Finally, the following algebraic form of transient responses is obtained:
) / exp(
6 3
T t
E E
u
C
+ = (3.2.38a)
) / exp(
4
T t
R
E
i
C
= (3.2.38b)
) / exp(
6 3
T t
R
E
R
E
i + = (3.2.38c)
Fig. 3.2.28 Capacitor voltage in Example 3.2.8

0 C
U
2R R

0
I
E

0 C
I R

2R R

0 C
U
0
I
E
0 C
I R
2R R

I

C
I
E R

C
u
E/2
E/3
T t
149
The capacitor is discharging from E/2 to E/3, as presented in Fig. 3.2.28. The lost energy is
equal to C E W
2
72
5
= A .
+
Example 3.2.9
Find voltage across the switch, after its opening.

Fig. 3.2.29 Circuit for Example 3.2.9

The circuit initial condition is R E I
L
/
0
= . The dc circuits at boundary conditions are
presented in Fig. 3.2.30.
Fig. 3.2.30 The dc circuits for Example 3.2.9
Then,
E R R E E U 2 ) / (
0
= + = (3.2.39a)
E U =

and the voltage across the switch, for 0 > t , is

R L T T t E E u / ), / exp( = + = (3.2.39b)
+
u
R L R
E
L
i

0
U
R E/R R
E

U
R R
E
150
Drill problems 3.2
1. For the step input =
1
u E1(t) of two-port and the given output voltage (exponential
function), draw its simplest structure.
Fig. P.3.2.1
2. Sketch voltage across the switch after its opening. Assume: a) overdamped, b)
underdamped case.
Fig. P. 3.2.2
3. Plot voltage across the switch after its opening.
Fig. P.3.2.3
4. Plot current that flows through the switch after its closing.

a) b)
Fig. P.3.2.4

2
u a)
E
E/2
t

2
u b)
E
E/2
t

J R R L
R
E R R C
R
b)
u
R R L
E C
a)
u
R 2R
L
E C
a)
u
10O 20O 1H
10V 20O
b)
u
1kO 1kO F 1
12V 2kO
151
5. Plot the capacitor voltage after closing the switch
Fig. P.3.2.5
6. Find resistance R such that no transient response is present in the source current. Plot this
current.
Fig. P.3.2.6
7. In a circuit of Fig 3.2.24 the switch is thrown at 0 = t . Sketch the element currents and the
voltage if pF 1 , mH 4 , = = =
L
C L R . Find the maximum energy stored in each element.
8. In a circuit of Fig. 3.2.10 the practical coil voltage reaches the steady state value of
2 /
0
U U =

after 10 5 = = T t ms. Find the values of L and

L
R .
9. Sketch ) (t i and ) (t u
C
for the excitation graphed: E A t f t e = = ); ( ) ( .
Fig. P.3.2.9
10. In a circuit of Fig. 3.2.16 the switch closes at 0 = t . Sketch the element voltages and the
mesh current if F 1 , mH 4 , 0 = = = C L R . Find the maximum energy stored in C.
R ) (t i
) (t e R C
) (t f
A
A/2
t
R
E R C
R
i R 1 H
10 V
1 F 2 kO
152
11. Sketch, with no calculations, voltage u and current i after closing the switch. Assume:
a) underdamped case, b) overdamped case.
Fig. P.3.2.11
12. In Problem 3.2.9 circuit, sketch ) (t i and ) (t u
C
, for the new excitation graphed:
E A t f t e = = ); ( ) ( .
Fig. P.3.2.12
13. Sketch ) (t i
L
and ) (t u , for a circuit shown and the excitations graphed in Problems 3.2.9
and 3.2.12: J A t f t j = = ); ( ) ( .
Fig. P.3.2.13
) (t f
A
A/2
t

) (t u ) (t i
L
) (t j R L
R
a) L
2R u
i L
R
E
C
R R
b)
C
R u
i L
R R
E
L
c)
2R u
i L
R
E
C
R R
d)
u
L C
J R 2R
2R 2R
153
14. The switch opens at 0 = t . Sketch the voltage u.
Fig. P.3.2.14
15. The switch is thrown at 0 = t . Compute the energy stored in each capacitor at = t .
Sketch ) (
2
t u
C
.
Fig. P.3.2.15
16. The switch is thrown at 0 = t . Compute the energy stored in each inductor at = t .
Sketch ) (
2
t i
L
.
Fig. P.3.2.16
17. Find ) (t i after the switch opens at 0 = t .
Fig. P.3.2.17
u
10O 20O 1H
10V 20O
F 1
O =10 R

V 12 = E F 6
2
= C
F 4
1
= C
O =10 R

2
L
i
V 12 = E mH 6
2
= L mH 4
1
= L
10 O
40 V
10 V 0.5 H
5 O ) (t i
154
18. Find ) (t u after the switch opens at 0 = t .
Fig. P.3.2.18
19. The switch opens at 0 = t . Sketch ) (t u and ) (t u
C
for A 2 = J , F 1 = C , 5 . 0 = L H, and:
a) O = = k 1 R R
x
, b) R R
x
2 = .
Fig. P.3.2.19
20. The switch is moved from 1 to 2 at 0 = t . Sketch ) (t u
C
for 20 2
1 2
= = E E V, O = 6 R ,
O = 4
1
R and two values of
2
R , a) 4 O, b) 14 O.
Fig. P.3.2.20
21. The switch is moved from 1 to 2 at 0 = t . Sketch ) ( ), ( ), (
2 1
t u t u t i
C C
if O = = k 2
2 1
R R ,
10 = E V, F 4
1
= C , F 6
2
= C .
Fig. P.3.2.21
F 1
) (t u
4 O
20 V
10 V 6 O

) (t u
J R L
x
R
R
) (t u
C
1 2

1
R
2
R
R C

1
E
2
E
1 2

1
R
2
R

1
C
E
2
C
155
22. An approximate sawtooth waveform is produced by charging and discharging a capacitor
with widely different time constants. Select the value of
1
R such that charging lasts one
time constant 2
1
= T ms, and the value of
2
R such that discharging lasts
1 2
1 . 0 5 T T = .
Fig. P.3.2.22
23. Find ) 0 (

u and sketch ) (t u after the switch opens at 0 = t . Assume 10 = E V, O = k 1 R ,
F 1 = C , 5 . 0 = L H.
Fig. P.3.2.23
24. Sketch ) (t u after the switch opens at 0 = t . Assume 10 = E V, O = k 1 R , F 1 = C .
Fig. P.3.2.24
R L u
E R C
R u
C
E
2C
R
1

1
R
2
12 = E V
2
R F 1 = C
156
3.3 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS in CIRCUITS with ARBITRARY
EXCITATION
Transient response caused by arbitrary aperiodic excitation will be considered. In most cases,
circuit analysis is much more narrowly defined than that of finding all responses to all
excitations. Very often it is limited to Single-Input-SingleOutput (SISO) analysis. Then,
transfer function approach is preferred, as presented in Chapter 2.7 for dc circuits. The same
approach is preferred in transient analysis in circuits with arbitrary aperiodic excitation.
Transfer function in s-domain will be defined at first. Then, its use to circuit transient analysis
will be presented.
TRANSFER FUNCTION PROPERTIES and SELECTED EXAMPLES
Transient response may be considered as sum of two components: natural response and forced
response, as presented in Fig. 3.2.1 for time-domain signals. After setting initial conditions to
zero and t-domain to s-domain transformation, the SISO system described in the s-domain is
obtained, as presented in Fig. 3.3.1.
Fig. 3.3.1 SISO linear passive s-domain circuit
In the s-domain, a linear circuit input-output pair is related by the system of linear equations.
Then, transfer function in the s-domain can be defined.
Laplace transfer function of a circuit is defined as the ratio of the response of the circuit to
its excitation, expressed in the s-domain, with the assumption that all initial conditions are set
to zero:
) (
) (
) (
s X
s Y
s K = (3.3.1)
Thus, problem of finding the transient response can be solved using the concept of Laplace
transfer function, the algorithm is as follows.
Algorithm 3.3.1 Laplace transfer function method of transient analysis
Step 1. Predict the response:
a) evaluate the circuit order,
b) designate boundary values

Y Y ,
0
,
) (s X ) (s K ) (s Y
157
c) predict shape of the response, if possible.
Step 2. Find algebraic expression of the excitation, if given by a graph, ) (t x x = .
Step 3. Find the Laplace transform of excitation, ) (s X .
Step 4 Find the circuit transfer function, ) (s K .
Step 5 Find the response in the s-domain,
) ( ) ( ) ( s X s K s Y = (3.3.1a)
Step 6 Find the inverse transformation y t y = ) ( .
Step 5. Plot the response. Check whether the obtained solution matches the predicted one.
In the MIMO system, arbitrary forced s-domain output (response) due to all excitations
(sources) is the superposition of the separate transfer functions for this output and each input
times the corresponding s-domain inputs:

=
= =
M
i
i ij j
N j s X s K s Y
1
,..., 1 ); ( ) ( ) ( (3.3.1b)
Transfer function ) (s K
ij
uniquely defines a circuit (system) with respect to one input signal
) (s X
i
and one output signal ) (s Y
j
, impedance and admittance are the special cases. Before
presenting use of this Laplace transfer function approach to exemplary circuit analysis,
properties of the function will be discussed. Then, circuits that perform basic signal
transformations in time-domain, integration and differentiation, will be studied.
Properties
1. Transfer function is the ratio of two polynomials:
[
[
=
=

=
+ + + +
+ + + +
= =
m
k
k
l
j
j
m m
m m
l l
l l
s s
q s
K
b s b s b s
a s a s a s
K
s M
s L
K s K
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (

(3.3.2)
where,
k j
s q , are roots of numerator and denominator polynomials,
zeroes and poles of ) (s K , respectively
const K = is gain.
Roots and poles can be real or complex numbers and they may be expressed graphically,
in the complex plane (s-plane), as the pole-zero plot, where the zeros are flagged by - and
the poles by +.
For practical circuits:
a) poles lie in the left half of the complex plane,
b) degree of the numerator polynomial can not be greater than degree of the
denominator polynomial ( m l s ).
Degree of the denominator polynomial designates the circuit order, m n = .
2. Inverse transform of the Laplace transfer function, transfer function in the t-domain,
)} ( { ) (
1
s K t k

= L , is the unit impulse response.
If 1 )} ( { ) ( = = t s X o L , then ) ( ) ( s K s Y = and ) ( ) ( t k t y = (3.3.3)
158
3. The step response is the integral of the impulse response:
If
s
t s X
1
)} ( { ) ( = = 1 L , then ) (
1
) ( s K
s
s Y = and
}
=
t
dt t k t y
0
) ( ) ( (3.3.4)
4. Time-domain response equals the convolution of the impulse response and the input:
}

= - = t t t d t x k t x t k t y ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( (3.3.5)
where, )} ( ) ( { ) ( ) (
1
s X s K t x t k = -

L (3.3.5a)
is the so called convolution of two time functions.
Transfer functions of selected circuits
Integrator
Fig. 3.3.2 Block diagram of an ideal integrator
Following Property 2 of the Laplace transformation (A4)
Laplace transfer function of the ideal integrator is:
sT
s K
1
) ( = (3.3.6)
where, T is the integration constant.
RC circuit realization of voltage integrator
Fig. 3.3.2a RC voltage integrator
The RC integrator output voltage is
) (t x
}
=
t
dt t x
T
t y
0
) (
1
) ( ) (t y = ) (s X
sT
s K
1
) ( = ) (s Y
R

1
u C
2
u
R
= ) (
1
s U
sC
1
) (
2
s U
159
) (
1
1
) (
1
1
) (
1 1 2
s U
sT
s U
sC
R
sC
s U
+
=
+
= (3.3.7)
Then, its transfer function is
RC T
sT
s K =
+
= ,
1
1
) ( (3.3.7a)
The pole-zero plots of the transfer function, for the ideal and the practical RC integrators are
presented in Fig. 3.3.2b.
Fig. 3.3.2b Pole-zero plot of integrator transfer function, a) ideal, b) RC
The unit step input, ) (
1 1
t U u 1 = , will be used to compare responses of the ideal and the
practical integrators. The integrator input in the s-domain:
s
U
t U s U
1
1 1
)} ( { ) ( = = 1 L (3.3.8)
Then, the outputs are given by equations (3.3.9) and they are graphed in Fig. 3.3.3
- ideal integrator:
t
T
U
t u
s T
U
s
U
sT
s U
1
2
2
1 1
2
) (
1 1
) ( = = = = (3.3.9a)
- RC integrator:
)] / exp( 1 [ ) (
) 1 (
1
1
1
) (
1 2 1
1
2
T t U t u
sT s
U
s
U
sT
s U = =
+
=
+
= (3.3.9b)
Fig. 3.3.3 Step input response of ideal and RC integrator

2
u
2
u

1
U
1
U
T t T t
a) Im
Re
b) Im

Re
T / 1
160
As can be observed,
- the ideal integrator step response never attains steady state (the response pole is located in
the origin of the complex plane),
- the RC integrator exhibits good integration for T t s , then the integration decays to
zero, steady state is reached after T t 5 ~

.
Differentiator
Fig. 3.3.4 Block diagram of an ideal differentiator
Following Property 3 of Laplace transformation (A5)
Laplace transfer function of the ideal differentiator is:
sT s K = ) ( (3.3.10)
where, T is the differentiation constant.
RC circuit realization of voltage differentiator

Fig. 3.3.4a The RC voltage differentiator
The RC differentiator output voltage is
) (
1
) (
1
) (
1 1 2
s U
sT
sT
s U
sC
R
R
s U
+
=
+
= (3.3.11)
Then, its transfer function is
RC T
sT
sT
s K =
+
= ,
1
) ( (3.3.11a)
) (t x
dt
t dx
T t y
) (
) ( = ) (t y = ) (s X sT s K = ) ( ) (s Y
C

1
u R
2
u
) (
1
s U
sC
1
) (
2
s U
R
161
The unit step input, ) (
1 1
t U u 1 = , will be used to compare responses of the ideal and the
practical differentiator. The differentiator input in the s-domain is given by equation (3.3.8).
Then, the output are given by equations (3.3.12) and they are graphed in Fig. 3.3.5.
- ideal differentiator:
) ( ) ( ) (
1 2 1
1
2
t T U t u T U
s
U
sT s U o = = = = (3.3.12a)
- RC differentiator:
) / exp( ) (
1
) (
1 2 1 2
T t U t u
sT
T
U s U = =
+
= (3.3.12b)
Fig. 3.3.5 Step input response of ideal and RC differentiator
As can be observed,
- the ideal integrator step response is an infinitely tall and infinitely narrow pulse of the
1
TU area,
- the RC integrator step response is the exponential decay that starts at the step value and
lasts after T t 5 ~

.
TRANSFER FUNCTION BASED TRANSIENT ANALYSIS - EXAMPLES
Transfer function approach to transient analysis will be illustrated by exemplary circuits. Use
of Algorithm 3.3.1 and its modification will be presented. In this modification, input signal is
divided into linear segments, each segment described by step or/and ramp function, and
sequence of analyses is performed.

2
u
2
u

1
U
t T t
162
Algorithm 3.3.1a Laplace transfer function method of transient analysis sequence of
analyses
Step 1. Predict the response, if possible.
Step 2. Divide the input signal into linear segments: ) ( ),..., ( ,...,
1 1
s X s X x x
N N
= .
) ( ] [
0
0
i i
i
i i
i i
t t
X X
X x 1

+ =
t
t
(

+ = =
2
1 1
) (
0
0
s
X X
s
X s X
i
i i
i i
t
t
(3.3.13)
where,
i
t - duration of the i-th segment, as presented in Fig. 3.3.6,
t
i i
X X ,
0
- initial and terminal values of the i-th segment,

= =
i
j
j i
t t
1
0 1
0 ; t t - time that starts at the beginning of the i-th segment.
Set 1 = i .
Step 3. Find the circuit transfer functions ) (s K and ) (
0
s K , where
) (s K is transfer function for the input signal, ) (s X
i
,
) (
0
s K is transfer function for the initial condition (designated by the preceding
segment), s X s X
i i
/ ) (
0 0
= .
Step 4. For the i-th segment, find the output signal: )} ( ) ( {
1
s Y s Y y y y
i
n
i
f
i
n
i
f
i
+ = + =

L , where
i
f
y is the forced response, caused by
i
x ,
i
n
y is the natural response, caused by the i-th segment initial condition
i
X
0
.
Step 5 If N i < ,
then set 1 + = i i , find initial condition for the next segment,
i
X
0
and GO TO Step 3,
GO TO Step 5, otherwise.
Step 6. Plot the total response. Check whether the obtained solution matches the predicted
one.
Fig. 3.3.6
The i-th segment of the input signal
In Steps 2 and 3 of the non-modified Algorithm 3.3.1, the algebraic expression of the input
signal (normally given by a graph) is designated and transformed into the s-domain. Step and
pulse are the most common input signals. Laplace transforms of ideal signals are presented in
Appendix A, practical step and practical pulse will be discussed hereafter.

i
x
t
i
X
0
i
X
0
i
t
i
t
163
Practical step
A practical step, i.e. step with nonzero rise time
r
t , can be considered as addition of two
ramps, as presented in Fig. 3.3.7. Then, the practical step Laplace transform is
) exp(
1 1
) ( ) ( ) (
2 2
2 1
r
s
s
X
s
X s X s X s X t = + = (3.3.14)
Fig. 3.3.7 Practical step as addition of two ramps
Practical pulse
A practical pulse, i.e. pulse with nonzero rise and fall times,
2 3 1
, t t t t t = =
f r
, can be
considered as addition of four ramps, two of them are presented in Fig. 3.3.7, two other in Fig.
3.3.8.

Fig. 3.3.8 Practical pulse as addition of four ramps
=
1
x
X
x =
X

r
t t
+
2
x
r
t
r
t 2 t

r
t t
X
=
3 2 1
x x x + +

2
t
3
t t
x =
X X
+
4
x
t X

1
t
2
t
3
t

3
t
3
t +
f
t t
164
Then, the practical pulse Laplace transform is
) exp(
1
) exp(
1
) exp(
1 1
) ( ) (
3
2
2
2
1
2 2
4
1
t t t s
s
X s
s
X s
s
X
s
X s X s X
i
i
+ = =

=
(3.3.15)
Example 3.3.1
Find a practical step response of the RC differentiator.

Algorithm 3.3.1
The input voltage is described by equation (3.3.14), transfer function by equation (3.3.11a).
Then, the output voltage is
) exp(
) 1 (
1
) 1 (
1
) (
1 1 2 r
r r
s
sT s
T
U
sT s
T
U s U t
t t

+

+
= (3.3.16a)
( ) ) ( ] / ) ( exp[ 1 ) ( )] / exp( 1 [
1 1 2 r r
r r
t T t
T
U t T t
T
U u t t
t t
= 1 1 (3.3.16b)
This time-voltage, for the assumed
r
T t = , is presented in Fig. 3.3.9.
Fig. 3.3.9 Output voltage of RC differentiator for practical step input and
r
T t =
Algorithm 3.3.1a
The input voltage is divided into two segments:
i=1:
r
t t s s 0
t t =
1
, ) (
1 1
1
t t
U
u
r
1
t
= ,
2
1 1
1
1
) (
s
U
s U
r
t
= , 0
1
0
=
C
U (3.3.17a)

2
u

1
U

r
T t = 2T t
1
U
165
i=2:
r
t t >
r
t t t =
2
, ) (
2
1
2
1
t U u 1 = ,
s
U s U
1
) (
1
2
1
= (3.3.17b)
Transfer function for the initial condition (capacitor voltage) can be designated from Fig.
3.3.10.
Fig. 3.3.10
Circuit for calculation of ) (
0
s K ,
in RC differentiator
The output voltage, and then, the transfer function are

+
= ) (
1
) (
0 2
s U
sC
R
R
s U
C
sT
sT
s K
+
=
1
) (
0
(3.3.18)
where the initial condition is calculated from equation (3.3.19)
2 1
u u u
C
= (3.3.19)
For i=1
) 1 (
1
) (
1
1
2
sT s
T
U s U
r
+
=
t
)] / exp( 1 [
1
1
2
T t
T
U u
r
= =
t
(3.3.20)
= t
U
u
r
C
t
1 1
)] / exp( 1 [
1
T t
T
U
r

t
)] / exp( 1 [ ) (
1 1
2
0
1
T
T
U U U u
r
r
C r C
t
t
t = =
(3.3.20a)
For i=2
sT
T
U U s U
C
+
=
1
) ( ) (
2
0 1
2
2
) / exp( ) (
2 2
0 1
2
2
T t U U u
C
= = (3.3.21)
For the assumed
r
T t = ,
1
2
0
37 . 0 U U
C
= . The output voltage is presented in Fig. 3.3.11.
Fig. 3.3.11 Output voltage of RC differentiator for practical step input and
r
T t =
+

1
2
u
2
2
u

1
U
0.63
1
U

r
T t = 2T t
2
t
s U s U
C C
/ ) (
0 0
=

sC
1
R ) (
2
s U
166
Example 3.3.2
Find ideal pulse response of the RC integrator.

Algorithm 3.3.1
The input voltage is described by equation (A.12a), transfer function by equation (3.3.7a).
Then, the output voltage is
) exp(
) 1 (
1
) 1 (
1
) (
1 1 2
t s
sT s
U
sT s
U s U
+

+
= (3.3.22a)
( ) ) ( ] / ) ( exp[ 1 ) ( )] / exp( 1 [
1 1 2
t t = t T t U t T t U u 1 1 (3.3.22b)
This time-voltage, for the assumed t = T , is presented in Fig. 3.3.12.
Fig. 3.3.12 Output voltage of RC differentiator for practical step input and t = T
Algorithm 3.3.1a
The input voltage is divided into two segments:
i=1: t s s t 0
t t =
1
, ) (
1
1
1
t U u 1 = ,
s
U s U
1
) (
1
1
1
= , 0
1
0
=
C
U (3.3.23a)
i=2: t > t
t = t t
2
, 0
2
1
= u (3.3.23b)
Transfer function for the initial condition (capacitor voltage) can be designated from Fig.
3.3.13.

2
u

1
U
t = T 2T t
1
U
167
Fig. 3.3.13
Circuit for calculation of ) (
0
s K , in RC integrator
The output voltage, and then, the transfer function are

+
= ) (
1
) (
0 2
s U
sC
R
R
s U
C
sT
sT
s K
+
=
1
) (
0
(3.3.24)
where the initial condition is calculated from equation (3.3.25)
2
u u
C
= (3.3.25)
For i=1
) 1 (
1
) (
1 2
sT s
U s U
+
= )] / exp( 1 [
1
1
2
T t U u = = (3.3.26)
)] exp( 1 [ ) (
1
2
0
1
T U U u
C C
t t = = (3.3.26a)
For i=2
sT
T
U s U
C
+
=
1
) (
2
0 2
) / exp(
2
0
1
2
T t U u
C
= = (3.3.27)
This voltage, for the assumed t = T , is presented in Fig. 3.3.14.
Fig. 3.3.14 Output voltage of RC differentiator for practical step input and
r
T t =
+

1
2
u
2
2
u

1
U
0.63
1
U
t = T 2T t
2
t
R

sC
1
) (
2
s U

s
U
s U
C
C
0
0
) ( =
168
Drill problems 3.3
1. For the 1 = E V step input, draw the RC differentiator (integrator) output, for
F 1 ; k 1 = O = C R . Assume a) the ideal step, b) the practical step of 1 =
r
t s.
2. For the ideal pulse input of 1 = E V; 1 = t s, draw the RC differentiator (integrator) output,
for F 1 ; k 1 = O = C R .
3. For the practical step input of 10 = E V; 10 =
r
t ms, draw the ideal differentiator
(integrator) output Assume the differentiation (integration) constant
r
T t = .
4. For the ideal pulse input: 10 = E V; 10 = t ms, draw the ideal integrator output. Assume
the integration constant t = T .
5. For the practical pulse input of 10 = E V; 10 = t m; 2 =
r
t ms; 1 =
f
t ms, draw the ideal
differentiator output. Assume the differentiation constant t = T .
6. Find the ideal integrator ( 2 = T ms) output, ms) 5 (
2
u , if 20 V step is inputted.
7. For the given voltage waveform of the RC integrator input, plot the output voltage.
Assume: t << RC
Fig. P.3.3.7
8. Repeat Problem 3.3.7 for the RC differentiator.
9. For the circuit shown, compute the transfer function ) ( / ) ( ) ( s U s U s K
in out
= . Sketch
) (t u
out
if ) ( ) ( t E t u
in
1 = .
Fig. P.3.3.9
10. Find the current response of the series combination of R and L to an applied voltage
impulse of 2 Vs.
11. Repeat Problem 3.3.11 for the series combination of R and C.
12. Draw the pole-zero plot of differentiator transfer function, for both the ideal and RC
differentiators.
13. Draw the pole-zero plot of admittance of the series connection of R, L and C. Assume:
F 1 = C , 1 = L H, = R a) 1 kO, b) 2 kO, c) 3 kO.

1
u
E
t 2 t 3 t
t
E

1
u
E
t
t
E

1
u
2E
E
t t 2 t

B
i

in
u 2R R C
out
u

B
i |
169
14. Draw the pole-zero plot of impedance of the parallel connection of G, L and C. Assume:
F 1 = C , 1 = L H, = G a) 1 mS, b) 2 mS, c) 3 mS.
15. The pole-zero plots of two transfer functions are shown. If their gain is 2 = K , find ) (s K .
Which function has the greater dumping coefficient, which has the greater damped
resonant frequency ?
Fig. P.3.3.15
Im
j2
4 Re
2 j
Im
j3
2 Re
3 j
170
4. AC STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS
4.1 ALTERNATING CURRENT RMS VALUE, PHASOR NOTATION
An alternating current, ac in short, is by definition a sinusoidal current:
) sin(
i m
t I i o e + = (4.1.1)
where,
m
I is the amplitude, in [A]
f
T
t
t
e 2
2
= = (4.1.1a)
is the radian or angular frequency, in [rad/s],
T is the period, in [s]; f is the frequency, in hertz [Hz],
i
o is the initial phase angle, or simply the phase, in radians.
Two sinusoidal currents with different phases are presented in Fig. 4.1.1
Fig. 4.1.1 Two sinusoids with
different phase

The solid curve phase is zero while the dashed curve phase is
i
o radians. It can be said, that
the dashed sinusoid leads the solid one by the angle of
i
o radians, or the solid one lags the
dashed one by the same angle.
To describe the energy delivered by a periodic current or voltage to a resistive load, its root-
mean-square value, rms in short, or effective value is defined.
The rms value of a periodic current (voltage) is a constant that is equal to the dc current
(voltage) that delivers the same power to a resistance R.
i

m
I

e o /
i
T t

m
I
171
The energy delivered by the dc current within the time of one complete cycle T should be
equal to the energy delivered by a periodic current during the same time:
}
=
T
dt R i RT I
0
2 2
rms
(4.1.2)
Then, the rms current is
}
= =
T
dt i
T
I I
0
2
rms
1
(4.1.3a)
In a similar manner, the rms voltage is
}
= =
T
dt u
T
U U
0
2
rms
1
(4.1.3b)
For a sinusoidal current (voltage), rms value is equal to
2
;
2
m m
U
U
I
I = = (4.1.4)
Thus, for a sinusoidal waveform, the effective or rms value is 0.707 times the maximum
value. For example, the household ac voltage is 230 V, with a maximum voltage of 325 V.
Any sinusoidal current or voltage, at a given radian frequency e is uniquely characterized by
its effective value and phase, so called phasor, as described in Appendix B.
)] ( sin[ 2 ) ( )] ( exp[ ) ( ) ( e o e e e o e e
i i
t I i j I j I + = = = (4.1.5a)
)] ( sin[ 2 ) ( )] ( exp[ ) ( ) ( e o e e e o e e
u u
t U u j U j U + = = = (4.1.5b)
Then, element equations and Kirchhhoffs laws can be transformed from the time-domain into
the frequency (phasor)-domain and the problem of ac steady-state analysis can be carried out,
as presented in the next Chapter. For simplicity of notation, if the frequency is fixed, i.e.
circuit frequency characteristics are not considered, then:
i i
I I o e o e = = ) ( , ) ( , etc.
172
Drill problems 4.1
1. Find the effective value of periodic current for sawtooth, triangular and rectangular
waveforms. Repeat calculations for
m
I i i + =
*
, as denoted by the dotted time axis.
Fig. P.4.1.1
i i
m
I 2
m
I 2

m
I
m
I
T/2 T t T/2 T t
i i
m
I 2
m
I 2

m
I
m
I
T/2 T t t T t
173
4.2 PHASOR ANALYSIS
KIRCHHOFFS LAWS
Kirchhoffs Current Law
If sinusoidal excitation is applied to a circuit, then sinusoidal currents (4.1.1) flow through the
elements. If cosinusoidal excitation is applied to a circuit, then cosinusoidal currents, say
) cos( 2
i
t I i o e + = ' , flow through the elements. KCL holds for both excitations, then it also
holds for the complex excitation (defined in Appendix B):

- - -
= = = + '
i i i
t j j I t i t ji t i 0 ) exp( ) ( 2 ) (

] ) ( ) ( [ e e
Dividing out the common factor ) exp( 2 t je , KCL for phasors is obtained.
The phasor algebraic sum of all currents at a node (cutset) is equal to zero

-
=
i
j I 0 ) ( e (4.2.1)
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
A similar development will also establish KVL.
The phasor algebraic sum of all voltages around a loop (closed path) is equal to zero

O
=
i
j U 0 ) ( e (4.2.2)
ELEMENT LAWS
Resistor
Setting sinusoids into the Ohms law, the following equation is obtained:
) sin( 2 ) sin( 2
i u
t RI t U o e o e + = + (4.2.3)
Thus, the resistor rms voltage may be expressed by its rms current, the voltage phase by the
current phase
RI U = (4.2.4a)
i u
o o = (4.2.4b)
Setting these equations in the voltage phasor (4.1.5b), the following equation is obtained
) exp( ) exp( ) (
i u
j RI j U j U o o e = =
Finally, current-voltage law for phasors can be formulated.
174
) ( ) ( e e j RI j U = (4.2.5a)
) ( ) ( e e j GU j I = (4.2.5b)
Circuit symbols for a resistor described in time and frequency domains are presented in Fig.
4.2.1.
Fig. 4.2.1 Circuit symbols for a
resistor described in time and
frequency domains
Inductor
Setting sinusoids into the inductor law (3.1.16a)
) 90 sin( 2 ) sin( 2
o
+ + = +
i u
t LI t U o e e o e (4.2.6)
Then,
LI U e = (4.2.7a)
o
90 + =
i u
o o (4.2.7b)
Next,
) 90 exp( ) exp( ) exp( ) (
o
j j LI j U j U
i u
o e o e = =
Finally, current-voltage law for phasors can be formulated.
) ( ) ( e e e j LI j j U = (4.2.8a)
) (
1
) ( e
e
e j U
L j
j I = (4.2.8b)
Circuit symbols for a coil described in time and frequency domains are presented in Fig.
4.2.2.
Fig. 4.2.2 Circuit symbols for a coil
described in time and frequency
domains
i u ) ( e j I ) ( e j U
R = R
i u ) ( e j I ) ( e j U
L = L je
175
Capacitor
Setting sinusoids into the capacitor law (3.1.8a), the following equation is obtained:
) 90 sin( 2 ) sin( 2
o
+ + = +
u i
t CU t I o e e o e (4.2.9)
Thus,
CU I e = (4.2.10a)
o
90 + =
u i
o o (4.2.10b)
Next,
) 90 exp( ) exp( ) exp( ) (
o
j j CU j I j I
u i
o e o e = =
Finally, current-voltage law for phasors can be formulated.
) ( ) ( e e e j CU j j I = (4.2.11a)
) (
1
) ( e
e
e j I
C j
j U = (4.2.11b)
Circuit symbols for a capacitor described in time and frequency domains are shown in Fig.
4.2.3.
Fig. 4.2.3 Circuit symbols for a
capacitor described in time and
frequency domains
GENERAL TWO-TERMINAL PHASOR CIRCUIT, PHASOR IMPEDANCE
Element equations (4.2.5), (4.2.8) and (4.2.11) can be expressed in the general form
) ( ) ( ) ( e e e j I j Z j U = (4.2.12a)
) ( ) ( ) ( e e e j U j Y j I = (4.2.12b)
where

= =
impedance capacitor
impedance inductor
impedance resistor
1
) ( / 1 ) (
C j
L j
R
j Y j Z
e
e e e (4.2.13)
i u ) ( e j I ) ( e j U
C =
C je
1

176
is called the element complex impedance, ) ( e j Y is called the complex admittance. As can
be observed, these impedances (admittances) are the s-domain impedances (admittances),
collected in Table 3.1.2, with e j s = .
Consider a general phasor subcircuit with two accessible terminals, as presented in Fig. 4.2.4.
Fig. 4.2.4 General phasor two-terminal subcircuit and its equivalents
The equivalent impedance of such subcircuit can be defined, as the ratio of the phasor voltage
to the phasor current:
) ( ) ( )] ( exp[ ) (
) (
) (
) ( ) ( e e e e
e
e
e
e
jX R j Z
j I
j U
s Z j Z
j s
+ = = = =
=
(4.2.14a)
The reciprocal of impedance, the ratio of the phasor current to the phasor voltage is the
equivalent admittance:
) ( ) ( )] ( exp[ ) (
) (
) (
) ( ) ( e e e e
e
e
e
e
jB G j Y
j U
j I
s Y j Y
j s
+ = = = =
=
(4.2.14a)
It is important to stress that impedance (admittance) is a complex number that scales one
phasor to produce another, but it is not a phasor. The modulus (magnitude) of impedance is
the ratio of effective values of the voltage and the current and the angle is the difference of the
voltage and the current angles, as presented in equations (4.2.15) for simplicity of
description argument e is omitted (fixed frequency is assumed).
i u
I
U
Z o o = = , (4.2.15)
The impedance (admittance) can be expressed in a rectangular form, as presented in equations
(4.2.14), where:
- )} ( Re{ e j Z R = is the resistive component of Z, or simply resistance,
- )} ( Im{ e j Z X = is the reactive component of Z, or simply reactance,
- )} ( Re{ e j Y G = is the conductive component of Y, or simply conductance,
- )} ( Im{ e j Y B = is the susceptive component of Y, or simply susceptance.
For the given components of impedance (admittance) its magnitude and angle can be
determined, or vice-versa:
) ( e j I
) ( e j U ) ( e j I ) ( e j I ) ( e j U
) ( e j U
R
G jB
jX
General
phasor
circuit
177
R
X
X R Z arctan ,
2 2
= + = (4.2.16a)
sin , cos Z X Z R = = (4.2.16b)
These relationships are graphically expressed in Fig. 4.2.5.
Fig. 4.2.5 Graphical representation of
impedance
For the given components of impedance, components of admittance can be determined, or
vice-versa:
2 2 2 2 2 2
,
1
X R
X
B
X R
R
G
X R
jX R
jX R
jB G Y
+
=
+
=
+

=
+
= + = (4.2.17a)
2 2 2 2
,
B G
B
X
B G
G
R
+
=
+
= (4.2.17b)
For the fixed frequency e , taking into account rectangular form of the impedance, its series
equivalent circuit can be found, taking into account rectangular form of the admittance, its
parallel equivalent circuit can be found, as presented in Fig. 4.2.4.
The resistance is always nonnegative while reactance can be positive (inductive) or negative
(capacitive), and correspondingly the impedance angel can be positive or negative
> + e<
o o
90 , 90 (4.2.18)
All possible cases are considered next.
-
o
90 =
The voltage leads the current by 90 degrees, as presented in Fig. 4.2.6 ( ) ( e j I is assumed
as the reference phasor,
o
0 =
i
o ). The resistance is equal to zero and subcircuit has pure
inductive character, its equivalent consists of one element, inductor, as presented in the
same Fig. 4.2.6.
Fig. 4.2.6 Voltage and current
phasors and circuit equivalent,
o
90 =
Im{ ) ( e j Z }
jX
Z

R Re{ ) ( e j Z }
) ( e j U
) ( e j I ) ( e j U
L j jX e e = ) (
) ( e j I
178
-
o o
90 0 < <
The voltage leads the current by the angle less than 90 degrees, as presented in Fig. 4.2.7
(
o
0 =
i
o ). The resistance is greater than zero, reactance is positive,
s
L X e = . Then, the
circuit has inductive character. Its equivalent consists of two elements, resistor and
inductor, as presented in the same Fig. 4.2.7.
Fig. 4.2.7 Voltage and current
phasors and circuit equivalent,
o o
90 0 < <
-
o
0 =
There is no shift between the voltage and the current, as presented in Fig. 4.2.8 (
o
0 =
i
o ).
The resistance is greater than zero, reactance is equal to zero. Then, the subcircuit has
resistive character, its equivalent consists of one element, resistor, as presented in the
same Fig. 4.2.8.
Fig. 4.2.8 Voltage and current
phasors and circuit equivalent,
o
0 =
-
o o
0 90 < <
The current leads the voltage by the angle less than 90 degrees, as presented in Fig. 4.2.9
(
o
0 =
i
o ). The resistance is greater than zero, reactance is negative,
s
C X e / 1 = . Then,
the circuit has capacitive character. Its equivalent consists of two elements, resistor and
capacitor, as presented in the same Fig. 4.2.9.
Fig. 4.2.9 Voltage and current
phasors and circuit equivalent,,
o o
0 90 < <
) ( e j U
) ( e j I ) ( e j U

s
L je
) ( e j I
s
R

) ( e j I ) ( e j U
R
) ( e j I ) ( e j U

) ( e j I ) ( e j I ) ( e j U

s
C
j
e
1

) ( e j U
s
R
179
-
o
90 =
The current leads the voltage by the angle of 90 degrees, as presented in Fig. 4.2.10
(
o
0 =
i
o ). The resistance is equal to zero, reactance is negative, C X e / 1 = . Then, the
subcircuit has pure capacitive character, its equivalent consists of one element, capacitor,
as presented in the same Fig. 4.2.10.
Fig. 4.2.10 Voltage and
current phasors and circuit
equivalent,
o
90 =
Example 4.2.1
Find the series and parallel equivalents of the circuit presented in Fig. 4.2.11,
1000 , 10 / 1 , 15 , 10 , 5
2 1
= O = O = O = O = e e e C L R R rad/s.
Fig. 4.2.11 Circuit for Example 4.2.1

The subcircuit impedance is

(4.2.19)
O + = + + =

+ + =
+
+ + = 10 10 5 5 15 5
10 10
) 10 ( 10
15 5
1
1
) (
2
2
1
j j j
j
j
j
C j
R
C j
R
L j R j Z
e
e
e e
As can be observed, for the given frequency of 1000 rad/s, the subcircuit has inductive
character.
The series equivalent consists of O =10
s
R resistance and O = = 10
s
L X e reactance. Then,
the series inductance is 10 =
s
L mH.
From (4.2.17a), parameters of the parallel equivalent can be calculated: 05 . 0 = G S,
05 . 0 / 1 = =
p
L B e S. Then, the parallel resistance is equal to O = = 20 / 1 G R
p
and the
parallel inductance is equal to 20 =
p
L mH.
Both equivalent circuits are presented in Fig. 4.2.12.

) ( e j I ) ( e j I ) ( e j U

C
j
e
1

) ( e j U
L

1
R
2
R
C
180
Fig. 4.2.12 Equivalent circuits
for Example 4.2.1
ALGORITHM OF AC STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS
The Kirchhoffs laws (4.2.1) and (4.2.2), together with element laws (4.2.5), (4.2.8) and
(4.2.11), can be used to formulate circuit equations in the phasor-domain. The analysis is
therefore identical to the resistive circuit analysis, with impedances replacing resistances and
phasors replacing dc currents and voltages, nodal analysis can be applied. Then, algorithm of
ac steady-state analysis can be formulated.
Algorithm 4.2.1 Phasor method of ac steady-state analysis
Step 1. Built a phasor circuit.
Step 2. Formulate phasor equations, nodal method can be applied.
Step 3. Solve the equations to find phasors describing currents and voltages.
Step 4. Express the solution graphically, by means of the phasor diagram.
Transformation of the solution to the time-domain is trivial. Once phasors are found, they can
be converted immediately to the time-domain sinusoidal answers. Phasor diagram is helpful in
checking correctness of the solution, also allows to read phase shifts between phasors.
Example 4.2.2
Find the mesh current, element voltages and voltage ) (
CA
e j U ; draw the phasor diagram:
) 45 314 sin( 10
o
+ = t e V, O = = 20 L X
L
e , O = = 10 / 1 C X
C
e , O =10 R .
Fig. 4.2.13 Phasor circuit of Example 4.2.2

The mesh current is:

5 . 0 ) 0 exp( 5 . 0
10 10
) 45 exp( 2 / 10
) / 1 (
) (
) (
o
o
= =
+
=
+
= j
j
j
C L j R
j E
j I
e e
e
e A (4.2.20)
It lags the supply voltage, what means that, for 314 = e rad/s, RLC series circuit has inductive
character.
D ) ( e j I C B

L
jX R
) ( e j E
C
jX
A
a) b)
O 10
O 20 20 mH
10 mH
181
Next, element voltages can be calculated
5 ) 0 exp( 5 ) (
o
= = j j U
R
e V (4.2.21a)
10 ) 90 exp( 10 ) (
o
j j j U
L
= = e V (4.2.21a)
5 ) 90 exp( 5 ) (
o
j j j U
C
= = e V (4.2.21a)
These voltages satisfy KVL equation
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( e e e e j U j U j U j U
C R L
+ + = (4.2.22)
This solution can be expressed graphically. Fig. 4.2.14 presents three phasor diagrams:
a) all phasors are anchored in the origin of the complex plane,
b) voltage phasors are shifted, following KVL equation,
c) voltage phasors are shifted, following KVL equation, such that the circuit topology is
mapped.
In this latter case, location of the circuit nodes is uniquely defined and thus, all other voltages
may be read directly from the diagram. The voltage between nodes C and A is
) 45 exp( 2 / 10 ) (
o
j j U
CA
= e V ) 45 314 sin( 10
o
= = t u
CA
V (4.2.23)
Fig. 4.2.14 Phasor diagrams for RLC series circuit (Example 4.2.2)
+
c)
D
) ( e j E ) ( e j U
L
A ) ( e j I

) ( e j U
C
) ( e j U
R
B C
b) ) ( e j U
R

) ( e j U
C
) ( e j U
L
) ( e j E
) ( e j I
a) ) ( e j U
L
) ( e j E
) ( e j I
) ( e j U
R
) ( e j U
C
182
Drill problems 4.2
1. What reactance of: a) inductive character, b) capacitive character, should be connected in
series with j100 O coil such that at V 200 = U supply, coil voltage drops by 50%, i.e.
down to 100 V?
Fig. P.4.2.1
2. Sketch the phasor diagram and read the voltage ) ( e j U
BA
: O = = = = 10
2 1 C L
X X R R ,
10 ) ( = e j E V. Repeat calculations (drawing) for: a) 0
1
= R , b) 0
2
= R .
Fig. P.4.2.2
3. Find the effective value of the mesh current and the coil voltage.
Fig. P.4.2.3
4. For the parallel RL circuit, find the total rms current if rms currents of elements are:
A 3 , A 4 = =
L R
I I .
5. For the series RL circuit, find the total rms voltage if rms voltages of elements are:
V 3 , V 4 = =
L R
U U .
6. Repeat Problems 4.2.4 and 4.2.5 with L replaced by C.
7. Find the effective value of the mesh current and the capacitor voltage.
Fig. P.4.2.7
) ( e j jX 100 j
= U 200 100 =
L
U
C
) ( e j E
1
R
2
R
A B

L
jX
C
jX
D
10 = E V O =10 R
t e 100 sin 2 10 = V O =10 L e
10 = E V O =10 R
t e 100 sin 2 10 = V S 1 . 0 = C e
183
8. The rms voltages of the RLC series circuit are: V 3 , V 4 V, 10 = = =
L C R
U U U . Find the
supply rms voltage.
9. A two-terminal circuit is a series connection of resistor and energy storage element.
Identify character of this element and find both constants R and C or L if the circuit
voltage and current are: t u 100 sin 2 12 = V, ) 45 100 sin( 3
o
+ = t i A.
10. Sketch the phasor diagram mapping the topology. Assume: E j E = ) ( e , R X
L
= , =
C
X
a)
L
X , b) 2
L
X , c) 0.5
L
X .
Fig. P.4.2.10
11. At 100
1
= e rad/s the rms currents are: A 4 ) ( , A 16 ) (
1 1
= = e e
C L
I I . Find the rms
currents ) ( ), ( ), (
1 1 1
e e e jk I jk I jk I
C L
for: a) 2 = k , b) 2 / 1 = k and const U = ) (e .
Fig. P.4.2.11
12. Find the coil ammeter indication, if the capacitor ammeter indication is 2 A and
O = = = 10 / 1 C R L e e .
Fig. P.4.2.12
13. Find the capacitor ammeter indication, if the coil ammeter indication is 2 A and
O = = = 10 / 1 C R L e e .
Fig. P.4.2.13
B D
C R

C
jX
L
jX
) ( e j E
A
) ( e j I
) ( e j U
C
j
e
1
L je
A
L
A
A
C
A
184
14. Find resistance and reactance of the series equivalent at 5000 = e rad/s, for
F 20 , mH 1 , 10 = = O = C L R .
Fig. P.4.2.14
15. The rms current taken from a voltage source t e 10 sin 2 20 = V by a series combination
of O = 3 R and ? = L is 4 A. Find the inductance.
16. Find the rms current taken from a voltage source t e
3
10 sin 2 20 = V by a capacitor of
100 nF in series with a resistance of 10 kO.
17. Find the Thevenin equivalent, t e 100 sin 2 10 = V, O = k 1 R , F 1 . 0 = C .
Fig. P.4.2.17
18. If the current that flows through the RLC branch is t i 10 sin 2 10 = V and
6 . 0 , 2 = O = L R H, 05 . 0 = C F, find the branch voltage.
19. In the circuit of Problem 4.2.12 parameters are not known but it is known that the resistor
rms current is 6 A and the capacitor rms current is 8 A. Find the coil rms current.
20. It is known that the resistor rms voltage is 8 V and the capacitor rms voltage is 4 V. Find
the coil rms voltage.
Fig. P.4.2.20
21. A series combination of a resistance and a capacitance produces a 2 A rms current that
leads the applied voltage by
o
45 . If the amplitude of this voltage is 200 V (50 Hz), what
are the resistance and capacitance ?
185
4.3 AC STEADY-STATE POWER
Few different measures of ac steady-state power are used, and they all are presented. The
special attention is laid on the average power. Methods of its calculation and maximum power
transfer condition are discussed.
MEASURES OF POWER
Instantaneous power
In a linear circuit with periodic excitation, the steady-state currents and voltages are also
periodic, each having identical period. Then, instantaneous power absorbed by two-terminal
element (subcircuit) is also periodic. For the considered sinusoidal excitation, instantaneous
power is also a sinusoid.
(4.3.1)
) 2 cos( ) cos( ) sin( 2 ) sin( 2
i u i u i u
t UI UI t I t U ui p o o e o o o e o e + + = + + = =
The first term in this equation is independent of time, the second term varies periodically over
time at twice the angular frequency. Proper operation of electrical devices limits the
maximum instantaneous power. This power, the so called peak power, is a commonly used
specification for characterizing elements or devices.
UI UI P
i u
+ = ) cos(
peak
o o (4.3.1a)
Average or real power
Mathematically, the first term of instantaneous power is its average value. This term is called
the average power or real power, and it represents the power delivered by a source or
absorbed by a two-terminal element or device (subcircuit).
}
+
= = =
T t
t
i u
UI UI dt p
T
P
0
0
cos ) cos(
1
o o (4.3.2)
The average power, in watts [W], is always nonnegative and satisfies the power balance
principle. It is the product of the rms voltage, the rms current and the cosine of the angle
between them. This cosine is called the power factor, pf.
o o cos ) cos( = =
i u
pf (4.3.2a)
If a two-terminal element is a resistor R, then
o
0 = , 1 = pf , and the real power absorbed is
R
U
R I P
R
2
2
= = (4.3.2b)
For capacitor or coil 0 = pf , because the angle between the voltage and the current is
o
90 = or
o
90 = , respectively. Consequently, the capacitor or coil real power is equal to
zero,
0 = =
L C
P P (4.3.2c)
186
In identifying a load character, the pf is characterized as leading or lagging by the phase of
current with respect to that of the voltage. Then, a capacitive load has a leading pf and an
inductive load has a lagging pf.
The average power designates the energy absorbed by two-terminal element or subcircuit. The
energy absorbed in time interval from 0 = t to nT t = , where n is a positive integer, is
designated by the following equation:
nTP dt t UI dt P dt p W
i u
nT nT nT
nT
= + + = =
} } }
) 2 cos(
0 0 0
o o e (4.3.3)
Consider the circuit of Fig. 4.3.1, consisting of a practical source (sinusoidal generator),
modeled by the Thevenin equivalent, connected to a load subcircuit.
Fig. 4.3.1 Load impedance connected to a source
The real power transferred from the generator to the load can be designated in three different
ways.
1. Phasors ) ( e j U and ) ( e j I are designated at first, then equation (4.3.2) is utilized to find
the real power transferred.
2. Effective currents of load resistors are calculated at first. Then, the power balance
principle (4.3.4) is utilized, where N is number of load resistors.

= =
= =
N
i
N
i
i R R
R I P P
i i
1 1
2
(4.3.4)
3. The effective current I and the equivalent series resistance of the load
l
R are calculated at
first, then the real power transferred is designated from equation (4.3.2b).
Example 4.3.1
Find the real power transferred to the subcircuit presented in Fig. 4.2.11, if the voltage on its
terminals is 10 ) ( = e j U V.

1. O + = 10 10 ) ( j j Z
l
e (4.3.5a)
) ( e j I
) ( e j Z
t
) ( e j U
) ( e j Z
l
) ( e j E
o
SOURCE LOAD
187
) 45 exp(
2
1
1
1
10 10
10
) (
o
j
j j
j I =
+
=
+
= e A (4.3.5b)
5 45 cos
2
1
10
o
= = P W (4.3.5c)
2. 5 . 2 5
2
1
,
2
1 1
= |
.
|

\
|
= =
R R
P I I W (4.3.6a)
5 . 0
10 10
10
1
1
) ( ) (
2
2
j
j
j
j jX R
jX
j I j I
C
C
R
=

+
=

= e e A, 5 . 2 10 ) 5 . 0 (
2
2
= =
R
P W (4.3.6b)
5
2 1
= + =
R R
P P P W (4.3.6c)
3. 5 10
2
1
2
2
= |
.
|

\
|
= =
l
R I P W (4.3.7)
+
Apparent power
For the given line voltage ) ( e j U , the real power consumed by the load is strongly related to
its power factor. It may vary from 0 to the maximum of
UI P S = =
=0
(4.3.8)
This product is called the apparent power. To avoid confusing with the unit of average power,
the watt, the apparent power unit is volt-ampere [VA] and obviously, the apparent power
does not satisfy the power balance principle. It simply defines the maximum capacity of a
source (power plant).
The power factor of a load has a very important practical meaning. Power company is very
interested in having customer keep this factor as close to unity as possible, to minimize the
power line losses
line
2
line
R I P = (4.3.9)
Example 4.3.2
Suppose, that a mill consumes 1 = P kW from a = U 200 V line at a lagging power factor of
2 / 1 60 cos
o
= = pf . Then, the required current is
10
60 cos 200
1000
cos
o
= = =
U
P
I A (4.3.10)
For 1 = pf , the required current would be only 5 A. As can be seen, the power plant must
generate a larger current in the case of lower pf and it causes larger line losses. For instance, if
the transmission line resistance is O = 5
line
R , then the line losses increase from 125 to 500 W!
+
Most industrial and many residential loads are inductive (lagging power factor). Although it is
not possible to change the inductive nature of a load itself, it is possible to connect a
188
capacitive load in parallel with this load, and correct the power factor to unity that way. The
circuit for power factor correction is presented in Fig. 4.3.2, together with the phasor diagram.
Fig. 4.3.2 Circuit for power factor correction and corresponding phasor diagram
Example 4.3.3
A load operating at a lagging power factor of 7 . 0 45 cos
o
= = pf dissipates 2 kW when
connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz power line. What value of capacitance is needed to correct the
power factor to unity?

The inductive load rms current is:

cos U
P
I
L
= (4.3.11a)
From the current triangle (Fig. 4.3.2), the capacitor rms current is
tan sin
U
P
I I
L C
= = (4.3.11b)
Then, the capacitance is:
F 6 . 131
314 220
2000 tan
2 2
=

= = =
e

e U
P
U
I
C
C
(4.3.11c)
+
Reactive power
Energy storage elements, capacitors and coils, neither supply nor dissipate power on average,
but rather exchange it back and forth with the rest of the circuit. To measure the amount of
periodic energy exchange taking place between a given subcircuit and the rest of the circuit,
reactive power Q is introduced.
sin UI Q =
The sign of Q is positive for inductive loads and negative for capacitive ones. For the pure
capacitive or pure inductive load, UI Q = or UI Q = , respectively. For pure resistive load,
0 = Q .
The unit of reactive power is var or volt-ampere reactive, [ VAr ]. The reactive power
satisfies the power balance principle.
) ( e j I ) ( e j U
) ( e j I
C
) ( e j I
L
L je

C
j
e
1

R
189
Example 4.3.1 cont.
Find the reactive power transferred to the subcircuit.

From (4.3.5) repeated

A ) 45 exp( 2 / 1 ) ( , 10 10 ) (
o
j j I j j Z
l
= O + = e e (4.3.12)
Then, the reactive power is
5
2
= =
l
X I Q VAr (4.3.13)
+
Complex power
To extend phasor analysis to the study of power in ac steady-state circuits, a new complex
quantity, the complex power ) ( e j S is defined (4.3.14). For simplicity of description
argument e is omitted at the right side of the equation.
) exp( ) ( e j S jQ P j S = + = (4.3.14)
The real part of the complex power is the average power, the imaginary part is the reactive
power, its modulus is the apparent power. Graphical interpretation in the complex plane is
presented in Fig. 4.3.3, an inductive load is assumed. The complex power satisfies the power
balance principle, as its both terms satisfy this principle.
Fig. 4.3.3 Graphical interpretation of
complex power and its components
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
Same as in dc circuits, when designing ac circuit, it is frequently desirable to arrange for the
maximum real power transfer to the load from the rest of the circuit. The whole circuit is
divided into two parts (Fig. 4.3.1):
1. source, active subcircuit modeled by its Thevenin equivalent:
) ( ) ( ) ( ), ( e e e e
t t t o
jX R j Z j E + = (4.3.15a)
2. load, passive subcircuit modeled by its impedance
) ( ) ( ) ( e e e
l l l
jX R j Z + = (4.3.15b)
Im
jQ ) ( e j S
S

P Re
190
Specifying ) ( e j Z
l
, so that the average power absorbed by this impedance from the given
active subcircuit is a maximum, is the task. Power absorbed by the load is a function of two
arguments:
) , (
) ( ) (
2
2 2
2
l l l
l t l t
o
l
X R P R
X X R R
E
R I P =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
= = (4.3.16)
The values of
l l
X R , that maximize P are calculated from the following equations:
0 , 0 =
c
c
=
c
c
l l
X
P
R
P
(4.3.17)
These values are:
t l t l
X X R R = = , (4.3.18)
and the maximum power transfer condition can be formulated.
The maximum power is transferred to the load of ) ( e j Z
l
from the source with Thevenin
equivalent impedance of ) ( e j Z
t
, if these impedances are complex conjugates:
) ( ) ( ), ( ) ( ) ( ) (
*
e e e e e e
t l t l t l
Z Z j Z j Z = = = (4.3.18a)
Drill problems 4.3
1. A load has the inductive impedance O + = 100 100 ) ( j j Z e . Find the parallel impedance
required to correct the power factor to 1.0 for 500 = e rad/s.
2. Find the real power absorbed by the subcircuit:
0
45
20 ) (
j
e j U = e V, O = = = 10 R X X
L C
.
Fig. P.4.3.2
3. The parallel LC circuit voltage is t U u
m
e sin = . Sketch (on one drawing) the
instantaneous power of L and C, for
C L
X X = .
4. The series LC circuit current is t I i
m
e sin = . Sketch (on one drawing) the instantaneous
power of L and C, for
C L
X X = .
5. The current ) 45 314 sin( 2 10
o
+ = t i mA flows through O + = k 4 3 ) ( j j Z e load. What
real, apparent and reactive power absorbs the load? What energy is dissipated in one
period?
191
6. The voltage across O + = k 4 3 ) ( j j Z e load is ) 45 314 sin( 2 10
o
+ = t u V. What real,
apparent and reactive power absorbs the load? What energy is dissipated in one period?
7. The inductive impedance O + = 8 6 ) ( j j Z e is connected to 220 V line. Find the energy
dissipated in 1 hour.
8. Find the load impedance
l l l
jX R j Z + = ) ( e that will absorb the maximum power. What
would be the value of that maximum ?
Fig. P.4.3.8
9. The inductive load absorbs 270 W of real power at a pf of 0.75 lagging and its voltage is
120 V rms. Find the real power absorbed by the transmission line resistance of
O =10
line
R .
10. At what frequency would the capacitive load receive maximum power and what would be
the value of that maximum.
Fig. P.4.3.10
11. A practical coil has inductance 4 mH and resistance 8 O. Find the power dissipated in the
coil when it is connected to 20 V source at: a) dc, b) 1000 = e rad/s, c) 1500 = e rad/s.
12. The power delivered to a capacitor is t p 2 sin 10 = mW, its voltage is V sin 2 5 t u = .
Find the current entering the positive terminal, the charge between times 0 and a) 4 / t s,
b) t s, and energy delivered within this time.
13. A resistive load consumes 400 W at 100 V, 60 Hz supply. Find a capacitor that should be
connected in series, if the combination is supplied from 200 V, 50 Hz line and load
consumes the same energy.
14. The series RLC circuit is connected to t e
3
10 sin 20 = V source. Find the instantaneous
energy stored
L
W and
C
W at the moment when the source voltage is zero. Find the
instantaneous energy stored
L
W at the moment when
C
W is zero. Find the instantaneous
energy stored
C
W at the moment when
L
W is zero.
15. A single-phase motor is supplied with 1200 W from 240 V, 50 Hz line. The motor
operates at a pf of 0.8. What current flows to the motor ? What is the apparent power ?
10 O F 5 . 0
t 1000 sin 2 20 V 10 O ) ( e j Z
l
1 kO 1 H
t e sin 2 20 V 1 kO
F 1
192
4.4 FREQUENCY CHARACTERISTICS OF TWO-TERMINAL
SUBCIRCUIT
In ac steady-state circuit, all circuit responses are functions of the generator frequency e .
Response variations with this frequency form the frequency response of the circuit.
Summary of ideal elements, resistor, capacitor and coil, is presented at first. Then, use of
these elements to model a practical capacitor and a practical coil is discussed.
Next, frequency response of resonant circuits, circuits that contain both capacitors and coils is
investigated. Simple circuits, series RLC circuit and parallel GLC circuit are considered at
first. Then, complex two-terminal circuits are discussed.
IDEAL ELEMENTS SUMMARY
Resistor
1. Time-domain description
i u i u
RI U t RI t U Ri u o o o e o e = = + = + = , ) sin( 2 ) sin( 2 (4.4.1)
There is no phase shift between the voltage and the current. Fig. 4.4.1 presents a single
period of resistor waveforms - current is denoted by the bold line,
o
0 =
i
o is assumed.
Fig. 4.4.1 Voltage and current waveforms for a resistor
2. Phasor-domain description
) ( ) ( e e j RI j U = (4.4.2)
Phasor diagram is presented in Fig. 4.4.2
Fig. 4.4.2 Phasor diagram for a resistor
2 U
2 I
0.5T T 75 . 0 T t
0.25T
) ( e j I ) ( e j U
193
3. Impedance
o
0 , ) ( ) ( = = = e e R Z R j Z (4.4.3)
Fig. 4.4.3 presents modulus (magnitude) and phase frequency characteristics.
Fig. 4.4.3 Magnitude and phase frequency characteristics for a resistor
4. Power
Instantaneous power: t UI UI t UI ui p e e 2 cos sin 2
2
= = = (4.4.4)
as presented in Fig. 4.4.4 - the dissipated energy is denoted by the hatched area.
Fig. 4.4.4 Resistor instantaneous power
Average power, power factor: 1 ,
2
= = pf R I P (4.4.5)
Reactive power: 0 = Q (4.4.6)
Energy dissipated in one period: RT I W
T
2
= (4.4.7)
Inductor
1. Time-domain description
o o
90 , ) 90 sin( 2 ) sin( 2 + = = + + = + =
i u i u
LI U t LI t U
dt
di
L u o o e o e e o e
(4.4.8)
The voltage leads the current by
o
90 . Fig. 4.4.5 presents a single period of inductor
waveforms - current is denoted by the bold line,
o
0 =
i
o is assumed.
p
2UI
UI
+ +
0.25T 0.5T 0.75T T t
) (e Z ) (e
R
e e
194
Fig. 4.4.5 Voltage and current waveforms for a coil
2. Phasor-domain description
) ( ) ( e e e j LI j j U = (4.4.9)
Phasor diagram is presented in Fig. 4.4.6
Fig. 4.4.6 Phasor diagram for a coil
3. Impedance
o
90 , ) ( ) ( = = = e e e e L Z L j j Z (4.4.10)
Fig. 4.4.7 presents modulus (magnitude) and phase frequency characteristics.
Fig. 4.4.7 Magnitude and phase frequency characteristics for a coil
In dc steady-state ( 0 = e ), coil is a short-circuit. For e , coil is an open-circuit.
2 U
2 I
0.5T T 75 . 0 T t
0.25T
) ( e j U
) ( e j I
) (e Z ) (e

o
90
e e
195
4. Power
Instantaneous power: t UI t UI p e e 2 sin ) 90 2 cos(
o
= + == (4.4.11)
as presented in Fig. 4.4.8.
Fig. 4.4.8 Coil or capacitor instantaneous power
Average power, power factor: 0 , 0 = = pf P (4.4.12)
Reactive power: UI Q = (4.4.13)
Energy absorbed in one period: 0 =
T
W (4.4.14)
Inductor exchanges energy back and forth with the rest of the circuit - in Fig. 4.4.8 the
exchanged energy is denoted by the hatched area.
0 = t 0
0
= W ,
) 4 / , 0 ( T t e energy is stored,
4 / T t = maximum energy stored:
( )
2
2
4 /
2
) 4 / (
LI
T i L
W
T
= = , (4.4.14a)
) 2 / , 4 / ( T T t e energy is given back to the rest of the circuit,
2 / T t = 0
2 /
=
T
W and the process of energy exchange repeats.
Capacitor
1. Time-domain description
o o
90 , ) 90 sin( 2 ) sin( 2 + = = + + = + =
u i u i
CU I t CU t I
dt
du
C i o o e o e e o e
(4.4.15)
The current leads the voltage by
o
90 . Fig. 4.4.9 presents a single period of inductor
waveforms - current is denoted by the bold line,
o
0 =
u
o is assumed.
p
UI
+ +
0.25T 0.5T 0.75T T t

196
Fig. 4.4.9 Voltage and current waveforms for a capacitor
2. Phasor-domain description
) ( ) ( e e e j CU j j I = (4.4.16)
Phasor diagram is presented in Fig. 4.4.10
Fig. 4.4.10 Phasor diagram for a capacitor
3. Impedance
o
90 ,
1
) (
1
) ( = = =
e
e
e
e
C
Z
C j
j Z (4.4.17)
Fig. 4.4.11 presents modulus (magnitude) and phase frequency characteristics.
Fig. 4.4.11 Magnitude and phase frequency characteristics for a capacitor
In dc steady-state ( 0 = e ), capacitor is an open-circuit. For e , capacitor is a short-
circuit.
2 U
0.5T T 75 . 0 T t
0.25T
2 I
) ( e j I
) ( e j U
) (e Z ) (e
e
e
o
90
197
4. Power
Instantaneous power: t UI t UI p e e 2 sin ) 90 2 cos(
o
= + = (4.4.18)
as presented in Fig. 4.4.8.
Average power, power factor: 0 , 0 = = pf P (4.4.19)
Reactive power: UI Q = (4.4.20)
Energy absorbed in one period: 0 =
T
W (4.4.21)
Capacitor exchanges energy back and forth with the rest of the circuit - in Fig. 4.4.7 the
exchanged energy is denoted by the hatched area.
0 = t 0
0
= W ,
) 4 / , 0 ( T t e energy is stored (charging),
4 / T t = maximum energy stored:
( )
2
2
4 /
2
) 4 / (
CU
T u C
W
T
= = , (4.4.21a)
) 2 / , 4 / ( T T t e energy is given back to the rest of the circuit (discharging),
2 / T t = 0
2 /
=
T
W and the process of energy exchange repeats.
PRACTICAL COIL and PRACTICAL CAPACITOR
A practical (nonideal) inductor or a practical capacitor is modeled by an ideal inductor or
capacitor, together with some other parasitic elements to account for losses and coupling.
For a practical inductor, first of all, a winding resistance
Cu
R R
L
= (resistance in copper) has
to be taken into account. This resistance may be modeled by inserting a series resistor into the
circuit model for a practical inductor, as presented in Fig. 4.4.12.
Fig. 4.4.12 Circuit model for a practical coil
At first, model taking into account only this winding resistance is considered. From KVL:
) ( ) ( ) ( e e e j U j U j U
R L
+ = (4.4.22)
The phasor diagram is presented in Fig. 4.4.13a (
o
0 =
i
o is assumed).
A practical coil equivalent impedance is
2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( L R Z L j R j Z
L L L L
e e e e + = + = (4.4.23)
Frequency characteristic of the magnitude is presented in Fig. 4.4.13b (solid line).
) ( e j U
L
) ( e j U
R
) ( e j I L je
L
R

L
C j e /
) ( e j U
198
Fig. 4.4.13 Practical coil: a) phasor diagram, b) magnitude as a function of frequency
If a practical inductor or capacitor is described by the equivalent impedance,
) ( ) ( ) ( e e e jX R j Z + = , then the reactance ) (e X is the primary parameter of concern, and
the resistance ) (e R represents the parasitic effect. The magnitude of ) (e X is usually much
greater than the magnitude of ) (e R . The ratio, called the quality factor of practical element
) (
) (
) (
e
e
e
R
X
Q = (4.4.24)
provides a measure of how close the practical element is to an ideal element. The inclusion of
e in equation (4.4.24) is to emphasize the fact that the quality factor depends on the
frequency.
For an inductor, modeled as shown in Fig 4.4.12 solid lines, the quality factor is designated
by the following equation:
L
L
R
L
Q
e
e = ) ( (4.4.25)
For an exemplary coil characterized by the following parameters: 1 . 0 = L H, O =10
L
R , at
the audio frequency of 1000 = f Hz the quality factor is equal to 62.8.
A coil model denoted in Fig. 4.4.12 by solid lines is valid for low and medium frequencies of
up to few megahertz. For high frequencies the parasitic capacitance between a coil terminals
L
C , the so called stray capacitance, has to be taken into account, as denoted in Fig. 4.4.12 by
the dashed line. A practical coil equivalent circuit has inductive character up to some
frequency, called the resonant frequency (meaning of this notion is explained in the next
section of this Chapter):
L
r
LC
1
~ e (4.4.26)
Above the resonant frequency the equivalent circuit reveals the capacitive character! For the
exemplary coil and stray capacitance of 1 . 0 =
L
C pF, the resonant frequency is equal to
7
10 =
r
e rad/s 6 . 1 =
r
f MHz.
a) ) (e
L
Z b)
) ( e j U
L
) ( e j U


L
R
) ( e j U
R
) ( e j I
r
e e
199
For a practical capacitor, first of all, a leakage resistance
leak
R R
C
= has to be taken into
account. This resistance may be modeled by inserting a parallel resistor into the circuit model
for a practical capacitor, as presented in Fig. 4.4.14.
Fig. 4.4.14 Circuit model for a practical
capacitor
At first, model taking into account only this leakage resistance is considered. From KCL:
) ( ) ( ) ( e e e j I j I j I
R C
+ = (4.4.27)
The phasor diagram is presented in Fig. 4.3.15a (
o
0 =
u
o is assumed).
A practical coil equivalent impedance is
2 2
2 2
) (
1
) (
) (
1
) (
1
) (
C G
Z
C G
C j G
C j G j Y
j Z
C
C
C
C
C C
C
e
e
e
e
e e
e
+
=
+

=
+
= = (4.4.28)
Frequency characteristic of the magnitude is presented in Fig. 4.3.15b (solid line).
Fig. 4.4.15 Practical coil: a) phasor diagram, b) magnitude as a function of frequency
For a capacitor, modeled as shown in Fig 4.4.14 solid lines, the quality factor is designated
by the following equation:
C
C
G
C
G
B
Q
e
e
e
e = =
) (
) (
) ( (4.4.29)
A capacitor quality factor is usually much greater than a coil quality factor, it is often assumed
to be infinite. The reciprocal of ) (e
C
Q is called the dissipation factor ) (e
C
d :
a) ) (e
C
Z b)
) ( e j I
C
) ( e j I
C
R



) ( e j I
R
) ( e j U
r
e e
) ( e j I
C
C j e /

C
L je
) ( e j I
) ( e j I
R

C
R
) ( e j U
200
) ( / 1 ) ( e e
C C
Q d = (4.3.30)
For an exemplary capacitor characterized by the following parameters: F 1 = C , O = M 5
C
R ,
at the audio frequency of 1000 = f Hz, the quality factor is equal to 31400.
A capacitor model denoted in Fig. 4.4.14 by solid lines is valid for low and medium
frequencies. For high frequencies the parasitic inductance of connecting wires
C
L has to be
taken into account, as denoted in Fig. 4.4.14 by dashed connections. A practical capacitor
equivalent circuit has capacitive character up to some frequency, called the resonant
frequency (meaning of this notion is explained in the following section):
C L
C
r
1
~ e (4.4.31)
Above the resonant frequency the equivalent circuit reveals the inductive character! For the
exemplary capacitor and parasitic inductance of 10 =
C
L nH, the resonant frequency is equal
to
7
10 =
r
e rad/s 6 . 1 =
r
f MHz.
A circuit design should take this phenomenon into account and resonant frequencies of all
used reactive elements, capacitors and coils, should be greater than the maximum operating
frequency.
RESONANT CIRCUITS
Consider the two-terminal passive circuit that contains at least one inductor and at least one
capacitor, connected to a sinusoidal generator of variable frequency, as presented in Fig.
4.4.16.
Fig. 4.4.16 Two-terminal RLC circuit
Frequency characteristics will be investigated, first for simple two-terminal RLC circuits built
of three elements in series or parallel configuration, then for complex circuits. Phenomenon of
resonance will be discussed.
The term resonance reflects the condition that the source voltage ) ( e j U and current ) ( e j I
are in phase,
o
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( = = e o e o e
i u
. The frequency at which this phenomenon occurs is
called the resonant frequency
r
e . If
r
e exists, then the circuit is a resonant circuit.
) ( e j I
) ( e j U
201
Series-resonant circuit RLC
The series RLC circuit is presented in Fig. 4.4.17. The circuit impedance
) ( )
1
( ) ( e
e
e e jX R
C
L j R j Z + = + = (4.4.32)
consists of the fixed real part (resistance) and imaginary part (reactance) that varies with
frequency. The frequency at which reactance vanishes and the impedance is at a minimum
magnitude, the resonant frequency, is
LC
r
1
= e (4.4.33)
It is worth to observe, that this frequency coincides with the undamped resonant frequency
(3.2.26c) of natural response. The reactance frequency characteristic is presented in Fig.
4.4.18.
Fig. 4.4.17 Series RLC circuit
Fig. 4.4.18 Frequency characteristic of
reactance in RLC series circuit
- for dc input voltage 0 = e , reactance is an open-circuit,
- for low frequencies ) , 0 (
r
e ee , reactance is negative (capacitive),
C
L
C
X
s
e
e
e e
e
1
) (
1
) ( = = (4.4.34a)
where ) (e
s
C is the equivalent series capacitance,
- for the resonant frequency
r
e ,
reactance is zero (short-circuit) circuit has resistive character,
) (e X
L e
L
r
e

r
e e
C
r
e
1

C e
1

) ( e j I C D
B R
L
jX
) ( e j U
C
jX
A
202
- for high frequencies, ) , ( e
r
e e , reactance is positive (inductive),
C
L L X
s
e
e e e e
1
) ( ) ( = = (4.4.34b)
where ) (e
s
L is the equivalent series inductance,
- for = e , reactance is an open-circuit.
The magnitude and phase characteristics of impedance are presented in Fig. 4.4.19.
Fig, 4.4.19 Magnitude and phase characteristics of impedance of the series RLC circuit
Consider the input to this circuit to be its voltage > e< = = , 0 , ) ( e e const U j U and its
output to be its current ) ( e j I . Magnitude of the current,
2
2
1
) (
) (
|
.
|

\
|
+
= =
C
L R
U
Z
U
I
e
e
e
e (4.4.35)
is normally plotted in relation to the resonant current
R
U
I I
r r
= = ) (e (4.4.36)
The obtained gain curve:
2 2
) / 1 ( 1
1 ) (
q q
e
+
=
Q
I
I
r
(4.4.37)
is called the resonant curve and it is depicted in Fig. 4.3.20, for two values of Q, where
q is the normalized frequency and Q is the quality factor of the series RLC circuit:
r
e e q / = (4.3.38)
C
L
R
Q
1
= (4.4.39)
.This curve can be also considered as the ratio of admittances.
) (e Z
R

r
e e
) (e

o
90

r
e e
o
90
203
2 2
) / 1 ( 1
1 ) ( ) (
q q
e e
+
= =
Q
UI
UI
Y
Y
r r
(4.4.37a)
Fig. 4.4.20 Resonant curve of series RLC circuit for two values of Q
As can be observed, a phenomenon of resonance makes a circuit frequency selective. To have
a good measure of this selectivity, to measure sharpness of the resonant curve, term of quality
factor (4.3.39) is used. Circuits with high quality factors are very frequency selective, and this
implies low values of resistance R. Since practical inductors include significant winding
resistance
Cu
R , it is difficult and expensive to design high-Q resonant circuits passively, that
is, solely with RLC elements (active resonant circuits are not discussed).
In essence, Q is a measure of the energy storage property of a circuit in relation to its energy
dissipation property. It can be easily proved that
cycle per dissipated energy total
stored energy maximum
2t = Q (4.4.39a)
To measure the width of the frequency band within which the circuit is behaving in near-
resonant fashion, the term of bandwidth e A is defined.
The circuit bandwidth is the range of frequencies that lie between two frequencies
u l
e e ,
where the magnitude of the gain is 2 / 1 .
The gain of 2 / 1 corresponds to the power ratio of 1/2
2
1 ) (
2
1 ) ( ) (
2
= = =
r r r
I
I
R I
R I
P
P e e e
(4.4.40)
Boundary frequencies, the upper half-power frequency
u
e and the lower half-power
frequency
l
e are calculated from the following equation:

r r
Y
Y
I
I ) ( ) ( e e
=
1
2 / 1
Q
Q

l
e
r
e
u
e e
204
2 2
) / 1 ( 1
1
2
1
q q +
=
Q
(4.4.41)
Leaving the algebra, after subtraction of the two frequencies, the bandwidth for the series
RLC is simply
Q L
R
r
l u
e
e e e = = = A (4.4.42)
It is worth to emphasize, that at the resonant frequency magnitude of the coil and the capacitor
voltages is the same
r
r
Cr r r Lr
I
C
U LI U
e
e
1
= = = (4.4.43)
Then, another expression for the quality factor can be formulated
CR R
L
U
U
U
U
Q
r
r Cr Lr
e
e 1
= = = = (4.3.44)
The frequency characteristics of magnitudes of coil and capacitor voltages are presented in
Fig. 4.4.21.
Fig. 4.4.21 Frequency characteristics of coil (bold) and capacitor voltage
For low values of Q, the voltages do not exceed the supply voltage. For larger values, the
voltages exceed the supply voltage, as presented in Fig. 4.4.21. For even larger values of Q,
practically for 10 > Q ,
r L C
e e e = =
max max
and UQ U U U
Cr Lr
= = =
max
! The coil or
capacitor resonant voltage significantly exceeds the supply voltage and this effect is called the
resonance overvoltage.
Phasor diagrams for three frequencies:
r r r
e e e e e e 2 , , 5 . 0
3 2 1
= = = and 3 / 2 = Q are
presented in Fig. 4.4.22.

max
U
) (e
C
U ) (e
L
U

Cr Lr
U U =
U

max C
e
r
e
max L
e e
205
Fig. 4.4.22 Phasor diagrams for three frequencies:
r r r
e e e e e e 2 , , 5 . 0
3 2 1
= = = ; 3 / 2 = Q
) 45 exp( ) 2 /( ) (
o
1
j R U j I = e
A U B
) 45 exp( 2 / ) (
o
1
j U j U
R
= e
C
) 135 exp( ) 2 3 /( ) (
o
1
j U j U
L
= e
D ) 45 exp( ) 2 3 /( 4 ) (
o
1
j U j U
C
= e
) 45 exp( ) 2 3 /( 4 ) (
o
3
j U j U
L
= e C
) 45 exp( 2 / ) (
o
3
j U j U
R
= e
A U B
) 45 exp( ) 2 3 /( ) (
o
3
j U j U
C
= e
D
) 45 exp( ) 2 /( ) (
o
3
j R U j I = e
A R U j I / ) (
2
= e B
C U j U
R
= ) (
2
e
) 90 exp( 3 / 2 ) (
o
2
j U j U
L
= e
D ) 90 exp( 3 / 2 ) (
o
2
j U j U
C
= e
206
Example 4.4.1
For the given parameters of RLC series circuit: F 1 H, 1 , 10 = = O = C L R and the input
voltage of 1 = U V, find magnitude of the coil/capacitor voltage at the resonant frequency.

The resonant frequency is 1000 =

r
e rad/sec, the quality factor is 100 = Q . For these values,
the resonant current is A 1 . 0 =
r
I and the maximum rms coil/capacitor voltage is
! ! ! V 100
max
~ U
+
Parallel-resonant circuit RLC
The parallel RLC circuit is presented in Fig. 4.4.23. The circuit admittance
) ( )
1
( ) ( e
e
e e jB G
L
C j G j Y + = + = (4.4.45)
consists of the fixed real part (conductance) and imaginary part (susceptance) that varies with
frequency. The frequency at which susceptance vanishes and the admittance is at a minimum
magnitude, the resonant frequency is the same as in the series circuit (4.4.33). The
susceptance frequency characteristic is presented in Fig. 4.4.24.
Fig. 4.4.23 Parallel RLC circuit
Fig. 4.4.24 Frequency characteristic of
susceptance in RLC series circuit
- for dc voltage 0 = e , susceptance is a short-circuit,
- for low frequencies ) , 0 (
r
e ee , susceptance is negative (inductive),
) (e B
C e
C
r
e

r
e e
L
r
e
1

L e
1

) ( e j U
L je
) ( e j I R
C je
1
207
L
C
L
Y
p
e
e
e e
e
1
) (
1
) ( = = (4.4.46a)
where ) (e
p
L is the equivalent parallel inductance,
- for the resonant frequency
r
e ,
susceptance is zero (open-circuit) circuit has resistive character,
- for high frequencies, ) , ( e
r
e e , reactance is positive (capacitive),
L
C C Y
p
e
e e e e
1
) ( ) ( = = (4.4.46b)
where ) (e
p
C is the equivalent parallel capacitance,
- for = e , susceptance is a short-circuit.
Magnitude and phase characteristics of admittance are presented in Fig. 4.4.25.
Fig, 4.4.25 Magnitude and phase characteristics of admittance of the parallel RLC circuit
Magnitude of the voltage is normally plotted in relation to the resonant voltage
G
I
U U
r r
= = ) (e (4.4.47)
The obtained gain curve,
2 2
) / 1 ( 1
1 ) (
q q
e
+
=
Q
U
U
r
(4.4.48)
is called the resonant curve and it is depicted in Fig. 4.4.26, for two values of Q, where: q is
the normalized frequency (4.4.38) and Q is the circuit quality factor
L
C
G
Q
1
= (4.4.49)
) (e Y
G

r
e e
) (e

o
90

r
e e
o
90
208
Fig. 4.4.26 Resonant curve of parallel RLC circuit for two values of Q
As can be observed, the parallel resonant circuit can be studied by repeating the results noted
for the series RLC case while making substitution of ) ( e j I for ) ( e j U and vice-versa, L for
C and vice-versa, and G for R. For large values of Q, the effect of the resonance overcurrent
can be observed.
Example 4.4.2
For the given parameters of RLC parallel circuit: F 1 H, 1 , k 10 = = O = C L R and the input
current of 1 = I 0 mA, find magnitude of the coil/capacitor current at the resonant frequency.

The resonant frequency is 1000 =

r
e rad/s, the quality factor is 100 = Q . For these values,
the resonant voltage is V 10 =
r
U and the maximum rms coil/capacitor current is
1
max
= ~ IQ I A !
+
Complex-resonant circuit
In complex-resonant circuits more than one resonance may occur. The analysis of such
circuits is generally laborious and not especially illuminating. At the resonant frequency, the
terminal voltage ) ( e j U and current ) ( e j I are in phase, and this is achieved when reactance
is equal to zero (susceptance is equal to infinity) or reactance is equal to infinity (susceptance
is equal to zero). Then, in a complex circuit resonant frequencies may be calculated from the
following equations:
0 ) ( = e X or = ) (e B (4.4.50a)
and
= ) (e X or 0 ) ( = e B (4.4.50b)
Resonant frequencies designated from (4.4.50a) are alternating with frequencies designated
from (4.4.50b) and
0 / ) ( > e e d dX . (4.4.51)

r r
Z
Z
U
U ) ( ) ( e e
=
1
2 / 1
Q
Q

l
e
r
e
u
e e
209
Example 4.4.3
Plot the frequency characteristic ) (e X and calculate the resonant frequencies.
Fig. 4.4.27 Circuit for Example 4.4.3

Two resonant frequencies are expected.

- For 0 = e the circuit is a short-circuit.
- For low frequencies the reactance is positive (circuit has inductive character), up to the
frequency of the first resonance designated from (4.4.53b). At this frequency parallel
connection of
2
L and C gives an open-circuit.
- For medium frequencies the reactance is negative (circuit has capacitive character), up to
the frequency of the second resonance designated from (4.4.53a). At this frequency all
three elements give a short-circuit.
- For high frequencies the reactance is positive (circuit has inductive character) again.
- For = e the reactance is an open-circuit.
The frequency characteristic is plotted in Fig. 4.4.28.
Fig. 4.4.28 Frequency characteristic for Example 4.4.3
The circuit impedance is
) (
1
1
1
) (
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e e jX
C L
L
L j
C j
L j
C j
L j
L j j Z =
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
+
+ = (4.4.52)
) (e X

1 r
e
2 r
e e

1
L je

2
L je
C je
1
210
Then, the resonant frequencies calculated from (4.4.50) are:
C L L
L L
C L
L
L
r
2 1
2 1
2
2
2
2
1
0
1
+
= =

e
e
e
e (4.4.53a)
C L C L
L
L
r
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
= =

e
e
e
e (4.4.53b)
+
Drill problems 4.4
1. Draw the frequency characteristic ) (e Z . Assume: F 1 , H 1 , 100 = = O = C L R .
Fig. P.4.4.1
2 Draw the frequency characteristic ) (e Z . Assume: F 1 , H 1 = = C L .
Fig. P.4.4.2
3. The series resonant circuit has L=1 mH and C=10 F. Find the required Q and R when it is
desired that the bandwidth be 16 Hz.
4. Make sketches of ) ( ), ( ), ( e e e X R Z if the series element ) (
1
e j Z is R, L or C and the
parallel combination ) ( ) (
3 2
e e j Z j Z is RL, RC or LC.
Fig. P.4.4.4
5. Rework Problem 4.4.4 if the parallel element is R, L or C and the series combination is
RL, RC or LC.
) (
1
e j Z
) (
2
e j Z ) (
3
e j Z
C L
2C 2L
) (
2
e j Z
) (
1
e j Z
) (
3
e j Z
211
6. The series RLC circuit, 1 ; 10 = O = L R H; F 1 = C , is connected to 1 = U V source.
Calculate element voltages at the resonant frequency. Draw frequency characteristics of
all voltages.
7. Draw the frequency characteristic ) (e Z for Fig. 4.2.11 circuit.
8. The parallel RLC circuit, 1 ; k 100 = O = L R H, F 1 = C is connected to 1 = I mA source.
Calculate element currents at the resonant frequency. Draw frequency characteristics of
all currents.
212
4.5 TRANSFER FUNCTION IN FREQUENCY DOMAIN-FREQUENCY
RESPONSE
In most cases, ac steady-state analysis is much narrowly defined than that of finding all
responses (amplitudes and phases) at single frequency excitation. A convenient way to test a
linear circuit is to inject a sinusoid as the input and observe the sinusoidal steady-state output
(amplitude and/or phase) at different frequencies. In many practical circuits, observation of
response variations with frequency, the so called frequency response, is the fundamental part
of ac analysis. In such case, the analysis is limited to the SISO analysis and the transfer
function approach is utilized. The SISO circuit described in the frequency domain is presented
in Fig. 4.5.1 to avoid collision of notations, frequency-domain signals are denoted ) ( e j F
x
and ) ( e j F
y
,while the s-domain signals have been denoted ) (s X and ) (s Y .
Fig. 4.5.1 SISO linear circuit described
in frequency domain
The frequency response function ) ( e j K , the transfer function ) (s K with s replaced by
e j , scales the input phasor to yield the output phasor.
)] ( exp[ ) (
) (
) (
) ( ) ( e e
e
e
e
e
j K
j F
j F
s K j K
x
y
j s
= = =
=
(4.5.1)
) (
) (
) (
e
e
e
x
y
F
F
K = (4.5.1a)
) ( ) ( ) ( e o e o e
x y
= (4.5.1b)
The curves for gain ) (e K versus e and phase shift ) (e versus e are called the
magnitude or amplitude (frequency) response and phase response, respectively.
The SISO circuit gain ) (e K and phase shift ) (e completely describe of how the circuit
responds to inputs at any frequency.
For the two-terminal circuit, if ) ( e j F
x
is its current ) ( e j I and ) ( e j F
y
is its voltage
) ( e j U , or vice-versa, then ) ( ) ( e e j Y j K = or ) ( ) ( e e j Z j K = , respectively, and this case
has been already discussed in the preceding Chapter. In electronics, in most practical
applications two-port is considered, as shown in Fig. 4.5.2. Then, the frequency response
function (magnitude response) is the ratio of two voltages:
) (
) (
) ( ,
) (
) (
) (
e
e
e
e
e
e
x
y
x
y
U
U
K
j U
j U
j K = = (4.5.2)
) ( e j F
x
) ( e j K ) ( e j F
y
213
Fig. 4.5.2 Two-port linear circuit
described by frequency response
function
The circuit frequency response can be expressed graphically. The locus of the frequency
response function can be plotted in the complex plan, or separate curves for phase shift and
magnitude versus e can be graphed. The latter one is normally graphed in logarithmic scale,
as described in the next section of this Chapter.
Example 4.5.1
Plot the locus of the frequency response function, the phase response and the magnitude
response of the two-port RC circuit shown in Fig. 4.5.3.
Fig. 4.5.3 Circuit for Example 4.5.1

The circuit is the practical integrator considered already in Chapter 3.3. From its transfer
function (3.3.7a) the frequency response function is obtained, with s replaced by e j .
T j
j K
sT
s K
e
e
+
=
+
=
1
1
) (
1
1
) ( (4.5.3)
Then, the magnitude and phase responses are
) arctan( ) ( ,
) ( 1
1
) (
2
T
T
K e e
e
e =
+
= (4.5.3a)
The frequency response function, gain and phase shift, are collected in Table 4.5.1, for three
characteristic frequencies.
Table 5.5.1 Example 4.5.1 frequency response at selected frequencies
e 0 T
c
/ 1 = e

) ( e j K 1 2 / 1 2 / 1 j 0
) (e K 1
2 / 1
0
) (e
o
0
o
45
o
90
) ( e j U
x
) ( e j K ) ( e j U
y
R
) ( e j U
x

C je
1
) ( e j U
y
214
It can be proved that locus described by the function (4.5.3) is a semicircle, as shown in Fig.
4.5.4. The amplitude response (gain curve) and phase response (phase shift curve) are
presented in Fig. 4.5.5.
Fig. 4.5.4 Locus of ) ( e j K for
Example 4.5.1
Fig. 4.5.5 Amplitude response and phase response for Example 4.5.1
+
BODE (LOGARITHMIC) PLOT
The use of linear scale to measure gain has its limitations. Small dynamic range it makes
available for graphing is the most important drawback of such scale. It is desirable to have
equal ratios mapped into equal displacements and this can be achieved by using a logarithmic
scale.
On a logarithmic scale, equal intervals represent a certain multiple, an increase of unity in the
common logarithm, ) log( ) ( log
10
x x = , represents multiplication by ten:
1 10 log log 10
1
2
1 2
= = =
e
e
e e (4.5.4)
Fig. 4.5.6 Frequency axis in
logarithmic scale
) (e K ) (e
1
c
e e
2 / 1

o
45
e

c
e
o
90
0.1 1 10 100 1000 e
1 0 1 2 3 e log
1/2
= e 1 ) ( Re e j K
0 = e
2 / j
T / 1 = e
1/2
) ( Im e j K
215
In case of frequency such an interval is called a decade. In case of magnitude such an interval
is called bell. For some practical reasons decibel = bel 10 [dB] was adopted, first for the
power ratio
) (
) (
log 10
e
e
x
y
P
P
(4.5.5)
From this ratio, the voltage gain in logarithmic scale is obtained
) ( log 20 ) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
dB
2
2
e e
e
e
e
e
K K
G U
G U
P
P
x
y
x
y
= = (4.5.5a)
Then, for voltages (or currents) the gain is measured in decibels by twenty times its common
logarithm. Table 4.5.1 presents the common decibel conversion table.
Table 4.5.1 Decibel conversion table
) (e K
0.1
707 . 0 2 / 1 ~
1
2
2 3 4 5 10 100
) (
dB
e K
20 3 01 . 3 ~ 0 ~3 ~6 ~10 ~12 ~14 20 40
An exact plot of gain versus frequency (logarithmic plot) is somewhat tedious to produce. In
the 1930s the German-born engineer Hendrick Bode devised a simple method for graphing
the logarithmic plot, it bears his name Bode gain plot.
Consider a transfer function (3.3.2) with s replaced by e j
[
[
[
[
=
=
=
=
+
+
=

= =
m
k
Mk
l
j
Lj
m
k
k
l
j
j
T j
T j
C
s j
q j
K
j M
j L
K j K
1
1
1
1
) 1 (
) 1 (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
e
e
e
e
e
e
e (4.5.6)
where,
k j
s q , are roots of polynomials ) ( ), ( s M s L , zeroes and poles of ) (s K ,
const K = is gain,
k
Mk
j
Lj
s
T
q
T
1
,
1
= = are time constants.
Then, the logarithmic plot is given by the following equation:

= =
+ + + =
l
j
m
k
Mk Lj
T T C K
1 1
2 2
dB
) ( 1 log 20 ) ( 1 log 20 log 20 ) ( e e e (4.5.7)
The strategy for plotting the gain in decibels will be to plot each term of (4.5.7) separately and
then add these component plots graphically.
The graph of the first term clearly is a flat straight line at the level of C log 20 .
The graph of a term
2
) ( 1 log 20 ) ( T f e e + = can be approximated by two linear segments:
I. 0 ) ( / 1 1 = = << << e e e e f T T
c
(4.5.8a)
II. ) log( 20 ) ( / 1 1 T f T T
c
e e e e e = = >> >> (4.5.8b)
as presented in Fig. 4.5.7.
216
Fig. 4.5.7 Bode plot for
2
) ( 1 log 20 ) ( T f e e + =
Such plot of PWL approximation, a pair of lines meeting at the break frequency or cut-off
frequency
c
e , is called the uncorrected Bode plot. It is worth to observe that slope of the
second segment (4.5.8b) is equal to 20 dB/decade. The true or corrected Bode plot is denoted
by the dashed curve. Note that the maximum error occurs at the break frequency and it is
equal to 3 dB. Far from this frequency the uncorrected and corrected plots merge smoothly.
The technique for using component graphs to generate Bode plot will be illustrated in
Example 4.5.2.
Example 4.5.2
Find Bode plot of the following transfer function
10 1
1
10 ) (
s
s
s K
+
+
= (4.5.9)

Fig. 4.5.8 Bode plot (uncorrected) for Example 4.5.2

) (e f
40 dB

20 dB/dec
20 dB
Corrected
Uncorrected
3 dB

c
e 01 . 0
c
e 1 . 0
c
e
c
e 10
c
e 100 e
) (
dB
e K
10 log 20
20 dB

2
1 log 20 e +
0.01 0.1 1 10 e

2
) 10 ( 1 log 20 e +
20 dB
217
The corresponding Bode plot
2 2
dB
) 10 ( 1 log 20 1 log 20 10 log 20 ) ( e e e + + + = K (4.5.10)
has three terms, denoted in Fig. 4.5.8. by the dashed lines. These terms generate Bode plot,
denoted by the solid line.
+
Example 4.5.1 cont.
Draw Bode gain plot for s 1 = T .

For the gain expressed in linear scale by equation (4.5.3a), the corresponding Bode plot is
2
dB
) ( 1 log 20 ) ( T K e e + = (4.5.11)
Values of the gain for 100 , 10 , 1 , 1 . 0 , 0 ; = = k k
c
e e , in linear and decibel scale, are collected
in Table 4.5.2. Bode plot is presented in Fig. 4.5.9.
Table 4.5.2 Gain in linear and decibel scale for Example 4.5.1
e 0 0.1 1 10 100
) (e K 1 0.995 0.707 0.099 0.01
) (
dB
e K 0 0.04 3.01 20.04 40.00
Fig. 4.5.9 Bode plot for
Example 4.5.1
+
FILTERS
Filters are among the most common two-ports found in general circuit design. Every practical
electronic circuit of any complexity contains at least one filter.
An electrical filter is a (two-port) circuit, as presented in Fig. 4.5.2, that is designated to
introduce amplitude gain or loss over a predefined range of frequencies, impedes the passage
of signals whose frequencies fall within a band called the stopband, while permitting those in
another band, called the passband, to pass relatively unchanged.
) (
dB
e K 0.1 1 10 100 e
20 dB
40 dB
218
Ideal filters block stopband signals completely while passing passband signals without any
change. For nonideal filters the band-limiting frequency(ies) are defined as the half-power
frequency(ies). In other words, the band-limiting frequency is the frequency at which the gain
is 3 dB below its maximum value. The location of the pass(stop)band designates character of
a filter, and four types of filters can be distinguished.
Low-Pass Filter - LPF
The magnitude response of a low-pass filter with band-limiting frequency, so called cutoff
frequency
c
e , is presented in Fig. 4.5.10, for both ideal (solid) and nonideal (dashed) case.
Fig. 4.5.10 Low-pass filter gain curve
The two-port RC circuit of Example. 4.5.1 can be considered as the simplest low-pass filter.
Its gain curve is the dashed curve of Fig. 4.5.10 and its Bode plot is presented in Fig. 4.5.9
( 1 =
c
e rad/s).
High-Pass Filter - HPF
The magnitude response of a high-pass filter with cutoff frequency
c
e is presented in Fig.
4.5.11, for both ideal (solid) and nonideal (dashed) case.
Fig. 4.5.11 High-pass filter gain curve
The simplest, RC circuit realization is presented in Fig. 4.5.12. This circuit is the simplest
differentiator considered in Chapter 3.3. Its transfer function is described by equation
(3.3.11a).
) (e K
1
2 / 1

c
e e
) (e K
1
2 / 1

c
e e
219
Fig. 4.5.12 RC high-pass filter
Then, the frequency response function is
2
dB
2
) ( 1 log 20 ) log( 20 ) ( ,
) ( 1
) ( T T K
T
T
K e e e
e
e
e + =
+
= (4.5.12)
The linear-scale gain is denoted in Fig. 4.5.11 by the dashed curve. The corresponding Bode
plot is presented in Fig. 4.5.13.
Fig. 4.5.13 Bode plot
of RC high-pass filter
Band-Pass Filter - BPF
The magnitude response of a band-pass filter with lower and upper boundary frequencies
u l
e e , is presented in Fig. 4.5.14, for both ideal case (solid) and nonideal case (dashed). The
simplest, RLC circuit realizations are presented in Fig. 4.5.15.
Fig. 4.5.14 Magnitude response of a band-pass filter
) (
dB
e K

c
e 01 . 0
c
e 1 . 0
c
e
c
e 10
c
e 100 e
3 dB
20 dB
) (e K
1
2 / 1

l
e
u
e e

C je
1
) ( e j U
x
R ) ( e j U
y
220
Fig. 4.5.15 RLC realizations of band-pass filter
Band-Stop Filter - BSF
The magnitude response of a band-stop filter with lower and upper boundary frequencies
u l
e e , is presented in Fig. 4.5.16, for both ideal case (solid) and nonideal case (dashed). The
simplest, RLC circuit realizations are presented in Fig. 4.5.17.
Fig. 4.5.16 Band-stop filter gain curve
Fig. 4.5.17 RLC realizations of band-stop filter
Drill problems 4.5
1. Draw the amplitude response in logarithmic scale (Bode plot) for the transfer function
) /( ) ( ) ( Ds C Bs A s K + + = and the following combinations of its coefficients:
a) A=0.1, B=0, C=1, D=10; b) A=1, B=0.1, C=0, D=1; c) A=0, B=10, C=1, D=10.
2. Draw the logarithmic plot of the RC high(low)-pass filter, F 1 , k 10 = O = C R .
3. Draw the logarithmic plot of the ideal integrator (differentiator) characterized by the
integration (differentiation) constant 10 = T s.
) (e K
1
2 / 1

l
e
u
e e
221
4. What is the simplest structure of a filter giving the following amplitude response?
Fig. P.4.5.4
5. Sketch amplitude response ) (e K of the given filters.
Fig. P.4.5.5
6. Sketch amplitude response ) (e K of the given loaded filter.
Fig. P.4.5.6
) (e K a) ) (e K b)
1 1
e e
) (e K c)
1
e
a)
C
L
C
b)
L
L
C
e) f)
C L C L
L C
c) d)
C L
L C L C
R L
C R
222
7. Calculate the frequency response function ) ( e j K of the RC filter. Sketch Bode plot of
this filter.
Fig. P.4.5.7
9R
C R
223
4.6 ANALYSIS OF CIRCUIT RESPONSE WHEN ONE CIRCUIT
CONSTANT VARIES
In some practical applications study of a circuit behavior when its one constant (parameter) q,
such as: resistance R, inductance L or capacitance C, varies from
min
Q to
max
Q is necessary at
the design stage. A locus of circuit phasor response when q varies is plotted in the complex
plane and its two shapes will be discussed:
a) (half)line,
b) (semi)circle.
The technique for plotting such loci will be illustrated in Example 4.6.1.
Example 4.6.1a straight line example
For the input voltage 2 / 10 ) ( = =U j U e V plot locus of the input current phasor, if C varies
from 0 to infinity. Other circuit constants are: O = = 10 R L e , 2 = e rad/s.
Fig. 4.6.1 Circuit for Example 4.6.1

The circuit current is

C jU
L j R
U
jq I e
e
+
+
= ) ( (4.6.1)
and its locus for > e< = , 0 C q is a half-line.
In general, a straight line locus is described by the following equation
q jq F B A + = ) ( (4.6.2)
where, A and B are complex numbers. For exemplary vectors: j + =1 A , j 2 1+ = B and
> e< , 0 q a half-line locus shown in Fig. 4.6.2 is obtained.
For the phasor described by (4.6.1) and e , 0 e = C q :
5 5 j
L j R
U
=
+
=
e
A (4.6.2a)
10 j jU = = e B (4.6.2b)
and a half-line locus is obtained, as shown in Fig. 4.6.3.
) ( e j I
L je
) ( e j U

C je
1
R
224
Fig. 4.6.2 Exemplary line-shape locus
Fig. 4.6.3 Locus of Example 4.6.1a
Example 4.6.1b semicircle example
For the circuit of Fig. 4.6.1 and the input voltage 2 / 10 ) ( = =U j U e , plot locus of the input
current phasor, if L varies from 0 to infinity. Other circuit constants are:
O = = 10 , 4
1
R R
C e
, 2 = e rad/s.

Locus of the coil current described by the following equation

L j R
U
jL I
L
e +
= ) ( (4.6.3a)
for e , 0 e L is a semicircle with the center coordinates of [ R U 2 / Re , 0 Im = = ] and the
radius of R U 2 / . Following equation (4.6.1), this locus is added to the fixed capacitor current
R jU CU j jL I
C
4 / ) ( = = e (4.6.3b)
and the total locus is obtained, as shown in Fig. 4.6.4
Im
2j B = q
1 = q
1
Re
A
j 0 = q
Im
j 10 B = C
1 = C
5
Re
A
j 5 0 = C
225
Fig. 4.6.4 Locus of Example 4.6.1b
The circuit behavior as L varies from 0 to can be studied:
- for )
1
, 0 L Le inductive character, R jU R U jL I
L
4 / / ) (
0
+ =
=
- for
1
L L = resistive character (1
st
resonance)
- for ) , (
2 1
L L Le capacitive character, R jU R U jL I
R L
4 / 2 / ) (
/
=
= e
- for
2
L L = resistive character (2
nd
resonance)
- for ( e ,
2
L L inductive character, R jU jL I jL I
C
L
4 / ) ( ) ( = =
=
+
Drill problems 4.6
1. Plot in the complex plane a locus of current ) ( e j I that flows through: a) RC parallel
circuit R=10 O, e , 0 C , b) RL series circuit R=10 O, e , 0 L , supplied from
10 ) ( = = U j U e V source.
2. Plot in the complex plane a locus of voltage ) ( e j U at terminals of: a) RC series circuit
R=10 O, e , 0 C , b) RL series circuit R=10 O, e , 0 L , supplied from
10 ) ( = = I j I e A source.
3. For the RC high-pass filter (Fig. 4.5.12) find the gain
x y
U U K / = in terms of R and C.
R jU 4 /

2
L
1
L U/R Re
R jU 4 /
Im
= L 0 = L
226
4.7 MUTUAL INDUCTANCE AND TRANSFORMERS
The previous analysis of a coil assumed that the only flux linking a coil was that due to its
own current, and consequently, the only voltage induced was that due to this current. In this
Chapter coupled coils and phenomenon of mutual inductance will be discussed. A two-port
equations expressing voltages by currents, both in time-domain and frequency-domain, will
be considered. Then, the most practical use of this phenomenon in transformers will be
studied. Basic transformer built of practical coils will be considered at first, next an ideal
transformer. Finally the ideal transformer based model of practical transformer will be
described.
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE BASIC TRANSFORMER
Consider two coupled coils, as shown in Fig. 4.7.1.
Fig. 4.7.1 Pair of coupled coils
The current
1
i produces in coil 1 flux
11
| . Part of this flux threads coil 2, the remainder is coil
1 leakage flux. They are denoted
21
| and
1 L
, respectively. Similarly,
2
i produces in coil 2
flux
22
| that is split into two fluxes,
12
| and
2 L
.
1 21 11 L
| | | + = (4.7.1a)
2 12 22 L
| | | + = (4.7.1b)
Electric analog of this magnetic circuit is presented in Fig. 4.7.2
Fig. 4.7.2 Electric analog of magnetic
circuit

11
|
22
|

1
i
2
i

1
u
1
z
2
z
2
u

1 L
|
mc
R
2 L
|

12 11
| | +
21 22
| | +
1 m
R
1 1
z i
2 2
z i
2 m
R
227
where
2 1
,
m m
R R are magnetic resistances of leakages,
mc
R is a core magnetic resistance.
Superposition principle can be applied and a circuit of Fig. 4.7.2 can be split into two
subcircuits, as presented in Fig. 4.7.2a.
Fig. 4.7.2a Electric analog of magnetic circuit split into two subcircuits
The total flux threading coil 1 is the sum of two components:
2 1 1
2 2
1
1 1
1
1 1
1 12 1 11 1 1 1 1
Mi i L
R
z i
z
R
z i
R
z i
z z z z
mc mc m
t
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = = = | | | | (4.7.2a)
Similarly, the total flux threading coil 2
1 2 2
1 1
2
2 2
2
2 2
2 21 2 22 2 2 2 2
Mi i L
R
z i
z
R
z i
R
z i
z z z z
mc mc m
t
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = = = | | | | (4.7.2b)
Constant of proportionality between one coil current and a flux that is produces in the coupled
coil is called the mutual inductance M. This constant can be expressed by self inductances of
individual coils
2 1
L L k M = (4.7.3)
where, > e< 1 , 0 k is the coefficient of coupling, a measure of the degree to which the flux
produced by one coil threads another. If there is no coupling then, 0 0 = = M k . For tightly
coupled coils, which is the most desirable situation,
2 1
1 L L M k ~ ~ . From (4.7.2), two-
port equations can be obtained
dt
di
M
dt
di
L
dt
d
u
t 2 1
1
1
1
= =
|
(4.7.4a)
dt
di
M
dt
di
L
dt
d
u
t 1 2
2
2
2
= =
|
The reason for sign in the coil equation is that the flux produced by the coupled coil may
be in the same or opposite direction as the produced by the coil itself. For Fig. 4.7.1 coupling,
sign + should be used. For unique denotation of the coupling sign, the so called dot
convention is used.

1 L
|
11
|
mc
R
21
|
1 m
R
1 1
z i

12
|
mc
R
22
|
2 L
|

2 2
z i
2 m
R
228
Dot convention
Currents entering the dotted ends are creating additive fluxes. Dotted ends have a positive
voltage at the same time.
A circuit symbol of coupled coils is presented in Fig. 4.7.3.
Fig. 4.7.3 Circuit symbol for coupled coils for positive and negative coupling

Using the phasor notation, coupled coils equations are
) ( ) ( ) (
2 1 1 1
e e e e e j MI j j I L j j U = (4.7.4b)
) ( ) ( ) (
1 2 2 2
e e e e e j MI j j I L j j U =
Example 4.7.1
Consider two practical coupled coils connected in series, as shown in Fig. 4.7.4. Find the
circuit equivalent.
Fig. 4.7.4 Two coupled coils connected in series

The total voltage expressed by the currents is

)] ( ) ( )[ ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 1 1 2 1
M L j R M L j R j I j U j U j U + + + + + = + = e e e e e e (4.7.5a)
] )[ ( ) (
s s
L j R j I j U e e e + = (4.7.5b)
From (4.7.5), the series equivalent resistance and inductance are
2 1
R R R
s
+ = (4.7.6a)
M L L L
s
2
2 1
+ + = (4.7.6b)

1
i M
2
i

- -

1
u
1
L
2
L
2
u

1
i M
2
i

-

1
u
1
L
2
L
2
u
-
1
) ( e j I
) ( e j U
s
L je

s
R
2
1 ) (
1
e j I M je ) (
2
e j I

- -
) (
1
e j U
1
L je
2
L je ) (
2
e j U

1
R
2
R
2
229
The equivalent series inductance of two coupled coils is sum of self inductances plus the
doubled mutual inductance. For negative coupling the doubled mutual inductance should be
subtracted.
+
Example 4.7.2
A coil of 100 = z turns connected to 100 = U V, 1000 = e rad/s supply has the following
parameters: 1 = L H, O =10 R . Consider a short-circuit of one turn. Study the effect of such
failure.
A coil with one turn shorted can be considered as pair of coupled coils, as presented in Fig.
4.7.5.
Fig. 4.7.5 Coil with one turn shorted
Parameters of coils are:
100
1
= ~ z z turns, 1
1
= ~ L L H, O = ~ 10
1
R R ;
1
2
= z turn, 1 . 0
2
= L mH, O = 1 . 0
2
R ,
and coefficient of coupling close to unity, 99 . 0 = k is assumed. Two cases are studied.
I. Before shorting
O ~ + ~ + + + + = 1020 1020 10 ) 2 ( ) (
2 1 2 1
Z j M L L j R R j Z e e (4.7.7)
1 . 0 / ~ = Z U I A
and the dissipated power is
1 . 0
2
~ = R I P W
II. After shorting
The circuit is described by the following KVL equations
U j MI j j I L j j I R = + + ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1 1
e e e e e
0 ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 2
= + + e e e e e j MI j j L j j I R
From these equations, the circuit impedance is
(4.7.8b)
O ~ + ~
(

+
+
+
+ = = 1010 2 1010
) ( ) ( ) (
) (
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
1
Z j
L R
ML
L j
L R
R M
R
j I
U
j Z
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
1 . 0 ~ I A, and the dissipated power is 10 ~ P W.
) ( e j I
1
R -
) ( e j U
1
L je
M je
-

2
L je
) (
2
e j I ) ( e j I
sc

2
R
230
The impedance magnitude practically has not changed, and consequently rms current remains
unchanged, however the resistance and then dissipated power has increased 100 times !!! This
causes rapid increase of temperature, an isolation melts and next turns are shorted, what
completely destroys (burns) the coil.
+
Basic transformer, a transformer built of two coupled coils is considered next.
A transformer is an electronic device that uses magnetically coupled coils to transfer energy
from one circuit to another. This device has two ports available for connection to external
circuitry. One of this ports is called the primary port and usually it is connected to an
external source. The other port is called the secondary port and usually it is connected to a
load. Then, terms primary/secondary circuit, winding, voltage or current are used. The
primary circuit has been simplified to its Thevenin equivalent, the load has been reduced to its
equivalent impedance. It should be emphasized, that the primary and the secondary circuit are
electrically isolated. Basic transformer circuit described in phasor domain is presented in Fig.
4.7.6. For simplicity of further derivations, it has been assumed that coils are resistanceless.
Fig. 4.7.6 Basic transformer circuit
Transformer itself is described in phasor domain by equations (4.7.4b). The secondary circuit
(load) is described by the following equation
) ( ) ( ) (
2 2
e e e j I j Z j U
l
= (4.7.9)
The load current and voltage do not satisfy the passive sign convention, and for that reason
sign minus appears at the rights side of equation (4.7.9). It is interesting to study the
impedance looking into the primary port
) ( / ) ( ) (
1 1 1
e e e j I j U j Z = (4.7.10)
Combining equations (4.7.4b), (4.7.9) and (4.7.10), the following impedance is obtained
2
2 2
1 1
) (
) (
L j j Z
M
L j j Z
l
e e
e
e e
+
+ = (4.7.10a)
The first term depends on the primary coil while the second term is due to the coupling, so
called the reflected impedance
r r
l l
r
jX R
L X j R
M
j Z + =
+ +
=
) (
) (
2
2 2
e
e
e (4.7.10b)
) ( e j Z
t
) (
1
e j I M je ) (
2
e j I

- -
) ( e j E
o
) (
1
e j U
1
L je
2
L je ) (
2
e j U ) ( e j Z
l
Primary Secondary
231
Fig. 4.7.7 Secondary winding inductance
and load reflected into primary
Then, the transformer together with its load can be replaced by series connection of two
impedances. The obtained one-loop circuit, presented in Fig. 4.7.7, is often used to simplify
analysis of the basic transformer circuit of Fig. 4.7.6.
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
A transformer scales, or transforms, the voltage, current and impedance levels of the circuit.
The secondary-to-primary current and voltage ratios will be discussed for an ideal transformer
that may be thought of as the first-order model of an iron-core transformer (complex model
will be discussed in the next section of this Chapter). An ideal transformer satisfies the
following three assumptions.
1. Windings are resistanceless: 0
2 1
= = R R .
2. Leakage fluxes are zero: 1 0
2 1
= = = k
L L
| | .
3. The core magnetic material has unboundedly large permeability:
2 1
, 0 L L R
mc r
= = are unboundedly large, however their ratio is finite,
n z z L L = =
1 2 1 2
/ / (see equations (4.7.2)).
An ideal transformer electric analog is presented in Fig. 4.7.8.
Fig. 4.7.8 Electric analog of ideal transformer
As windings are resistanceless (assumption 1) and same flux flows through both coils
(assumption 2), then their voltages are
dt
d
z u
dt
d
z u
| |
2 2 1 1
, = = (4.7.11)
As the core magnetic resistance (voltage) is zero (assumption 3), then the currents are related
by the following KVL equation
0
2 2 1 1
= = + |
mc
R z i z i (4.7.12)
From these equations, secondary-to-primary current and voltage ratios are
) (
1
e j I
) ( e j Z
t

1
L je
) ( e j E
o
) (
1
e j U ) ( e j Z
r
0 =
mc
u
0 =
mc
R |

1 1
z i
2 2
z i
232
n i
i
n
u
u 1
,
1
2
1
2
= = (4.7.13)
where
1
2
z
z
n = (4.7.14)
is the only parameter that characterizes an ideal transformer, so called turns ratio. Its value
defines the transformer character:
- 1 > n : step-up transformer,
- 1 < n : step-down transformer,
- 1 = n : isolating transformer.
It is worth to observe, that an ideal transformer secondary-to-primary current and voltage
ratios are fixed, independent of load and frequency. An ideal transformer phasor equations are
) ( ) (
1 2
e e j nU j U = (4.7.15)
) (
1
) (
1 2
e e j I
n
j I =
The circuit symbol for an ideal transformer is similar to that for nonideal transformer (Fig.
4.6.6) except that the turns ratio is specified rather than inductances (all three are infinitely
large) and pair of parallel lines is drawn. An ideal transformer with primary source and
secondary load is presented in Fig. 4.7.9.
Fig. 4.7.9 Ideal transformer with primary source and secondary load
The impedance looking into the primary port is
) (
1
) (
) ( 1
) (
) (
) (
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
e
e
e
e
e
e j Z
n j I
j U
n j I
j U
j Z
l
= = = (4.7.16)
Thus, an ideal transformer together with its secondary load ) ( e j Z
l
is equivalent to an
impedance of value
2
/ ) ( n j Z
l
e reflected into the primary circuit. Then, apart of previously
discussed uses to isolate two circuits and step-up or step down a voltage level, an ideal
transformer can be used to impedance scale a load such that maximum power transfer
condition is achieved. The latter use will be illustrated in the next example.
Example 4.7.3
An audio amplifier produces the Thevenin equivalent voltage phasor ) ( e j E
o
through
O = = 72 ) (
t t
R j Z e impedance (resistance). The produced power is to be delivered to a load,
) ( e j Z
t
) (
1
e j I 1 : n ) (
2
e j I

- -
) ( e j E
o
) (
1
e j U ) (
2
e j U ) ( e j Z
l
Primary Secondary
233
O = = 8 ) (
l l
R j Z e speaker, through an ideal transformer. Determination of the turns ratio n
to maximize the power supplied by the source (absorbed by the speaker) is the task.
Amplifier-transformer-speaker circuit is presented in Fig. 4.7.9.

For the maximum power transfer, the load (speaker) impedance ) ( e j Z

l
seen by the source
should be equal to the complex conjugate of the source impedance, which is purely real
O = = 72 ) (
t t
R j Z e . Thus, for the maximum power supplied to the speaker from the
amplifier
3
1 1
) (
2
1
= = = =
t
l
t l
R
R
n R R
n
j Z e (4.7.17)
what means that 1:3 step-down transformer should be used to impedance match to the given
load.
+
In some practical applications, transformer is replaced by an autotransformer.
Autotransformer is built of a single winding with the tap point. Then, it can be considered as
two coupled coils connected in series. Primary circuit is connected between the tap point and
one terminal of the winding, secondary circuit is connected to winding terminals, as presented
in Fig. 4.7.10a. Same effect can be obtained by series connection of two-winding transformer
coils, as presented in Fig. 4.7.10b.
Fig. 4.7.10a Autotransformer circuit
Fig. 4.7.10b Autotransformer obtained from two-winding transformer
An autotransformer KVL equation is
) ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1 1 2
e e e e j U n j nU j U j U + = + = (4.7.18)
-

2
z ) (
2
e j U
tap point
-
) (
1
e j U
1
z
1 : n

- -
) ( e j E
o
) (
1
e j U ) (
2
e j U ) ( e j Z
l
Primary Secondary
234
Then, the turns ratio is
n
z
z z
n
a
+ =
+
= 1
1
2 1
(4.7.19)
It should be emphasized, that autotransformer couples primary and secondary circuit both
electrically and magnetically (no electrical isolation between circuits).
Example 4.6.4
A 2300/230 V two-winding transformer is connected as an autotransformer. Determine the
voltage rating.

1 . 1 1 . 0 1
2300
2530
V, 2530
2300
230
1 2300
2
= + = = = |
.
|

\
|
+ =
a
n U (4.7.20)
+
Example 4.7.4 cont.
Determine the new secondary voltage and turns ratio after reversing the low-voltage winding.

9 . 0 1 . 0 1
2300
2070
V, 2070
2300
230
1 2300
2
= = = = |
.
|

\
|
=
a
n U (4.7.20a)
+
PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER MODELED with IDEAL TRANSFORMER
In a practical iron-core transformer all three nonidealities: leakage fluxes, winding losses and
nonideality of magnetic material have to be taken into account. One model of a practical
transformer has been already discussed. The other, commonly used model consists of an ideal
transformer supplemented by elements representing nonidealities. Leakage fluxes and
winding losses are taken into account by series connection of the leakage inductance
1 L
L
(
2 L
L ) and winding resistance
1
R (
2
R ) with the primary (secondary) winding of an ideal
transformer. Nonideality of a magnetic material (non-infinite inductances M L L , ,
2 1
) is taken
into account by parallel connection of inductance
mc
L (magnetization inductance of a core)
with the primary winding. The obtained practical transformer circuit is presented in Fig.
4.7.11.
Fig. 4.7.11 Practical transformer circuit for medium frequencies
1 : n

1
R
1 L
L - -
2 L
L
2
R

mc
L
235
This circuit is used for medium frequencies. For low frequencies leakage inductances may be
disregarded, nonideality of magnetic core is prevailing. Then, magnetization inductance shorts
primary winding what makes transformation difficult, even impossible - the circuit presented
in Fig. 4.7.11a is obtained.
Fig. 4.7.11a Practical transformer circuit for low frequencies
For high frequencies leakage inductances prevail, winding resistances and magnetization may
be disregarded. Moreover, shunting capacitances have to be taken into account, as presented
in Fig. 4.7.11b.
Fig. 4.7.11b Practical transformer circuit for high frequencies
Drill problems 4.7
1. Find equivalent inductance of two ideal coupled coils connected in parallel.
2. A low-frequency amplifier has an output impedance of 5 k. It is to supply a maximum
amount of power to an 8 load (speaker). What should be the turns ratio of the matching
transformer.
3. For an ideal transformer of 100 , 20
2 1
= = z z and O 1000 j load impedance, find
1
u if
t i 314 sin 2 50
1
= mA.
4. An ideal transformer of 1 = n is loaded by a) 1H inductance, b) 1F capacitance. For the
measured input voltage t u 1000 sin 2 100
1
= V, find
1
i .
5. An ideal transformer of 1 = n is loaded by O + = 10 10 ) ( j j Z
l
e . For the measured input
current: t i 314 sin 2
1
= A, find the real power supplied to the load.
6. The impedance O = 10 10 ) ( j j Z
l
e loads an ideal isolating transformer (n=1). Find the
real power supplied by 6
1
= U V ac primary source.

12
C
1 : n

1 L
L - -
2 L
L

1
C
2
C
1 : n

1
R - -
2
R

mc
L
236
7. An ideal transformer primary voltage is ) 0 exp( 10
o
j V, the secondary load impedance is
O = 16 12 ) ( j j Z
l
e . Find the rms primary current.
8. The primary terminals of a basic transformer of 1
2 1
= = L L H; k=0.5, are connected to a
voltage source t u 10 sin 2 10
1
= V. An ideal rms a) ammeter, b) voltmeter is connected to
the secondary terminals. Calculate its indication and the reflected inductance.
9. Two coupled coils have been connected as shown and the following total inductances
have been measured: 40
I
= L mH, 60
II
= L mH. If 1a is the dotted terminal, which
terminal of the second coil is the dotted one ? Calculate the mutual inductance.
Fig. P.4.7.9 I
1a 1b,2a 2b
II
1a 1b,2b 2a
237
4.8 THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
One very important use of ac steady-state analysis is its application to power systems.
Alternating voltage can be stepped up for transmission and stepped down for distribution with
transformers, and this subject is not discussed. For reason of economics and performance,
almost all electric power systems are three-phase systems. In such system, the source is the
three-phase balanced generator. Such generator produces a balanced set of voltages, the
voltages having the same amplitude and frequency but displaced in phase by
o
120 . For the
conventionally assumed zero initial phase angle of the 1
st
phase and the phase sequence, that
is the sequence in which phase voltages reach a positive peak, 123 or ABC, these voltages are
) 0 exp( ) (
o
1
j E j E = e between terminals 1 and 1 or A and a, (4.8.1)
) 120 exp( ) (
o
2
j E j E = e between terminals 2 and 2 or B and b,
) 120 exp( ) (
o
3
j E j E = e between terminals 3 and 3 or C and c,
as presented in Fig. 4.8.1 phasor diagram.
Fig. 4.8.1 Phasor diagram
of three-phase voltages
For the assumed sequence, instead of specifying three balanced sources, it is sufficient to
specify one, e.g. ) (
1
e j E . Then
) 120 exp( ) ( ) (
o
1 2
j j E j E e e = , ) 120 exp( ) ( ) (
o
1 3
j j E j E = e e (4.8.2)
The sum of any balanced set of three-phase voltages is always zero

=
=
3
1
0 ) (
i
i
j E e (4.8.3)
2
) (
21
e j U
) (
2
e j E
) (
32
e j U
2 1 ) (
1
e j E 1
3

) (
3
e j E
) (
13
e j U
3
238
The three-phase generator is equivalent to three single-phase generators and individual
generators may be connected to individual loads, to produce three single-phase circuits.
However, for reason of economics, individual generators and individual loads are connected
into one three-phase circuit, and three methods of connecting three-phase circuit are possible:
1. wye-wye or YY or star-star connection,
2. delta-delta or A A or mesh-mesh connection,
3. mixed, A Y or Y A connection.
WYE-WYE SYSTEMS
Consider the three-phase source that has line terminals 1, 2 and 3 and a neutral terminal 0, in
which terminals 1, 2 and 3 are connected. In this case the source is said to be wye(Y)-
connected or star-connected, as shown in Fig. 4.8.2 for two representations: wye-shape
representation and somewhat easier to draw equivalent representation. Line terminals are
normally denoted by letters A, B, C and neutral by N. However, for compliance with
description of dc multi-terminal circuits, these terminals are denoted by numbers 1, 2, 3 and 0.
Fig. 4.8.2 Two representations of wye connected three-phase source.
Same connection may be applied to a load, and then, three single-phase circuits are connected
in a wye-wye three-phase four wire system, as shown in Fig. 4.8.3. For the assumed
resistanceless lines, voltages between line terminals and the neutral terminal of three-phase
load are source voltages
3 , 2 , 1 ); ( ) ( , = = = i j E j V E V
i i
e e (4.8.4)
They are called phase voltages and are the same as load voltages of three single-phase
circuits. These voltages are denoted in Fig. 4.8.1 phasor diagram (bold), together with line-to-
line voltages or simply line voltages
) 150 exp( ) ( ) ( ) (
o
1 2 21
j U j V j V j U = = e e e (4.8.5)
) 270 exp( ) ( ) ( ) (
o
2 3 32
j U j V j V j U = = e e e
) 30 exp( ) ( ) ( ) (
o
3 1 13
j U j V j V j U = = e e e
where magnitude of line voltage is:
1 1
) (
1
e j E
) (
1
e j E 2 2
1 2 ) (
2
e j E ) (
2
e j E
3 0
0
) (
3
e j E
) (
3
e j E
3 3
239
E V U 3 3 = = (4.8.6)
For a phase rms voltage of 230 V, line rms voltage is equal to 400 ~ V.
Fig. 4.8.3 Wye-wye three-phase four wire system
Phase currents ) ( e j I
i
, line currents ) ( e j J
i
at the same time, are designated by load
impedances of individual phases
3 , 2 , 1 ;
) (
) (
) ( ) ( = = = i
j Z
j V
j J j I
i
i
i i
e
e
e e (4.8.7)
The neutral line current is

=
=
3
1
0
) ( ) (
i
i
j I j I e e (4.8.8)
For a balanced load:
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
3 2 1
e e e e j Z j Z j Z j Z = = = (4.8.9)
the neutral line current is zero
0 ) (
) (
1
) (
3
1
0
= =

= i
i
j V
j Z
j I e
e
e (4.8.10)
and this line can be omitted to form three-phase three-wire system, as shown in Fig. 4.8.4.
In a four-wire unbalanced system, the load neutral point is fixed in potential by connection to
the source neutral. If the neutral wire is removed, the load neutral, denoted by
*
0 , is no longer
fixed but is free to float, its potential is determined by the values of load impedances. For a
balanced load, still 0 ) (
0
= e j V . If for some reasons, such as short-circuit or open-circuit in
one phase, three-wire system becomes unbalanced, then significant deviations of phase
voltages should be expected, in both magnitude and phase. These cases will be illustrated by
the next two examples.
) (
1
e j V
1 1
) (
1
e j E ) (
1
e j Z
) (
21
e j U ) (
13
e j U ) (
2
e j V
) (
2
e j E 2 2 ) (
2
e j Z
0 0 ) (
0
e j I
) (
32
e j U
) (
3
e j E ) (
3
e j Z
3 3
) (
3
e j V
240
Fig. 4.8.4 Wye-wye three-phase three wire system
Example 4.8.1
Consider a three-wire wye-wye balanced system with an open-circuit in phase 2, as shown in
Fig. 4.8.5. Draw the phasor diagram and calculate phase voltages.
Fig. 4.8.5 Three-wire wye-wye system with an open-circuit in phase 2

A three-phase circuit degenerates to two-phase (one-loop) circuit. Its mesh current is

) ( 2
) (
) ( ) (
13
3 1
e
e
e e
j Z
j U
j I j I = = (4.8.11)
The phase voltages are
) (
1
e j V
1 1
) (
1
e j E ) ( e j Z
) (
21
e j U ) (
13
e j U ) (
2
e j V
0
*
0
) (
2
e j E 2 2 ) ( e j Z
) (
0
e j V
) (
32
e j U
) (
3
e j E ) ( e j Z
3 3
) (
3
e j V
) (
1
e j V
1 1
) (
1
e j E ) (
1
e j I ) ( e j Z
) (
13
e j U
0
*
0
) (
0
e j V
) (
3
e j E ) ( e j Z
3 3
) (
3
e j V
241
) 30 exp(
2
3
2
) (
) (
o 13
1
j
E j U
j V = =
e
e (4.8.12)
) 210 exp(
2
3
2
) (
) (
o 13
3
j
E j U
j V = =
e
e
The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 4.8.6. The effect of an open-circuit in one phase is
voltage drop in two other phases, from E to E 86 . 0 ~ . For 230 V generator, phase voltage
drops to 199 ~ V.
Fig. 4.8.6 Phasor diagram of a
three-wire wye-wye system
with an open-circuit in phase 2
+
Example 4.8.2
Consider a three-wire wye-wye balanced system with a short-circuit in phase 2, as shown in
Fig. 4.8.7. Draw the phasor diagram and calculate the phase voltages.

A system remains three-phase system, however now voltages of healthy phases are line
voltages
) ( ) (
12 1
e e j U j V = (4.8.13)
) ( ) (
32 3
e e j U j V =
The load neutral
*
0 has floated from source neutral 0 to line terminal 2, as presented in Fig.
4.8.8 phasor diagram. The effect of a short-circuit in one phase is voltage jump in other
phases by 3 . For 230 V generator, phase voltage jumps to 400 ~ V and this may evidently
cause damage of load device.
2
) (
2
e j E
) (
1
e j E
0 1
) (
3
e j E ) (
0
e j V
) (
1
e j V
) (
13
e j U
*
0
) (
3
e j V
3
242
Fig. 4.8.7 Three-wire wye-wye system with a short-circuit in phase 2
Fig. 4.8.8 Phasor diagram of a three-wire wye-wye system with a short-circuit in phase 2
+
) (
1
e j V
1 1
) (
1
e j E ) ( e j Z
) (
21
e j U ) (
13
e j U
0
*
0
) (
2
e j E 2 2
) (
0
e j V
) (
32
e j U
) (
3
e j E ) ( e j Z
3 3
) (
3
e j V
2
*
0
) (
1
e j V
) (
2
e j E
) (
3
e j V
) (
1
e j E
0 1
) (
3
e j E
3
243
DELTA-DELTA and WYE-DELTA SYSTEMS
Consider the three-phase source connected as shown in Fig. 4.8.9 for two representations:
delta-shape representation and somewhat easier to draw equivalent representation. In this case
the source is said to be delta( A)-connected or mesh-connected. Same connection may be
applied to load impedances, and then, delta-delta three-phase system is obtained, as presented
in Fig. 4.8.10.
Fig. 4.8.9 Two representations of delta connected three-phase source.
Fig. 4.8.10 Delta-delta three-phase system
Obviously, systems with delta-connected loads are three-wire system, since there is no neutral
connection. Phase voltages are at the same time line voltages. Each line current is the
difference of two phase currents (4.8.14) and clearly, for the balanced load magnitude of line
current is related to that of phase current by equation (4.8.15).
1 or A 1
) (
2
e j E ) (
1
e j E
) (
1
e j E
) (
2
e j E 3
3 or C
) (
3
e j E ) (
3
e j E
2 or B 2
1 A
) (
1
e j J
) (
1
e j E ) (
1
e j Z
) (
1
e j V
) (
1
e j I ) (
2
e j Z
) (
2
e j E 3 ) (
3
e j J C ) (
2
e j V
) (
2
e j I
) (
3
e j V ) (
3
e j Z
) (
3
e j E ) (
3
e j I
2 ) (
2
e j J B
244
) ( ) ( ) (
2 1 1
e e e j I j I j J = (4.8.14)
) ( ) ( ) (
3 2 2
e e e j I j I j J =
) ( ) ( ) (
1 3 3
e e e j I j I j J =
I J 3 = (4.8.15)
Sources are rarely delta-connected, however wye-delta connections are frequently used. In
case of such connection, phase voltages are voltages between three-phase source terminals
(4.8.5), they are 3 times higher than those of the wye connection of a load.
COMBINATIONAL SYSTEMS
In case many loads are connected to three-phase lines, some of them may be wye-connected,
some others delta-connected. Then, the combinational system is created. An exemplary
combinational system is presented in Fig. 4.8.11.
Fig. 4.8.11 Exemplary combinational three-phase system
POWER IN THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS
The total real power P transferred in the three-phase n-wire system, = n 3 or 4, can be
measured by 1 n wattmeters or calculated, through calculation of 1 n pairs ) ( e j J
i
,
) ( e j U
i
, where ) ( e j J
i
are line currents and ) ( e j U
i
are line voltages. For 4 = n and neutral
as the reference, line voltages are phase voltages: 3 , 2 , 1 ); ( ) ( = = i j V j U
i i
e e . For 3 = n , one
line, say 3 = C , is taken as the reference, and then line voltages are:
2 , 1 ); ( ) (
3
= = i j U j U
i i
e e . From the power balance, the total power is equal to the sum of
powers supplied to individual phases
3 2 1
P P P P + + = (4.8.16)
3 , 2 , 1 ; cos = = i I V P
i i i i

For a balanced system, both three-wire and four-wire,
3 2 1
P P P = = and the total power is:
cos 3VI P =
1
2
3
A load Y load single phase
Three-phase
voltage
source
( A or Y)
245
Then, in 4-wire balanced system the total power may be measured by one wattmeter. Same
strategy may be applied in 3-wire balanced system after creation of the artificial neutral
point, as presented in Fig. 4.8.12, where ) (e Z R >> .
Fig. 4.8.12 Three-wire system with artificial neutral point
The following benefits of three-phase power systems can be enlisted.
1. Savings in copper, four or three wires instead of six wires.
2. Availability of two different voltages, line and phase voltage, in case of four-wire
(wye-wye) system.
3. Availability of the rotating field, which can be used to energize electric motors.
Drill problems 4.8
1. Sketch the phasor diagram for a three-phase 3-wire unbalanced Y Y system:
= ) (
1
e j Z , O + = = 100 100 ) ( ) (
3 2
j j Z j Z e e .
2. The total power of a three-phase balanced wye load is 6 kW. What is the power factor of
each phase load, if the line voltage is 400 V and the line current is 10 A?
3. A balanced delta load with phase impedance of 10exp(j30) is connected to 230 V lines.
Determine the total real power supplied.
4. A balanced wye load with phase impedance of 100 O is connected to 230 V lines.
Determine the total real power delivered to the load.
5. For the balanced wye-delta system: 100 = E V, 100 ) ( = e j Z O, find rms value of a line
current.
6. A 230 V/100 W heater is connected to line terminals of 3x230 V generator. What energy
is supplied in 1 hour?
7. For the three-phase 4-wire balanced system: 100 = E V, O =100 ) ( e j Z , find the total
power supplied after opening phase 1, draw the phasor diagram.
1
2
3
R R R

art
0
246
8. For the three-phase 3-wire balanced system in Y Y configuration: 100 = E V,
O =100 ) ( e j Z , find the total power supplied after shorting phase 1, draw the phasor
diagram.
9. Find the total power supplied: O = = 100 , V 100 R E .
Fig. P.4.8.9
10. Three adjacent houses take electricity from the three successive phases of a 230 V supply.
Find the resultant neutral current when they consume, in order of phase sequence, 1 A at
unity power factor, 2 A at 0.75 lagging and 2A at leading. What is the total power
absorbed ?
1
3R
2 3R
R
3R
3

0
Three-phase
voltage
source
247
5 TRANSMISSION LINE
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Transmission line commonly used to carry electrical energy and/or information over a
distance is considered. It is assumed that a transmission line is any arrangement of two
continuous conductors having the required length l and a uniform cross-section. In general,
transmission line connects two circuits built of lumped components, each of which is usually
designated to have one parameter dominant: inductance, capacitance, resistance or
conductance which are lumped constants (parameters). Transmission system built of input
circuit, the transmitter or source, transmission line and output circuit, the receiver or load, is
shown in Fig. 5.1.1.
Fig. 5.1.1 Transmission system
Like any device that carries current and sustains a voltage, the transmission line must
inevitably have some inductance, capacitance, resistance and conductance. The values of all
four parameters (constants) increase with the line length. Thus, an axially uniform
transmission line is characterized by its length l and distributed constants (parameters). They
are called per unit length parameters or primary parameters:
- inductance per unit length L L
ul
= [H/m], (5.1.1)
- capacitance per unit length C C
ul
= [F/m],
- resistance per unit length R R
ul
= [O/m],
- conductance per unit length G G
ul
= [S/m].
Inductance and resistance must act like series elements, since they each are additive when in
series, while capacitance and conductance, which are each additive when in parallel, are shunt
elements. Transmission line of any length can therefore be represented by dividing the line
into small elements of length 0 Ax , each of which is a two-port section having
infinitesimally small components, as shown in Fig. 5.1.2.
) 0 , (t i ) , ( x t i ) , ( l t i
) 0 , (t u ) , ( x t u ) , ( l t u
x
l
LOAD SOURCE
248
Fig. 5.1.2 An elementary section of transmission line
Then, it is obvious that current or voltage at any distance x is function of two arguments, time
and distance:
) ( ) , ( t i x t i
x
= (5.1.2)
) ( ) , ( t u x t u
x
=
Applying KVL to Fig. 5.1.2 two-port
0 ) , (
) , (
) , ( ) , ( = A +
c
c
A A x x t u
t
x t i
x L x t xi R x t u (5.1.3a)
which leads to
t
x t i
L x t Ri
x
x t u
x
x t u x x t u
c
c
+ =
A
A
=
A
A +

) , (
) , (
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
. (5.1.3b)
On the limit as 0 Ax , equation (5.1.3b) becomes
t
x t i
L x t Ri
x
x t u
c
c
+ =
c
c

) , (
) , (
) , (
(5.1.3)
Similarly, applying KCL, equation (5.1.4) is obtained
t
x t u
C x t Gu
x
x t i
c
c
+ =
c
c

) , (
) , (
) , (
(5.1.4)
Differential equations (5.1.3) and (5.1.4) are the general transmission line equations, so
called telegraphists equations. Solution of these equations, designation of the current and/or
voltage (5.1.2), for the given source and load, is the task of transmission line analysis. Two
types of analyses are discussed: transient analysis for aperiodic input signal and ac-steady
state analysis.
) , ( x t i ) , ( x x t i A +
x RA x LA ) , ( x x t u A +
) , ( x t u
x CA x GA
x A
249
5.2 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
Differential equations (5.1.3) and (5.1.4) can be solved using Laplace transformation. Zero
initial conditions are assumed
0 ) 0 ( ) , 0 ( = =
x
i x i (5.2.1)
0 ) 0 ( ) , 0 ( = =
x
u x u
Transmission system described in the s-domain is presented in Fig. 5.2.1.

Fig. 5.2.1 Transmission system described in s-domain
Skipping the mathematics, the following solution in s-domain is obtained:
] ) ( sinh[ ) ( ) ( ] ) ( cosh[ ) ( ) (
0 0
x s s Z s I x s s U s U
x
= (5.2.2a)
] ) ( sinh[
) (
) (
] ) ( cosh[ ) ( ) (
0
0
x s
s Z
s U
x s s I s I
x
=
)] )( ( sinh[ ) ( ) ( )] )( ( cosh[ ) ( ) ( x l s s Z s I x l s s U s U
l l x
+ = (5.2.2b)
)] )( ( sinh[
) (
) (
)] )( ( cosh[ ) ( ) ( x l s
s Z
s U
x l s s I s I
l
l x
+ =
where
sC G
sL R
s Z
+
+
= ) ( (5.2.3)
) )( ( ) ( sC G sL R s + + = (5.2.4)
are the line secondary parameters, so called the characteristic impedance and the
propagation constant.
That way, the voltage and the current at a distance x are expressed in terms of the input
voltage and current (5.2.2a) or the output voltage and current (5.2.2b).
) (
0
s I ) (s I
x
) (s I
l
) (
0
s U ) (s U
x
) (s U
l
x x l
l
LOAD
) (s Z
l
SOURCE
) (s Z
t
) (s E
o
250
The line input and output equations are
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
0 0
s Z s I s E s U
t o
= (5.2.5)
) ( ) ( ) ( s Z s I s U
l l l
=
From equations (5.2.2) and (5.2.5), equations that express the voltage and the current at a
distance x by line secondary parameters and parameters of input and output circuits are
] ) ( 2 exp[ ) ( ) ( 1
)] 2 )( ( exp[ ) ( ] ) ( exp[
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
l s s N s M
x l s s N x s
s Z s Z
s Z
s E s U
t
o x

+
= (5.2.6)
] ) ( 2 exp[ ) ( ) ( 1
)] 2 )( ( exp[ ) ( ] ) ( exp[
) ( ) (
1
) ( ) (
l s s N s M
x l s s N x s
s Z s Z
s E s I
t
o x

+
+
=
where
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) (
s Z s Z
s Z s Z
s M
t
t
+

= (5.2.7)
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) (
s Z s Z
s Z s Z
s N
l
l
+

=
are reflection coefficients, for the line input and output, respectively.
Applying the following series expansion
) exp(
) exp( 1
1
0
kB A
B A
k
k

=
=

(5.2.8)
the final voltage and current waveforms in the s-domain are sum of traveling waves
) ( ) ( ) ( s U s U s U
b
x
f
x x
+ = (5.2.9)
) ( ) ( ) ( s I s I s I
b
x
f
x x
+ =
where
( )

=
+ =
0
)] 2 )( ( exp[ ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
k
k f
x
x kl s s N s M s E s U (5.2.9a)
( )

=
+ =
0
)] 2 )( ( exp[ ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
k
k f
x
x kl s s N s M s J s I
are forward traveling waves, for 0 = k the first incident wave, for ,... 2 , 1 = k waves reflected
from the line input, and
( ) ( )

=
+ =
0
] ) 1 ( 2 )[ ( exp ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
k
k b
x
x k s s N s M s N s E s U (5.2.9b)
( ) ( )

=
+ =
0
] ) 1 ( 2 )[ ( exp ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
k
k b
x
x k s s N s M s N s J s I
are backward traveling waves, waves reflected from the line output.
251
The introduced equivalent voltage ) (s E and current ) (s J are
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
s Z s Z
s Z
s E s E
t
o
+
= (5.2.9c)
) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
s Z s Z
s E
s Z
s E
s J
t
o
+
= =
The inverse transformation of waveforms expressed by equations (5.2.9) is the next step. The
general expressions are relatively complicated. The following limiting cases have special
significance, are of practical meaning.
1. Distortionless line
A distortionless line satisfies the following condition:
C
G
L
R
= (5.2.10)
If the condition is satisfied, then expressions for both ) (s and ) (s Z simplify.
Characteristic impedance
const
C
L
s Z = = = ) ( (5.2.11)
Propagation constant
v s s / ) ( + = o (5.2.12)
where
RG = o (5.2.12a)
is the attenuation constant in [1/m]
LC
v
1
= (5.2.12b)
is the propagation velocity, in [m/s].
2. Lossless line
A lossless line is the special case of a distortionless line and it satisfies the following
condition:
0 , 0 = = G R (5.2.13)
Thus, exept for a vanishing attenuation constant, 0 = o , the characteristics of a lossless line
are the same as those of a distortionless line.
252
For a distortionless line, equations (5.2.9) simplify.
(5.2.14)
( ) + |
.
|

\
|
=
v
x l
s x l s N s E
v
x
s x s E s U
x
2
exp ) 2 ( exp ) ( ) ( ) exp( ) exp( ) ( ) ( o o
( ) ( ) + |
.
|

\
|
+ +
v
x l
s x l s N s M s E x l s N s M s E
4
exp ) 4 ( exp ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2 ( exp ) ( ) ( ) (
2
o o
( ) + |
.
|

\
|
+ =
v
x l
s x l s N s E
v
x
s x s E s I
x
2
exp ) 2 ( exp ) ( ) (
1
) exp( ) exp( ) (
1
) ( o

( ) ( ) + |
.
|

\
|
+ + +
v
x l
s x l s N s M s E x l s N s M s E
4
exp ) 4 ( exp ) ( ) ( ) (
1
) 2 ( exp ) ( ) ( ) (
1
2
o

For lines with resistive source and termination:

l l t t
R S Z R s Z = = ) ( , ) ( , reflection coefficients
are real numbers N s N M s M = = ) ( , ) ( , and then, after inverse transformation, the following
waveforms in the time-domain are obtained
(5.2.14a)
( ) + |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= ) 2 ( exp
2
) exp( ) ( x l N
v
x l
t e x
v
x
t e t u
x
o o
( ) ( ) + |
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
| +
+ ) 4 ( exp
4
) 2 ( exp
2
2
x l MN
v
x l
t e x l MN
v
x l
t e o o
( ) + |
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
= ) 2 ( exp
2 1
) exp(
1
) ( x l N
v
x l
t e x
v
x
t e t i
x
o

( ) ( ) + |
.
|

\
|
+ + |
.
|

\
| +
+ ) 4 ( exp
4 1
) 2 ( exp
2 1
2
x l MN
v
x l
t e x l MN
v
x l
t e o

where: ) 0 ( )} ( { ) (
0
1
u s E t e = =

L .
In case of step excitation ) ( ) ( t E t e
o o
1 = and
t
o
R
E E t E t e
+
= =

; ) ( ) ( 1
Then, the waveforms become
( ) + |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= ) 2 ( exp
2
) exp( ) ( x l N
v
x l
t E x
v
x
t E t u
x
o o 1 1 (5.2.14b)
( ) ( ) + |
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
| +
+ ) 4 ( exp
4
) 2 ( exp
2
2
x l MN
v
x l
t E x l MN
v
x l
t E o o 1 1
( ) + |
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
= ) 2 ( exp
2 1
) exp(
1
) ( x l N
v
x l
t E x
v
x
t E t i
x
o

1 1
( ) ( ) + |
.
|

\
|
+ + |
.
|

\
| +
+ ) 4 ( exp
4 1
) 2 ( exp
2 1
2
x l MN
v
x l
t E x l MN
v
x l
t E o

1 1
253
For a lossless line, attenuation constant vanishes and all exponentials are equal to 1. Then, the
steady-state values are
t l
o
x o
t l
l
x
R R
E
I i E
R R
R
U u
+
= =
+
= =

) ( , ) ( (5.2.15)
Graphical description of traveling waves
For a lossless line, the algebraic description of waveforms (5.2.14) can be represented
graphically, as shown in Fig. 5.2.2.
Fig. 5.2.2 Graphical representation of traveling waves, a) voltage, b) current
This representation is very useful in finding gain and delay time of consecutive traveling
waves
Example 5.2.1
Find input, half-length and output voltage waveforms of the matched load line, after
switching on the following source: 10 =
o
E V, O =100
t
R . Line length is 10 = l m and its
secondary parameters are: O = 50 ,
1
10

= o 1/m,
5
10 = v m/s.

For the matched load line

0 = = N R
l
(5.2.16)
and there are no reflected waves. The only present 1
st
incident wave is
) ( ) exp( ) ( x/v t x E t u
x
= 1 o (5.2.17)
a) 0 2 / l l x
0
1
t
N
t 2
MN
t 3

2
MN
t 4

2 2
N M
t 5
t
b) 0 2 / l l x
0
1
t
N
t 2
MN
t 3

2
MN
t 4

2 2
N M
t 5
t
254
Voltage waveforms at l l x , 2 / , 0 = are
) ( ) (
0
t E t u 1 = , (5.2.18)
) 2 / ( ) 2 / exp( ) (
2 /
t ot = t E t u
l
1
) ( ) exp( ) ( t ot = t E t u
l
1
where
LC l v l = = / t (5.2.19)
is time of propagation from the line input to the output or vice-versa. For the assumed source
and line parameters: 1 . 0 = t ms, 3 /
o
E E = . The waveforms (5.2.18) are shown in Fig. 5.2.3,
together with waveforms for the lossless line, denoted dashed.
Fig. 5.2.3 Voltage waveforms for Example 5.2.1
+
) (
0
t u
3 /
o
E
t
) (
0
t u
3 /
o
E

e
E
o
3
2 / t t
) (
0
t u
3 /
o
E


e
E
o
3
t t
255
Example 5.2.2
Find input, half-length and output voltage waveforms of the lossless matched generator line,
after switching on the following source: 10 =
o
E V, O = = 50
t
R . Line length is 10 = l m,
propagation velocity is
5
10 = v m/s and line is: a) open-circuited, b) short-circuited.

For the matched generator line

0 = = M R
t
, 2 /
0
E E = (5.2.20)
and there are only two traveling waves: the 1
st
forward (incident) wave and the 1
st
backward
(reflected) wave, as expressed graphically in Fig. 5.2.4, for both loads.
1 = = N R
l
(5.2.21a)
1 0 = = N R
l
(5.2.21b)
Fig. 5.2.4 Voltage traveling waves for matched generator line, a) opened, b) shorted
Fig. 5.2.5 Voltage waveforms for matched generator line, a) opened, b) shorted
a) 0 2 / l l x
0
1
t
1
t 2
t
b) 0 2 / l l x
0
1
t
1
t 2
t
) (t u
x
b)
2 /
o
E
2 / t 2 / 3t t 2 t
) (t u
x
a)

o
E
2 /
o
E
2 / t t 2 / 3t t 2 t
256
a) For the opened line, voltage waveforms at l l x , 2 / , 0 = are
) 2 ( 2 / ) ( 2 / ) (
0 0 0
t + = t E t E t u 1 1 , (5.2.22a)
) 2 / 3 ( 2 / ) 2 / ( 2 / ) (
0 0 2 /
t t + = t E t E t u
l
1 1
) ( ) (
0
t = t E t u
l
1
b) For the shorted line, voltage waveforms at l l x , 2 / , 0 = are
) 2 ( 2 / ) ( 2 / ) (
0 0 0
t = t E t E t u 1 1 , (5.2.22b)
) 2 / 3 ( 2 / ) 2 / ( 2 / ) (
0 0 2 /
t t = t E t E t u
l
1 1
0 ) ( = t u
l
The waveforms (5.2.22a) and (5.2.22b) are shown in Fig. 5.2.5a and b, 0 = x - solid, 2 / l x = -
dashed, l x = - dot and dash.
+
Example 5.2.3
Find input, half-length and output voltage waveforms of the lossless line, after switching on
the following source: 30 =
o
E V, O = = 25 2 /
t
R . Line length is 10 = l m, propagation
velocity is
5
10 = v m/s and line load is O = = 25 2 /
l
R .

For the given source and load resistances: V 20 3 / 2 = =

o
E E , reflection coefficients are
3 / 1 = = N M . Graphical representation of voltage traveling waves is shown in Fig. 5.2.6.
Fig. 5.2.6 Graphical representation of
voltage traveling waves for Example 5.2.3
Voltage waveforms at l l x , 2 / , 0 = are
(5.2.23)
= + + + + + = ) 4 ( )
81
1
27
1
( ) 2 ( )
9
1
3
1
( ) ( ) (
0
t t t E t E t E t u 1 1 1
= ) 4 (
243
4
) 2 (
27
4
) (
3
2
t t t E t E t E
o o o
1 1 1
0 2 / l l x
0
1
t
1/3
t 2
1/9
t 3
27 / 1
t 4
1/81
t 5
t
257
+ + = )
2
7
(
81
2
)
2
5
(
27
2
)
2
3
(
9
2
)
2
(
3
2
) (
2 /
t t t
t
t E t E t E t E t u
o o o o l
1 1 1 1
+ + = + + = ) 3 (
81
4
) (
9
4
) 3 ( )
27
1
9
1
( ) ( )
3
1
1 ( ) ( t t t t t E t E t E t E t u
o o l
1 1 1 1
and they are depicted in Fig. 5.2.7
Fig. 5.2.7 Voltage waveforms for Example 5.2.3
+
) (
0
t u
o
E
3
2
2 /
o
E

o
E
27
4
t 2 t 4 t
) (
2 /
t u
l
o
E
3
2
2 /
o
E

o
E
9
2

o
E
27
2
2 / t t 5 . 1 t 5 . 2 t 5 . 3 t
) (t u
l
2 /
o
E

o
E
9
4

o
E
81
4
t t 3 t
258
Example 5.2.4
A pulse generator is the lossless line source, a pulse counter is the load. Calculate and sketch
the output voltage. Define the counter threshold necessary for its proper operation. It is
assumed that the subsequent pulse is generated after reaching the steady-state of the previous
one. The generator parameters are: pulse magnitude 1 . 8 =
o
E V, width 2 =
w
t ms, resistance
O = 500
t
R . The counter internal resistance is O = 500
l
R . Line parameters are: 400 = l m,
01 . 0 = L H/m, F/m 01 . 0 = C .

The line secondary parameters are:

w
ms t t 4 4 = = ,
l t
R R 2 2 1000 = = O = .
Then, the reflection coefficients are:
3 / 1 = = N M
The generator open-circuit voltage is:
) ( ) ( ) (
w o o o
t E t E t e t = 1 1
and ) (
3
2
) ( t e t e
o
= .
Graphical representation of traveling waves is identical as in Example 5.2.3, as presented in
Fig. 5.2.3. Then, the output voltage is
( ) ( ) = + + = ) 3 ( ) 3 (
81
4
) ( ) (
9
4
) (
w o w o l
t t E t t E t u t t t t t t 1 1 1 1 (5.2.24)
( ) ( ) + + = ) 3 ( ) 3 ( 4 . 0 ) ( ) ( 6 . 3
w w
t t t t t t t t t t 1 1 1 1 V
as depicted in Fig. 5.2.8 solid.
Fig. 5.2.8 Output voltage waveform for Example 5.2.4
Thus, the counter threshold should fall within a range
6 . 3 4 . 0
thr
s < U V (5.2.25)
Next, consider that pulse width is equal two line propagation times, 8 2 = = t t
w
ms. The
obtained output waveform is depicted in Fig. 5.2.7 - dashed. As can be observed, gap between
) (t u
l
[V]
3.6
0.4
4 6 12 14 t [ms]
259
the original pulse and the 1
st
reflected has vanished, and therefore no lower boundary of the
threshold is necessary for proper counting of pulses.
+
Arbitrary termination results in appearance of the reflected waves added to the original
incident wave. Therefore, a signal that reaches output device may be significantly distorted,
what may cause its malfunctioning. The following general conclusion can be drawn.
For an arbitrary termination of transmission line, the effect of reflected waves can be
disregarded if time parameter(s) of the transmitted signal is(are) much greater than the line
propagation time t .
In Example 5.2.4, the effect of reflected waves may be disregarded if t t 2 >
w
. The next
example discusses transmission of the practical step for different values of its time parameter,
namely the rise time
r
t .
Example 5.2.5
Sketch the output voltage waveform of the lossless line characterized by its length l,
propagation time t and characteristic resistance , for the practical step input given by its
magnitude
o
E , rise time
r
t and resistance 0 =
t
R , and for the load resistance 3 / =
l
R .
Assume three different values of the rise time: a) t t 1 . 0 =
r
, b) t t 2 =
r
, c) t t 10 =
r
.

For the given resistances, the reflection coefficients are

2 / 1 , 1 = = N M (5.2.26)
Graphical representation of voltage traveling waves is shown in Fig. 5.2.9.
Fig. 5.2.9 Graphical representation of voltage traveling waves for Example 5.2.5
0 2 / l l x
0
1
t
1/2
t 2
1/2
t 3
1/4
t 4
1/4
t 5
t
260
The equivalent voltage is
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
r r
r
o
r
o
o
t t
E
t t
E
t e t e t t
t t
= = 1 1 (5.2.27)
The output waveforms are presented in Fig. 5.2.10 a, b and c - the matched load output is
denoted dashed. To compare all three cases, 87.5% of the magnitude has been taken as the
reference. For the matched load, this reference level is obviously reached after
r
t t t 875 . 0 + = .
a)
Fig. 5.2.10a Example 5.2.5 output waveform for t t 1 . 0 =
r
1. Rise is of a step character.
2. 87.5% of the magnitude is reached after
r r
t t t t t t 41 ) 4 ( + = + + = .
b)
Fig. 5.2.10b Example 5.2.5 output waveform for t t 2 =
r
,
) (t u
l

o
E
2
o
E

o
E 875 . 0
t t 3 t 5 t 7 t 9 t 11 t
) (t u
l

o
E
2
o
E

o
E 875 . 0
t t 3 t 5 t 7 t 9 t 11 t
261
1. Rise is of a PWL character. Steps disappear, rising of one wave ends exactly when the
next wave appears.
2. 87.5% of the magnitude is reached after
r
t t t t t 3 6 + = + = .
c)
Fig. 5.2.10c Example 5.2.5 output waveform for t t 10 =
r
1. Rise is of a PWL character, practically straight line after t 3 = t . At the end of rising of the
matched load output, for t 11 = t , five rising waves add up - first two of them are denoted
by thin lines.
2. 87.5% of the magnitude is reached after
r
t t t t t 05 . 1 5 . 10 + = + ~ , the effect of reflected
waves is practically unnoticeable.
+
The reactive load case will be illustrated by the next example.
Example 5.2.6
Find input and output voltage waveforms of the lossless matched generator line, after
switching on the following source: 10 =
o
E V, =
t
R . Line primary parameters are: 5 . 2 = L
mH/m, 10 = C nF/m, its length is 100 = l m and line has capacitive load of F 5 . 0 =
l
C .

The line reflection coefficients are:

l
l
l
C T
sT
sT
sC
sC
s N M

=
+

=
+

= = ;
1
1
1
1
) ( , 0 (5.2.28)
The equivalent voltage is
s
E
s E
o
1
2
) ( = (5.2.29)
Then, from equation (5.2.14), setting 0 = o
) (t u
l

o
E

o
E 875 . 0

2
o
E

t t 3 t 5 t 7 t 9 t 11 t
262
= |
.
|

\
|

+
+
|
.
|

\
|
=
v
x l
s
sT
st
s
E
v
x
s
s
E
s U
o o
x
2
exp
1
2 1
2
exp
2
) ( (5.2.30)
|
.
|

\
|

+
+ |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
v
x l
s
sT s
E
v
x l
s
s
E
v
x
s
s
E
o o o
2
exp
) 1 (
2
exp
2
exp
2
After inverse transformation
(5.2.31)
|
.
|

\
|

)
`

|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
v
x l
t T
v
x l
t E
v
x l
t
E
v
x
t
E
t u
o
o o
x
2
/
2
exp 1
2
2 2
) ( 1 1 1
at 0 = x
) 2 (
2
exp 1 ) 2 (
2
) (
2
) (
0
t
t
t
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ = t
T
t
E t
E
t
E
t u
o
o o
1 1 1 (5.2.31a)
at l x =
) ( exp 1 ) ( t
t

(

|
.
|

\
|
= t
T
t
E t u
o l
1 (5.2.31b)
Fig. 5.2.11a Input waveform for Example 5.2.6
Fig. 5.2.11b Output waveform for Example 5.2.6
) (
0
t u

o
E
2 /
o
E
t 2 T + t 2 t
) (
0
t u

o
E
t T + t t
263
For the assumed line and load:
2 / ms 25 . 0 , ms 5 . 0 , s / m 10 2 . 0 , 500
3
t t = = = = O = T v
the waveforms are shown in Fig. 5.2.11a and b.
+
Drill problems 5.2
1. Example 5.2.6 line has inductive load of 125 = L mH. Sketch the input and output voltage
and current waveforms.
2. Outline voltages l l x t u
x
, 2 / , 0 ); ( = of the opened lossless line after inputting a practical
source given by the Norton equivalent: =
s
J 1 mA, S 10 / 1
3
= =
t
G . Other line
parameters are: F/m 1 m, 10 = = C l .
3. Outline voltages l l x t u
x
, 2 / , 0 ); ( = of Problem 5.2.2 line after changing its termination
to a short-circuit.
4. A lossless matched generator line of =
t
R , has a resistive load of O = = 150 3
l
R .
Sketch the input and output voltages and currents after inputting the step voltage
V ) ( 10 ) ( t t e
o
1 = . Other line parameters are: F/m 1 m, 10 = = C l .
5. Sketch the input and output voltage and current waveforms after connecting an ideal
voltage source V ) ( 10 ) ( t t e
o
1 = to an open-circuited line. Its parameters are: m 10 = l ,
mH/m 1 F/m, 1 = = L C .
6. Sketch the input and output voltage and current waveforms after connecting an ideal
current source mA ) ( 10 ) ( t t j
s
1 = to a short-circuited line of Problem 5.2.5.
7. For the given input voltage waveform find source and load parameters:
l t o
R R E , , . The
line characteristic resistance is O = 75 .
Fig. P.5.2.7
8. For the matched generator lossless line: O = = = 50 V, 6
0

t
R E , and the given voltage
waveform at 2 / l x = , choose the true relationship: a) , >
l
R b) 2 / <
l
R , c) 2 / =
l
R ,
d) < <
l
R 2 / .
Fig. P.5.2.8
) (
0
t u
6 V
3 V
s 2 t
) (
2 /
t u
l
3 V
1.5 V
t
5 15 [ms]
264
5.3 AC ANALYSIS STANDING WAVES
A transmission line connected to the sinusoidal source and described in the phasor-domain is
shown in Fig. 5.3.1.

Fig. 5.3.1 Transmission system described in phasor-domain
For the given length l and per-unit-length parameters R, G, L, C, the line secondary
parameters can be designated from the s-domain equations, substituting e j s = .
Characteristic impedance
C j G
L j R
j Z
e
e
e
+
+
= ) ( (5.3.1)
For distortionless (lossless) line:
const
C
L
j Z = = = e) ( (5.3.1a)
Propagation constant
) )( ( ) ( C j G L j R j e e e + + = (5.3.2)
For distortionless line
| o e j j + = ) ( (5.3.2a)
where
RG = o (5.3.3)
is the attenuation constant in [Np/m], for a lossless line it is equal zero,
v
LC
e
e | = = (5.3.4)
is the phase shift per distance, a linear function of e , and
) (
0
e j I ) ( e j I
x
) ( e j I
l
) (
0
e j U ) ( e j U
l
) ( e j U
x
x x l y =
l
LOAD
) ( e j Z
l
SOURCE
) ( e j Z
t
) ( e j E
o
265
LC
v
1
= (5.3.5)
is the propagation (phase) velocity, in [m/s].
Equations describing line voltage and current in the phasor-domain are obtained from
equations (5.2.6) with s replaced by e j .
] ) ( 2 exp[ ) ( ) ( 1
)] 2 )( ( exp[ ) ( ] ) ( exp[
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
l j j N j M
x l j j N x j
j Z j Z
j Z
j E j U
t
o x
e e e
e e e
e e
e
e e


+
= (5.3.6)
] ) ( 2 exp[ ) ( ) ( 1
)] 2 )( ( exp[ ) ( ] ) ( exp[
) ( ) (
1
) ( ) (
l j j N j M
x l j j N x j
j Z j Z
j E j I
t
o x
e e e
e e e
e e
e e

+
+
=
where ) ( ), ( e e j N j M are the reflection coefficients, described by equations (5.2.7) with s
replaced by e j . For the considered distortionless line, the propagation constant is described
by (5.3.2a). The matched load line is discussed at first, then line with arbitrary resistive
termination. The equivalent voltage ) ( e j E can be introduced (5.2.9c) and, for simplicity of
description, it is assumed that
E
j Z
j E j E
t
o
=
+
=
) (
) ( ) (
e

e e (5.2.7)
MATCHED LOAD LINE
For the matched load line, reflection coefficient is 0 ) ( = e j N and
0
U E = . Then the phasor
line voltage and current are
) exp( ) exp( ] ) ( exp[ ) (
0 0
x j x U x j U j U
x
| o e e = = (5.3.8)
) (
) (
) (
e
e
e
j Z
j U
j I
x
x
=
The line voltage in the time-domain is:
) sin( ) exp( 2 ) (
0
x t x U t u
x
| e o = (5.3.8a)
For a lossless line:
) sin( 2 ) (
0
x t U t u
x
o e = (5.3.8b)
At a distance x, the voltage magnitude and phase shift are:
) exp( 2 2
0
x U U
x
o = (5.3.8c)
x LC x e | = (5.3.8d)
Attenuation at a distance x is designated by the product
x
U
U
x
0
ln = o , (5.3.9)
266
Its unit is neper [Np]. Distribution of the voltage magnitude along a line is presented in Fig.
5.3.2, for both lossy line (continuous) and lossless line (dashed). These waves are called the
standing waves.
Fig. 5.3.2 Voltage standing waves for matched load lossy and lossless (dashed) line
ARBITRARY TERMINATION
To study an arbitrary resistive load termination, instead of phasor equations (5.3.6), it is more
convenient to use equations that express line voltage and current by its output voltage and
current, and these equations are obtained from equations (5.2.2b) with s replaced by e j .
)] )( ( sinh[ ) ( ) ( )] )( ( cosh[ ) ( ) ( x l j j Z j I x l j j U j U
l l x
+ = e e e e e e (5.3.10a)
)] )( ( sinh[
) (
) (
)] )( ( cosh[ ) ( ) ( x l j
j Z
j U
x l j j I j I
l
l x
+ = e
e
e
e e e
For a lossless line, | e e j j j Z = = ) ( , ) ( . Then, with x l y = , taking into account
) sin( ) sinh( ), cos( ) cosh( y j y j y y j | | | | = = , the following equations describe the line
phasor voltage and current:
) sin( ) ( ) cos( ) ( ) ( y j jI y j U j U
l l y
| e | e e + = (5.3.10b)
) sin(
) (
) cos( ) ( ) ( y
j U
j y j I j I
l
l y
|

e
| e e + =
Next, taking into account the load equation
l l l l l
R j I j Z j I j U ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( e e e e = = (5.3.11)
and expressing sin and cos by exponential functions, the following equations are obtained
| | ) 2 exp( 1 ) exp( ) )( (
2
1
) ( y j N y j R j I j U
l l y
| | e e + = (5.3.12)
| | ) 2 exp( 1 ) exp( ) )( (
2
1
) ( y j N y j R j I j I
l l y
| | e

e + + =

x
U
E U =
0

l
l
Ee U
o
=
o / 1 l x
267
Plots of ) ( e j U U
y y
= and ) ( e j I I
y y
= are standing waves with their maxima and minima
occurring at fixed locations along the line. As two subscripts, x and x l y = , have been used,
the meaning of subscripts 0 and l should be clarified:
l y
y
x
x
U U U
=
=
= =
0
0
, etc.,
0 =
=
= =
y
y
l x
x l
U U U , etc.
For < >
l
R N 0
min y
U and
max y
I occur together when 1 ) 2 exp( = y j | , i.e. for t | n y 2 2 = . Then,
minima of the voltage standing wave, so called nodes of standing wave (maxima or
arrows of the current standing wave) are located at ,... 2 , 1 , 0 ; 2 / = = n n y
where
f
v
LC f LC
= = = =
1 2 2
e
t
|
t
(5.3.13)
is the wavelength.
max y
U and
min y
I occur together when 1 ) 2 exp( = y j | , i.e. for t | ) 1 ( 2 2 + = n y . Then,
maxima of the voltage standing wave, so called arrows (minima or nodes of the current
standing wave) are located at ,... 2 , 1 , 0 ; 4 / ) 1 2 ( = + = n n y .
An exemplary voltage and current standing waves, for the single-wave line, = l , are
shown in Fig. 5.3.3.
Fig. 5.3.3 Voltage (solid) and current (dashed) standing waves on resistance terminated
lossless line, <
l
R
For > <
l
R N 0
the roles of the voltage and current standing waves are interchanged from those for the
case of <
l
R .

x
U
x
I
y
I
y
U

max y
U

max y
I

min y
I

min y
U
x
y 4 / 3 2 / 1 4 / 1 0
268
For resistive termination,
l l
R j Z = ) ( e , voltage maximum (current minimum) or minimum
(current maximum) occurs at the terminating resistance. If the terminating impedance ) ( e j Z
l
is not a pure resistance, then a voltage maximum or minimum does not occur at the
termination, both are shifted away from termination, however periodic character of standing
waves is maintained. The ratio of the maximum to minimum voltages along a line is defined
as the standing wave ratio, S:
) ( 1
) ( 1
min
max
e
e
j N
j N
U
U
S
y
y

+
= = (5.3.14)
It is clear that for the special cases:
a) matched load line: 1 0 = = S N , (5.3.15)
b) open-circuited line: 0 1 = = S N ,
c) short-circuited line: 0 1 = + = S N .
The matched load line has been discussed in the preceding section of this Chapter. For short-
circuited or open-circuited lines all the minima (nodes) go to zero. These two special cases
will be discussed next.
Open-circuited line
From (5.3.10b), for 0 ) ( = e j I
l
, the voltage and current standing waves are
) cos( ) cos( ) ( ) ( y U U y j U j U
l y l y
| | e e = = (5.3.16)
) sin( ) sin(
) (
) ( y
U
I y
j U
j j I
l
y
l
y
|

e
e = =
and they are shown in Fig. 5.3.4, nodes and arrows of the voltage wave are denoted.
Fig. 5.3.4 Voltage and current (dashed) standing waves on open-circuited line

x
U
x
I
y
I
y
U

max y
U

max y
I
x
y 4 / 3 2 / 1 4 / 1 0
269
Short-circuited line
From (5.3.10b), for 0 ) ( = e j U
l
, the voltage and current standing waves are
) sin( ) sin( ) ( ) ( y I U y j jI j U
l y l y
| | e e = = (5.3.17)
) cos( ) cos( ) ( ) ( y I I y j I j I
l y l y
| | e e = =
and they are shown in Fig. 5.3.5, nodes and arrows of the voltage wave are denoted.
Fig. 5.3.5 Voltage and current (dashed) standing waves on short-circuited line
TRANSMISSION LINE as CIRCUIT ELEMENT, INPUT IMPEDANCE
Not only can transmission line be used as wave-guiding structure for transferring power or
information, but it may serve as a circuit element. At ultrahigh frequencies (UHF), ranging
from 300 MHz to 3 GHz wavelength ranging from 1 m to 0.1 m, ordinary lumped elements
are difficult to manufacture (see Chapter 4.3). Section of transmission line can be designed to
give a pure inductive or capacitive impedance or may be used to match an arbitrary load to the
internal impedance of a generator for maximum power transfer.
A transmission line segment can be considered lossless, and then, from equations (5.3.10b),
(5.3.11), the input impedance of a lossless line of length l terminated in ) ( e j Z
l
is
) tan( ) (
) tan( ) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
0
l j jZ
l j j Z
j I
j U
j I
j U
j Z
l
l
l y
y
y
x
x
x
i
| e
| e

e
e
e
e
e
+
+
= = =
=
=
(5.3.18)
Three special cases (5.3.15), quarter-wave line and half-wave line will be considered next.
Matched-load line
For the matched-load line, the input impedance is obviously fixed
e = ) ( j Z
im
(5.3.18a)

x
U
x
I
y
I
y
U

max y
U

max y
I
x
y 4 / 3 2 / 1 4 / 1 0
270
Open-circuited line
For = ) ( e j Z
l
, the formula in equation (5.3.18) becomes
) ( )] cot( [
) tan(
) ( e |
|

e j jX l j
l j
j Z
io io
= = = (5.3.18b)
As can be seen, the segment impedance can be either capacitive or inductive. Fig. 5.3.6 is a
plot of
io
X versus l, for l ranging from 0 to .
Fig. 5.3.6 Input reactance of open-circuited transmission line
When the length of a short-circuited line is very short in comparison with a wavelength,
t | 2 << l , then l l | | ~ ) tan( and a very simple formula for its capacitive reactance is
obtained
Cl
j
l LC
C L
j
l
j j Z
io
e
e
|

e
1 /
) ( = = ~ (5.3.18b)
That way capacitance of Cl farads is obtained.
Short-circuited line
For 0 ) ( = e j Z
l
, the formula in equation (5.3.18) becomes
) ( )] tan( ) ( e | e j jX l j j Z
is is
= = (5.3.18c)
As can be seen, the segment impedance can be either capacitive or inductive and it is worth to
note that in the range where
io
X is capacitive
is
X is inductive, and vice versa. Fig. 5.3.7 is a
plot of
is
X versus l, for l ranging from 0 to .

io
X
l 4 / 3 2 / 1 4 / 1
271
When the length of a short-circuited line is very short in comparison with a wavelength,
t | 2 << l , then l l | | ~ ) tan( and a very simple formula for its inductive reactance is
obtained
l L j LC C L j l j j Z
is
e e | e = = = / ) ( (5.3.18c)
That way inductance of l L henries is obtained.
Fig. 5.3.7 Input reactance of short-circuited transmission line
Short-circuit and open circuit are easy provided on a transmission line. By measuring
corresponding input impedances, the characteristic impedance and phase constant of the line
can be determined. From (5.3.18b) and (5.3.18c), the characteristic impedance of a lossless
line is
is io
Z Z = ;
is is io io
X Z X Z = = , (5.3.19a)
and its phase constant is
io
is
Z
Z
l
1
tan
1

= | (5.3.19b)
Quarter-wave line
For line arbitrary termination ) ( e j Z
l
and its length being a quarter-wave or an odd multiple
of 4 / 1
= = = ) tan(
2
) 1 2 (
4
) 1 2 (
2
l n n l |
t

t
|
and equation (5.3.18) reduces to

is
X
l 4 / 3 2 / 1 4 / 1
272
) (
) (
2
e

e
j Z
j Z
l
i
= (5.3.20)
A quarter-wave lossless line transforms the load impedance to input terminals as its inverse
scaled by the square of the characteristic resistance.
Half-wave line
For line arbitrary termination ) ( e j Z
l
and its length being a half-wave or a multiple of 2 / 1
0 ) tan(
2
2
= = = l n n l | t

t
|
and equation (5.3.18) reduces to
) ( ) ( e e j Z j Z
l i
= (5.3.21)
A half-wave lossless line transfers the load impedance to input terminals without change.
Example 5.3.1
Consider a lossless line characterized by the following parameters:
100 = l km, 5 = L mH/m, 5 = C nF/m.
For the given input voltage: t t u
2
sin 50 ) (
0
t
= V,
find phasors of the input current, output voltage, output current and input impedance for three
terminations: a) matched-load, b) open-circuit, c) short circuit.

The characteristic resistance is: O =

3
9
3
10
10 5
10 5
.
The phase constant (phase shift per distance) is: rad/m
2
5 10 5 10 5
2
9 3
t t
| = =

.
The line phase shift is:
4
t
| = l rad.
The wavelength is:
8
km 800
10 5 . 2
2
6

t
t
= =

=

l .
a)
O = =
3
10 ) ( e j Z
im
2 / 50 ) ( ) (
0
= = e e j U j U
l
V
2 / 50
) (
) ( ) (
0
0
= = =

e
e e
j U
j I j I
l
mA
b)
O = =
3 3
10
4
cot 10 ) ( j j j Z
io
t
e
3
10
2

=
t
io
C F
2 / 50
) (
) (
) (
0
0
j
j Z
j U
j I
io
= =
e
e
e mA
Equation (5.3.10b), for ) 0 ( = = x l y becomes
) sin( ) ( ) cos( ) ( ) ( ) (
0
y j jI y j U j U j U
l l
l y
y
| e | e e e + = =
=
(5.3.22)
273
From this equation, taking into account that 0 ) ( = e j I
l
, the output voltage is
50
2 / 2
2 / 50
) cos(
) (
) (
0
= = =
l
j U
j U
l
|
e
e V
The voltage standing wave and the input reactance are shown in Fig. 5.3.8
Fig. 5.3.8 Voltage standing wave and input reactance of Example 5.3.1 - open-circuited line
c)
O = =
3 3
10
4
tan 10 ) ( j j j Z
is
t
e
3
10
2
t
=
is
L H
2 / 50
) (
) (
) (
0
0
j
j Z
j U
j I
is
= =
e
e
e mA
From equation (5.3.22), taking into account that 0 ) ( = e j U
l
, the output current is
50
2 / 2 10
2 / 50
) sin(
) (
) (
3
0
j
j
l j
j U
j I
l
= = =
|
e
e mA
The voltage standing wave and input reactance are shown in Fig. 5.3.9
Fig. 5.3.9 Voltage standing wave and input reactance of Example 5.3.1 - short-circuited line
+
l 4 / 8 /
io
X
O
3
10

y
U
50 V
2 / 50
y 4 / 8 /

y
U
50 V
2 / 50
y 4 / 8 /

is
X
O
3
10
l 4 / 8 /
274
Drill problems 5.3
1. Plot the voltage standing wave ) ( e j U
y
for a shorted lossless: a) quarter-wave, b) half-
wave, c) single-wave, d) double-wave line. A source voltage is V ) 100 sin( 2 10 ) ( t t e
o
= ,
its resistance is O =100
t
R and line parameters are: m 10 = = l , F/m 5 , 50 = O = C .
Calculate the standing wave ratio S and the rms input current.
2. Outline the input reactance of Problem 5.3.1 line, for its length l ranging from 0 to 2 .
3. Sketch the current standing wave for Problem 5.3.1 line and a source given by the
Thevenin equivalent: ) 100 sin( 2 10 ) ( t t e
o
t = V, =
t
R .
4. Repeat calculations and plots of Problems 5.3.1-3, after changing the line termination to
an open-circuit.
5. Find the rms voltage at a distance of 2 / l x = of a quarter-wave shorted line if the input
voltage is ) 314 sin( 2 20 ) (
0
t t u = V. Sketch the voltage standing wave and find its ratio S.
6. Sketch the current standing wave in a shorted half-wave line of primary parameters:
mH/m 1 = L , nF/m 1 = C . Calculate the output current if the input current is
) 1000 sin( 2 5 ) (
0
t t i = mA.
7. Find the input impedance of an open-circuited lossless line. Its parameters are:
mH/m 1 = L , nF/m 1 = C , 10 8 / = = l m.
8. Find the input impedance of a short-circuited lossless line. Its parameters are:
mH/m 1 = L , nF/m 1 = C , 10 8 / = = l m.
9. Find the input impedance of a lossless line. Its parameters are: mH/m 1 = L , nF/m 1 = C ,
10 4 / = = l m, and a load impedance is O + = 10 10 ) ( j j Z
l
e .
275
APPENDIX A - LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Laplace transform allows to transform the time-domain function ) (t f into the Laplace-
domain function ) (s F :
} { ) ( ) ( ) ( t f t f s F = = L (A1)
where s is the Laplace operator. Then, terms Laplace-domain, operator-domain or simply s-
domain are used alternately. The Laplace transformation is the integral transformation defined
by equation (A2).
DEFINITION
}

=
0
) exp( ) ( ) ( dt st t f s F (A2)
Together, ) (t f and ) (s F are called the Laplace transform pair, while ) (s F is called the
Laplace transform of ) (t f - the image, and ) (t f is called the inverse Laplace transform of
) (s F - the original.
The Laplace transform is utilized in Circuit Theory to solve circuit transient analysis
equations containing time integrals and derivatives, the so called integro-differential
equations. After the Laplace transformation, system of linear equations in the s-domain is
obtained. Then, its solution, operator response ) (s Y or responses ).... ( ), (
2 1
s Y s Y are searched
for. Inverse transformation is the final step of transient analysis.
When transforming time-domain equations (element u i relationships and Kirchhoffs laws)
into the s-domain equations, the following properties of the Laplace transformation are
utilized.
PROPERTIES
P1. Linearity
{ } ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
s F c s F c t f c t f c + = + L (A3)
where
2 1
, c c are real numbers
P2. Integration

=
)
`

}
s
s F
dt t f
t
) (
) (
0
L (A4)
276
P3. Differentiation

=
)
`

) 0 ( ) ( ) ( f s sF t f
dt
d
L (A5)
P4. Time-Shift
} { ) exp( ) ( ) ( t t s s F t f = L (A6)
INVERSE TRANSFORMATION - HEAVISIDES FORMULA
To find the inverse transform
- integral formula (not presented here), or
- Partial Fraction Expansion (PFE) based, Heavisides formula (A7)
can be utilized.
If
[
[
=
=

=
+ + + +
+ + + +
= =
m
k
k
l
j
j
m m
m m
l l
l l
s s s
q s
b s b s b s s
a s a s a s
s sM
s L
s F
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
) (
) (
( ) (
) (
) (

(A7a)
where,
k j
s q , are roots of numerator and denominator polynomial, zeroes and poles of ) (s F
k j
b a , are real numbers; m k l j ,..., 1 ; ,..., 1 = =
then

=
+ =
m
k
k
k k
k
t s
s M s
s L
M
L
t f
1
) exp(
) ( '
) (
) 0 (
) 0 (
) ( (A7b)
where,
[
=
=
=
=
=
m
k i
i
i k
k
k
s s
s s
s M
ds
d
s M
1
) ( ) ( ) ( ' (A7c)
The first component of ) (t f , the time-invariant component, is the steady state value

F .
The second component is the transient component decaying exponentially to zero. This
component is the sum of m terms, each term is designated by one pole. Three different types
of poles can be distinguished:
1. simple real pole:
k k
T s / 1 = , (A8a)
2. simple pair of complex conjugate poles:
k k k
j s e o + = (A8b)
k k k k
j s s e o = =
+
*
1
,
3. repeated (multiple) poles, for two poles:
k k k
s s o = =
+1
. (A8c)
277
It should be emphasized, that in a stable circuit all poles lie in the left side of the complex
plane. In a stable circuit steady state is always reached, all transients decay to zero and only
such circuits are considered. Step response of the ideal integrator, discussed in Chapter 3.3, is
the only exception.
For each simple pole (A8a), there will be a term
) / exp(
k k
T t A . (A9a)
For each simple pair of complex conjugate poles (A8b), there will be a term
) sin( ) exp(
k k k k
t t A e o + (A9b)
where,
k
s s
k k
s F s s
=
Z = ) ( ) (
For two repeated poles (A8c), there will be a term
) exp(
k k
t t A o (A9c)
LAPLACE TRANSFORM DICTIONARY
Based on the Laplace transform definition (A2) or Heavisides formula (A7), dictionary of
Laplace transform pairs can be constructed. Four singularity functions, used to describe
transient excitation:
- unit step,
- pulse,
- unit impulse,
- unit ramp,
and two ordinary functions, used to describe transient response
- exponential (1
st
order response),
- 2
nd
order response,
are discussed.
1. Unit step
in time domain is the function that is equal zero for all negative values of time and that is
equal to one for all positive values. This dimensionless function is denoted by the bold one:

>
<
=
0 , 1
0 , 0
) (
t
t
t 1 (A8)
Fig. A1
Graph of the unit step function
The Laplace transform of the unit step function is
{ }
s
t
1
) ( = 1 L (A8a)
) (t 1
1
t
278
1a. Time-shifted unit step
in time domain is the function that is equal zero for all values of time less than t and that is
equal to one for all values greater than or equal t :

>
<
=
t
t
t
t
t
t
, 1
, 0
) ( 1 (A9)
Fig. A1
Graph of the time-shifted
unit step function
The Laplace transform of the time-shifted unit step is
{ } ) exp(
1
) ( t t s
s
t = 1 L (A9a)
2. Exponential decay

<
>
= =
0 , 0
0 ), / exp(
) ( ) / exp( ) (
t
t T t
t T t t f 1 (A10)
Fig. A2 Graph of the exponentially decaying function
This dimensionless function is defined by one parameter, time-constant T. Each time-constant
the function is reduced by a factor of 1/e relative to its value at the beginning of that one-time-
constant interval. Discrete values of the function at multiples of T are presented in Table A1.
) ( t t 1
1
t
t
1
0.368
T 2T 3T 4T 5T t
279
Table A1 Discrete values of exponential decay at multiples of T
t T 2T 3T 4T 5T
) / exp( T t
368 . 0
1
=

e 135 . 0
2
=

e 050 . 0
3
=

e 018 . 0
4
=

e 007 . 0
5
=

e
The exponential decay has the following properties:
1. After five time constants, the function value is less than 1% of its initial value, it is
essentially zero.
2. Subtangent at any instance of time is equal to the time-constant T. In particular, a tangent
to the curve at 0 = t intersects the time axis at T t = , what can be utilized when sketching
the curve.
The Laplace transform of the exponential decline is
{ }
sT
T
t T t
+
=
1
) ( ) / exp( 1 L (A10a)
2a. Exponential rise

<
>
= =
0 , 0
0 ), / exp( 1
) ( )] / exp( 1 [ ) (
t
t T t
t T t t f 1 (A11)

Fig. A2 Graph of the exponentially rising function
The Laplace transform of the exponential rise is
{ }
) 1 (
1
) ( )] / exp( 1 [
sT s
t T t
+
= 1 L (A11a)
1
0.632
T 2T 3T 4T 5T t
280
3. Pulse

> e<
s s
= =
t
t
t
, 0 , 0
0 , 1
) ( ) ( ) (
t
t
t t t f 1 1 (A12)
Fig. A3 Graph of the pulse
The Laplace transform of the pulse is
{ } ) exp(
1 1
) ( ) ( t t s
s s
t t = 1 1 L (A12a)
4. Unit impulse or Dirac delta
Consider a pulse ) (t d with height 1/ t 2 and base t 2 centered at 0 = t , as presented in Fig.
A4.
Fig. A4 Graph of a pulse and unit impulse, both of unit area
Area of this pulse is equal to one. Then, unit impulse, the so called Dirac delta, is the limit of
) (t d as t goes to zero:

=
=
=
0 , 0
0 ,
) (
t
t
t o (A13)
The unit impulse can be considered as the first derivative of the unit step. Its unit is [1/s] and
its area is equal to 1.
}

=1 ) ( dt t o (A13a)
1
t t
b) ) (t o
t
a) ) (t d
t 2 / 1
t t t
281
The Laplace transform of the unit impulse is
{ } 1 ) ( = t o L (A13b)
5. Unit ramp
The first integral of the unit step is referred to as the unit ramp function ) (t r :

<
>
= =
0 , 0
0 ,
) ( ) (
t
t t
t t t r 1 (A14)
This function is used to model slope(s) of a practical step(pulse). Its unit is [s] and its graph is
presented in Fig. A5
Fig. A5 Graph of the unit ramp
The Laplace transform of the unit ramp is
{ }
2
1
) (
s
t r = L (A14a)
6. 2
nd
order response
The following 2
nd
order function in the s-domain is considered:
) )( ( ) )( (
1 1
) (
2 1 2 1
2
s s s s s
s
s s s s c bs s
s F

=

=
+ +
= (A15)
where poles are:
| o = = c
b b
s
4 2
2
2 , 1
(A15a)
The Heavisides formula (A7) is utilized to find the inverse transform. Its elements are:
) ( ) ( ' ), ( ) ( ' ), )( ( ) ( , 0 ) 0 ( , ) (
1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1
s s s M s s s M s s s s s M L s s L = = = = = (A15b)
Then,
)] exp( ) )[exp( exp(
2
1
)] exp( ) [exp(
1
) (
2 1
2 1
t t t t s t s
s s
t f | | o
|
=

= (A16)
Three different cases have to be considered, subjected by the character of poles (A8):
) (t r
1
1 t
282
1. two simple real poles,
2. simple pair of complex conjugate poles,
3. two repeated poles.
1. For c
b
>
4
2
:
2 2 1 1
/ 1 , / 1 T s T s = =
Location of poles in the complex plane is presented in Fig. A6a.
Fig. A6a
Complex plane location
of two simple real poles
Then,
)] / exp( ) / [exp(
2
1
) (
2 1
T t T t t f =
|
(A16a)
2. For c
b
<
4
2
: e o e o j s j s = + =
2 1
, ;
4
2
b
c = e
Location of poles in the complex plane is presented in Fig. A6b.
Fig. A6b
Complex plane location
of pair of complex conjugate poles
Then,
t t t j t j t
j
t f e o
e
e e o
e
sin ) exp(
1
)] exp( ) )[exp( exp(
2
1
) ( = = (A16b)
3. For c
b
=
4
2
: o = =
2 1
s s
Location of poles in the complex plane is presented in Fig. A6c.
Fig. A6c
Complex plane location of two repeated poles
Then,
) exp( /)] exp( ) )[exp( exp(
2
1
lim ) (
0
t t t t t t f o | | o
|
|
= =

(A16c)
Im

1
/ 1 T
2
/ 1 T Re
Im
e j
o Re
e j
Im
o Re
283
APPENDIX B COMPLEX NUMBERS
The complex number can be expressed in rectangular form as
jy x + = F (B1)
and presented in the complex plane, as shown in Fig. B1, where
- 1 = j is the complex number of unit length along the imaginary axis,
- x is the real part of F, denoted F Re = x ,
- y is the imaginary part of F, denoted F Im = y .
The same complex number F may be represented in polar form as
o Z =
m
F F (B2)
where
m
F , the magnitude or modulus of F, and o Z , the angle of F, are given by
2 2
y x F
m
+ = (B2a)
x
y
arctan = Zo (B2b)
The angle is positive when taken in the counterclockwise direction and negative when taken
in the clockwise direction.
Fig. B1 Graphical representation of the complex number in the complex plane
From Eulers formula or Euler identity
o o o o Z = + = 1 sin cos ) exp( j j (B3)
a useful alternative way to write complex numbers in the exponential polar form, or simply
exponential form is obtained
Im
jy F

m
F
o
Re
x
o
jy
*
F
284
) exp( o j F
m
= F (B4)
The conjugate of the complex number F is defined to be
) exp(
*
o o j F F jy x
m m
= Z = = F (B5)
as presented in Fig. B1. Consider four unity length complex numbers along both axes in the
complex plane, in both directions, as shown in Fig. B2.
Fig. B2 Unity length complex numbers along both axes in the complex plane
The operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division apply to complex numbers
exactly as they apply to real numbers, and they will discussed next.
Addition/subtraction
Consider two complex numbers, ) exp(
1 1 1
o j F
m
= F and ) exp(
2 2 2
o j F
m
= F . Their
sum/difference is calculated in the following way
= + + = = ) sin cos ( sin cos
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1
o o o o
m m m m
jF F jF F F F F
) exp( o j F jy x
m
= + = (B6)
where
2 2 1 1
cos cos o o
m m
F F x = (B6a)
2 2 1 1
sin sin o o
m m
F F y =
and the rectangular-to-exponential conversion is described by equations (B2). These
operations may be carried out geometrically. The result is equivalent to completing the
parallelogram or to connecting both vectors in head-to-tail manner, as shown in Fig. B3.
Vector subtraction may be considered as vector addition with the subtracted vector shifted by
180 degrees (multiplied by 1 ).
Im
) 90 exp(
o
j j =
) 180 exp( 1
o
j = ) 0 exp( 1
o
j =
Re
) 90 exp(
o
j j =
285
Fig. B3 Two methods of graphical addition/subtraction
Multiplication
Multiplication is normally performed using the exponential form (B4) of complex numbers
) exp( ) exp(
2 1 2 1 2 1
o o j j F F
m m
= = F F F (B7)
Thus, two complex numbers may be multiplied by multiplying their magnitudes and adding
their angles
m m m
F F F
2 1
= (B7a)
2 1
o o o + = (B7b)
In particular,
- multiplication by j rotates vector in counterclockwise direction by
o
90 ,
)] 90 ( exp[
o
+ = o j F j
m
F
- multiplication by j rotates vector in clockwise direction by
o
90 ,
)] 90 ( exp[
o
= o j F j
m
F ,
- multiplication by 1 rotates vector by
o
180 ,
)] 180 ( exp[
o
+ = o j F
m
F ,
Alternatively, complex numbers may be multiplied in rectangular form
jy x x y y x j y y x x jy x jy x + = + + = + + = ) ( ) ( ) )( (
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 1
F (B7c)
Im Im

1
F
1
F

2 1
F F +
2
F

2 1
F F +

Re Re

2
F
Im Im

2 1
F F
2
F

1
F

2 1
F F
1
F
2
F
Re Re

2
F
2
F
286
Division
Division can be performed using both rectangular and exponential form.
)] ( exp[
2 1
2
1
2
1
o o = = j
F
F
m
m
F
F
F (B8)
Thus, magnitude of the quotient is quotient of magnitudes, angle of the quotient is difference
of angles
m
m
m
F
F
F
2
1
= (B8a)
2 1
o o o = (B8b)
In particular,
- division by j, equivalent to multiplication by j , rotates vector in clockwise direction
by
o
90 , )] 90 ( exp[
o
= = o j F j
j
m
F
F
.
Sometimes, it is more practical to divide two complex numbers in rectangular form. Then, to
obtain the quotient in rectangular form, both numerator and denominator are multiplied by
denominator conjugate
jy x
y x
y x x y
j
y x
y y x x
jy x jy x
jy x jy x
jy x
jy x
+ =
+

+
+
+
=
+
+
=
+
+
=
2
2
2
2
2 1 2 1
2
2
2
2
2 1 2 1
2 2 2 2
2 2 1 1
2 2
1 1
) )( (
) )( (
F (B9)
Evidently, it is easier to add and subtract complex numbers in rectangular form and to
multiply and divide them in exponential form.
Next, consider the complex exponential function
t t j e e Z =1 ) exp( (B10a)
Examining this function, its magnitude is always unity, while its angle increases uniformly at
the rate of e radians per second. Thus, the complex exponential function traces out unit
circles in the complex plane, beginning on the positive real axis at 0 = t and moving
counterclockwise, completing one full circle every e t / 2 = T seconds, as shown in Fig. B4,
together with a general, scaled and phase-shifted, complex exponential f

(B10b).
Fig. B4 Complex exponential ) exp( t je and general complex exponential )] ( exp[ o e + t j F
m
Im Im
e e
1 Re
m
F Re
o
287
) ( )] ( exp[

o e o e + Z = + = t F t j F f
m m
(B10b)
This general complex exponential is similar to the (simple) complex exponential, except that
at 0 = t its initial phase is o radians and it traces out circles of radius
m
F . By vertical
projection
) sin(

Im o e + = = t F f f
m
(B11a)
and by horizontal projection
) cos(

Re ' o e + = = t F f f
m
(B11b)
The general complex exponential can be rewritten in the following form
) exp( ) exp( 2 )] ( exp[ '

o e o e j t j F t j F jf f f
m
= + = + = (B11c)
Then, for the given angular frequency e , the sinusoidal function is uniquely characterized by
the following complex number
) exp( ) ( o e j F j F
m m
= (B12)
or, more often
) exp( ) ( o e j F j F = (B12a)
This number is called phasor.
Any sinusoidal current or voltage, at a distinct frequency e is uniquely characterized by its
phasor (4.1.5). The rms value of the sinusoid is the magnitude of the phasor, and the phase
angle of the sinusoid is the angle of the phasor.
In case frequency characteristics of magnitude and phase are considered
)] ( exp[ ) ( ) ( e o e e j F j F = (B12a)
Since phasors are complex numbers, they may be represented by vectors in the complex plane
also called Argand diagram, where addition or subtraction may be carried out geometrically.
This representation is called the phasor diagram and may be helpful in analyzing ac steady-
state circuits. When two sinusoids are represented as phasors on the same diagram, their phase
difference is simply an angle between them, a leading phase angle corresponds to a
counterclockwise rotation, according to the usual convention.
288
APPENDIX C TERMS AND CONCEPTS
Acceptability
region
Obszar sprawnoci
Region in the parameter space
P
9 with boundaries
designated by the design constraints on circuit
variables:
max min
,
j j
F F .
Active circuit Obwd aktywny
Circuit that contains at least one active element,
independent source.
Active element Element aktywny Element that may deliver energy to a circuit.
Admittance
in s-domain
) (s Y
Admitancja
operatorowa
Reciprocal of ) (s Z .
Amplitude
(peak value)
m m
U I ,
Amplituda
(warto szczytowa)
See Alternating current
Angular (radian)
frequency
e
Pulsacja
(czstotliwo
ktowa)
See Alternating current, Frequency
Initial phase angle
u i
o o ,
Faza pocztkowa See Alternating current
Ampere
A
Amper See Current
Admittance
in phasor-domain
) ( e j Y
Admitancja
symboliczna
Reciprocal of ) ( e j Z , ) ( ) ( ) ( e e e jB G j Y + =
Alternating
current
i
Prd sinusoidalny
Sinusoidally time-varying current
) sin(
i m
t I i o e + = ,
m
I - amplitude or peak value,
e - angular frequency,
i
o - initial phase angle.
Apparent power
S
Moc pozorna
Power that defines the maximum capacity of the
sinusoidal source, UI P S
pf
= =
=1
.
Unit: volt-ampere ] A V [ .
Artificial or
temporary
magnet
Elektromagnes See Electromagnet or solenoid coil
Attenuation
constant
o
Tumienno See Propagation constant
Autotransformer Autotransformator
Transformer that has windings both magnetically
and electrically interconnected.
Average or real
power
P
Moc czynna
Average value of the instantaneous power in the ac
circuit. Represents the power delivered by the
source or absorbed by the circuit. Unit: watt [W].
289
cos / 1
0
UI pdt T P
T
= =
}
,
pf = cos is the so called power factor.
Backward waves Fale powrotne
Reflected waves traveling from the line output to its
input.
Balanced load
(circuit)
Obcienie
symetryczne
Load that has three identical impedances connected
in a Y or A configuration.
Band-Pass Filter
(BPF)
Filtr pasmowo-
przepustowy
Circuit that passes unimpeded all frequencies in a
selected range of frequencies and rejects all
frequencies outside this range.
Band-Stop Filter
(BSF)
Filtr pasmowo-
zaporowy
Circuit that rejects all frequencies in a selected
range of frequencies and passes unimpeded all
frequencies outside this range.
Bandwidth
e A
Pasmo
czstotliwoci
Range of frequencies that lie between the two
frequencies where the magnitude of the gain is
equal to 2 / 1 of the maximum.
Bode (gain) plot Wykres Bodego
Plot of logarithmic-gain values in dB on a log-
frequency base.
Branch Ga
Element or string of two-terminal elements
connected between two nodes.
Number of circuit branches is denoted as b.
Capacitance
C
Pojemno
Constant of proportionality between the capacitor
charge and the voltage: CU Q = .
Unit: farad ] s/V [A F] [ = .
Capacitor Kondensator
Two-terminal energy storage element, described by
the equation: CU Q = .
Its law and energy stored are:
dt du C i / = , 2 /
2
Cu w = .
Characteristic
impedance
(resistance)
) ( or ) ( e j Z s Z
( )
Impedancja falowa
) /( ) ( ) ( sC G sL R s Z + + =
For a distortionless line:
const C L s Z = = = / ) ( , in [O].
Charge
q Q or
adunek
Fundamental unit of matter responsible for electric
phenomena,
+
= Q Q is the positive charge,

Q is
the negative charge.
Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each
other.
Units: coulomb [C] ] s A [ = .
Circuit diagram Schemat obwodu
Drawing that shows schematically the inter-
connection of circuit components represented by
their graphic standard symbols.
Circuit graph Graf obwodu
Graphical representation of the circuit structure
(component interconnections).
Graph consists of branches connected in nodes.
Circuit model Model obwodu
Approximation of a real circuit, interconnection of
ideal elements (practical elements are modeled by
290
ideal elements).
Circuit parameter
(constant)
P or X
Parametr (staa)
obwodu
Parameter that defines the circuit element, such as
resistance R, capacitance C, inductance L, etc.
Circuit variable
F
Zmienna obwodowa
Any voltage, current, power, gain, etc. - a nonlinear
function of circuit parameters.
Complete
response
Odpowied zupena Sum of natural and forced responses.
Complex power
) ( e j S
Moc zespolona
Sum of the average power and the reactive power
expressed as a complex number,
)] ( exp[ ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( e e e e e j S jQ P j S = + =
Conductance
in phasor-domain
) (e G
Konduktancja See Admittance in phasor-domain
Conductance
G
Przewodno
(konduktancja)
Reciprocal of the resistance, R G / 1 = .
Unit: siemens = ] S [ [A/V].
Conductance
matrix
G
Macierz
konduktancyjna
See Nodal analysis
Conductance
matrix of m-
terminal element
G
Macierz
konduktancyjna
wielobiegunnika
Matrix that relates the terminal currents with the
terminal voltages:
U G I = .
Farad
F
Farad See Capacitance
Ideal circuit Obwd idealny
Circuit built of elements as given by the design and
nominal values of parameters.
Practical circuit Obwd rzeczywisty
Circuit built of practical elements, with parameters
given by the design tolerances.
Continuity of
capacitor voltage
Cigo napicia na
kondensatorze
Voltage on a capacitor is always continuous, even
though the current may be discontinuous.
In particular:
0
) 0 ( ) 0 (
C C C
U u u = =
+
.
Continuity of
inductor current
Cigo prdu na
cewce
Current through a coil is always continuous, even
though the voltage may be discontinuous.
In particular:
0
) 0 ( ) 0 (
L L L
I i i = =
+
.
Conventional
current flow
Prd
konwencjonalny
Flow of positive charges.
Convolution
theorem
Twierdzenie o
splocie
Convolution of the impulse response and the input
signal:
}

= -
0
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( t t t d x t k t x t k )} ( ) ( { s X s K = L
Coulomb
C
kulomb See Charge
Coupled coils Cewki sprzone See Mutual inductance
Coupling
coefficient
k
Wspczynnik
sprzenia
See Mutual inductance
Critical resistance Opr (przewodno) Resistance (conductance) of the critically damped
291
(conductance)
c
R (
c
G )
krytyczny (a)
series (parallel) RLC circuit:
C L R
c
/ 2 = ( L C G
c
/ 2 = ).
Critically damped
response
Obwd tumiony
krytycznie
Nonoscillatory response of the RLC circuit, but on
the verge of becoming oscillatory condition that
exists when two poles of the response are identical.
Current
I or i
Prd
Rate of flow of charge, t Q I A A = / or dt dq i / = .
Units: ampere = [A] [C/s].
Current divider Dzielnik prdw
Circuit of n parallel resistors that divides the input
current I so that

=
=
n
i
i i i
G G I I
1
/
Cut-off or break
or corner
frequency
c
e
Czstotliwo
graniczna
The point where the asymptotic curve for its
logarithmic gain exhibits a sharp change in a slope.
See High/Law Pass Filter
Cutset Odcicie
Closed line around one or more nodes, crossing two
or more branches, each branch only once.
Damped resonant
frequency
d
e
Tumiona
czstotliwo drga
wasnych
Frequency of oscillation of the underdamped
response:
2 2
o e e =
r d
.
Damping
coefficient
o
Wspczynnik
tumienia
(tumienno)
Coefficient that designates the rapidity of decay of
the series (parallel) RLC circuit response,
L R 2 / = o ( C G 2 / = o ).
Deactivation of
independent
source
Wyczenie rde
niezalenych
Zeroing of a source, 0 = E or 0 = J :
short-circuiting the voltage source,
open-circuiting the current source.
Decade
dec
Dekada
Frequency band whose endpoint is a factor of 10
larger than its beginning point.
Decibel
dB
Decybel
log-based measure of gain.
See Logarithmic gain
Dependent or
controlled source
rda sterowane
Current or voltage source that provides a current or
voltage that depends on another voltage or current
elsewhere in the circuit,
- Voltage Controlled Voltage Source VCVS
- Current Controlled Voltage Source CCVS
- Voltage Controlled Current Source VCCS
- Current Controlled Current Source CCCS.
Differentiator Ukad rniczkujcy
Circuit (system) that provides differentiation of the
input voltage (signal). Transfer function of an ideal
differentiator is:
sT s K = ) (
T is the differentiation constant.
Dirac delta
function
) (t o
Delta Diraca See Unit Impulse function
Direct current Prd stay Current constant in time.
292
(dc)
I
Distortionless line
Linia
nieznieksztacajaca
Line with parameters that satisfy
C G L R / / = .
Dot Convention
Zaciski
jednoimienne
Currents entering the dotted ends are creating
additive fluxes. Dotted ends have a positive voltage
at the same time.
Effective or rms
(root-mean-
square) value of
voltage or current
I or U
Warto skuteczna
The dc voltage or current that delivers the same
energy as the periodically varying voltage or
current, a value for periodic waveform relating its
heating effect to the dc value.
}
=
T
dt t f T F
0
2
) ( / 1 ; U F = or I, u f = or i.
Efficiency of
power transfer
Sprawno przy
przekazywaniu
mocy
Ratio of the power delivered to the load
l
P to the
power supplied by the source
E
P :
) /( /
t l l E l
R R R P P + = = q .
At the maximum power transfer: % 50 % = q .
Electric field Pole elektryczne
Region in space wherein a test charge Q experiences
an electric force
e
F .
Electric field
intensity
Natenie pola
elektrycznego
Vector uniquely defining the electric field in its
every point, Q F K / = . Unit: = ] N/C [ [V/m].
Electric Filter
Filtr elektryczny
Circuit designated to provide a magnitude gain or
loss over a predefined range of frequencies.
Electric signal
u or i
Sygna elektryczny
Voltage or current varying in time in a manner that
conveys information.
Electricity Elektryczno
Physical phenomena arising from the existence of
interaction of electric charges.
Electromagnet or
solenoid coil
Elektromagnes
Wire wound around the soft steel alloy core with the
total number of z turns. It exhibits the magnetic field
of the permanent magnet when energized, i.e. can
be called the temporary or artificial magnet.
Electromotive
force (emf)
Sia
elektromotoryczna
See Independent ideal voltage source
Element law or
u i
relationship
Rwnanie elementu
Graphical or functional representation of a two-
terminal element:
) ( ), (
1
i f u u f i

= = .
Energy
w W or
Energia
Ability to perform work.
Units: joul [J]; wattsecond ] s W [ ; [cal] calory,
= = ] s 1[W J] [ 1 0.239 [cal].
Instantaneous energy dissipated/supplied:
}
=
t
dt p w
0
Instantaneous energy stored:
- coil:
2
2
L
L
i L
w = ,
293
- capacitor:
2
2
C
C
u C
w = .
Joul
J
Dul See Energy
Energy/power
conservation
principle
Zasada zachowania
mocy/energii
In any circuit the algebraic sum of dc powers, or
instantaneous powers,
in any linear circuit the algebraic sum or average
powers, or reactive powers, or complex powers
absorbed by all elements,
is zero (negative power absorbed is equivalent to
positive power supplied).
Equivalent
characteristic
parallel
connection
Charakterystyka
zastpcza
poczenie
rwnolege
The U I characteristic for a parallel connection of
elements can be obtained by graphically adding the
currents of elements at various values of voltage.
Equivalent
characteristic
series connection
Charakterystyka
zastpcza
poczenie
szeregowe
The U I characteristic for a series connection of
elements can be obtained by graphically adding the
voltages of elements at various values of current.
Equivalent circuit Obwd zastpczy
Circuit whose terminal characteristics remain
identical to those of the original circuit. The original
circuit can be substituted by the equivalent without
affecting the voltages and the currents in any
attached circuit.
Equivalent or
total or Thevenin
or internal
resistance
t
R
Oporno zastpcza
lub wewntrzna
Resistance of the two-terminal circuit when all
internal independent sources are deactivated,
also resistance that appears in the Thevenin
equivalent of a practical source
Equivalent or
total or Thevenin
or internal
impedance
) ( e j Z
t
Impedancja
zastpcza lub
wewntrzna
Impedance of the two-terminal circuit when internal
independent source is deactivated,
also impedance that appears in the Thevenin
equivalent of a practical source
Euler identity Tosamo Eulera o o
o
sin cos j e
j
+ =
Faradays law Prawo Faradaya
When the magnetic flux linking a coil changes, a
voltage proportional to the rate of flux change is
induced in the coil:
dt d dt d z u
t
/ / | | = = .
First-order circuit
Obwd pierwszego
rzdu
Circuit that contains only one energy storage
element, either capacitor or inductor.
Flux linkage Strumie cakowity See Total flux
Forced or
zero-state
response
Odpowied
wymuszona
Response to the source excitation, when all initial
conditions are set to zero.
Forward waves Fale postpujce Waves traveling from the line input to its output.
Frequency
e , f
Czstotliwo
Frequency of oscillations in a periodic (sinusoidal)
waveform,
T f / 1 =
294
Its unit is hertz = ] Hz [ [1/s].
Radian (angular) frequency,
f t e 2 =
Its unit is [rad/s].
Frequency
(phasor) domain
Dziedzina
czstotliwociowa
Mathematical domain where the set of possible
values of ac variable (current or voltage) is
expressed in terms of frequency.
Frequency
Response
) ( e j K
Czstotliwociowa
funkcja przejcia
Frequency dependent relation, in both gain and
phase, between the input phasor signal and the
output phasor signal - transfer function in
frequency-domain
) ( / ) ( )] ( exp[ ) ( ) ( e e e e e j X j Y j K j K = = .
Half-power
frequency
u l
e e ,
Czstotliwo
graniczna
Frequency at which the magnitude response is
2 / 1 times the maximum.
Henry
H
Henr See Inductance
Hertz
Hz
Hertz See Frequency
High-Pass Filter
(HPF)
Filtr grno-
przepustowy
Filter that passes all frequencies above the cut-off
frequency
c
e and rejects all frequencies below the
cut-off frequency.
Ideal transformer
Transformator
idealny
Model of a transformer with i) resistiveless
windings, ii) unity coupling, iii) primary and
secondary reactances infinitely large compared to
impedances connected to the transformer terminals.
Impedance
in phasor-domain
) ( e j Z
Impedancja
symboliczna
Ratio of the phasor voltage ) ( e j U at a pair of
element terminals to the phasor current ) ( e j I
flowing into the positive voltage terminal,
) ( exp ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( e e e e e Z jX R j Z = + = .
Impedance in s-
domain
) (s Z
Impedancja
operatorowa
Ratio of the voltage ) (s U at a pair of element
terminals to the current ) (s I flowing into the
positive voltage terminal.
Impedance
transformation
Transformacja
impedancji
When the secondary of an ideal transformer is
terminated in an impedance ) ( e j Z
l
, the input
impedance across the primary is
2
/ ) ( ) ( n j Z j Z
l in
e e = .
Impulse response
) (t k k =
Odpowied
impulsowa
Inverse transform of the transfer function ) (s K ,
output signal of a circuit when the input is the unit
impulse, with no initial stored energy in a circuit.
Independent ideal
current source
j J or
Idealne (niezalene)
rdo prdowe
Source that provides a current independent of other
circuit variables.
Independent ideal
voltage source
e E or
Idealne (niezalene)
rdo napiciowe
Source that provides a voltage independent of other
circuit variables, (electromotive force emf).
Inductance Induktancja Constant of proportionality interrelating current
295
L passing a coil and the total flux:
m t
R z L Li / ;
2
= = |
Unit: henry [H] ] s/A V [ = .
Input impedance
) ( e j Z
in
Impedancja
wejciowa
Impedance seen at port 1 (input) of a possibly
terminated two-port.
Input signal
x X or or
) (s X or ) ( e j X
Sygna wejciowy Excitation of a system.
Instantaneous
power
p
Moc chwilowa
Product of the voltage u and the current i flowing
into the positive voltage terminal of two-terminal
element, ui p = .
Integrator Ukad cakujacy
Circuit (system) that provides integration of the
input voltage (signal). Transfer function of an ideal
integrator is
sT s K / 1 ) ( =
T is the integration constant.
Kirchhoffs
Current Law
KCL
I prawo Kirchhoffa
The algebraic sum of currents (constant or varying
in time, in the s-domain or in the phasor-domain)
entering and leaving the node (cutset) equals zero,
+ if current arrowhead is directed to the node,
otherwise.
Kirchhoffs
Voltage Law
KVL
II prawo Kirchhoffa
The algebraic sum of voltages (constant or varying
in time, in the s-domain or in the phasor-domain)
around a loop (any closed path) equals zero,
+ if voltage arrowhead is directed clockwise,
otherwise.
Laplace
transform
) (s F
Transformata
Laplacea
Transform of ) (t f into its s-domain form
)} ( { ) ( t f s F L = .
Line (-to-line)
voltage
ij
U
Napicie midzy-
przewodowe
Voltage between any two lines i and j, except the
neutral one. For wye connection: E U 3 = .
Line length
l
Dugo linii Distance from the line input to its output.
Line primary
parameters
Parametry
jednostkowe linii
Per unit length parameters:
R [O/m], G [S/m], L [H/m], C [F/m].
Line propagation
time
t
Czas propagacji
Time of propagation of a signal from the line input
to the output or in the reverse direction, v l / = t .
Line secondary
parameters
Parametry wtrne
linii
Functions of primary parameters, such as:
characteristic impedance, propagation constant,
etc.
Linear resistive
circuit
Liniowy obwd
rezystorowy
Circuit consisting of only linear resistors and
independent sources.
Such circuit is a reciprocal circuit.
Linearity Liniowo
When responses to inputs
2 1
, X X , each acting
alone, are
2 1
,Y Y , then the response to the scaled
296
inputs
2 2 1 1
, X K X K applied simultaneously is
2 2 1 1 2 1
X K X K Y Y Y + = + = .
Linearity implies both superposition and
proportionality.
Logarithmic gain
) (e
L
K
Wzmocnienie w
skali logarytmicznej
Gain in the logarithmic scale:
) ( log 20 ) (
10 dB
e e K K = .
Unit: decibel [dB].
See Bode plot.
Loop Oczko Closed path formed by two or more branches.
Loss-less line Linia bezstratna Line with no energy loss, 0 , 0 = = G R .
Low-Pass Filter
(LPF)
Filtr dolno-
prezepustowy
Filter that passes all frequencies up to the cut-off
frequency
c
e and rejects all frequencies above it.
Magnetic field Pole magnetyczne
Region in space where a force
m
F acts upon a
magnetic body M.
Magnetic field
intensity
(magnetizing
force)
H
Natenie pola
magnetycznego
Force per unit pole (magnetic body), number of
ampere-turns per length of magnetic element
l z I M F H
m
/ / = =
Unit: = ] N/Wb [ [At/m].
Ampere-turns
A
t
Amperozwoje See Magnetomotive force
Weber
Wb
Weber See Magnetic flux
Magnetic flux
| or
Strumie
magnetyczny
Total number of lines of magnetic force
S B =
Unit: weber [Wb] ] s V [ = .
See Magnetic flux density
Magnetic flux
density
B
Indukcja
magnetyczna
Ratio of the magnetic flux that passes
perpendicularly through an area S to this area.
Unit: tesla ] s/m V [ ] T [
2
= .
Tesla
T
Tesla See Magnetic flux density
Magnetization or
B-H curve
) (H f B =
Krzywa
magnesowania
For ferromagnetic materials, ) (H f B = .
For diamagnetic or after linearization of the curve:
H B
r 0
=
r
- magnetic permeability of the material,
7
0
10 4

= t m] s/A V [
- magnetic permeability of the free space.
Magnetomotive
force (mmf)
F
Sia
magnetomotoryczna
Product of the current I passing through a coil and
number of its turns: z I F = .
Unit: ampere-turns [At].
Magnitude or
modulus
Modu
Magnitude (modulus) F of a complex number:
o j
Fe = F .
Magnitude
Odpowied
amplitudowa
Frequency characteristic ratio of effective values
297
response
(gain ratio)
) (e K
of the output to the input phasor signals,
) ( / ) ( ) ( e e e X Y K =
Matched
generator line
Linia dopasowana
na wejciu
Line with the generator (input) resistance equal to
the characteristic resistance, for such line M=0.
Matched load line
Linia dopasowana
na wyjciu
Line with the load (output) resistance equal to the
characteristic resistance, for such line N=0.
Maximum power
transfer ac case
Warunek
przekazywania
maksymalnej mocy
czynnej
If the source has the Thevenin equivalent
impedance ) ( e j Z
t
, then the maximum power is
delivered to the load when its impedance is
* ) ( ) ( e e j Z j Z
t l
=
Maximum power
transfer dc case
Warunek
przekazywania
maksymalnej mocy
The maximum power delivered by a source
represented by its Thevenin equivalent is attained
when the load resistance
l
R is equal to the
Thevenin (equivalent) resistance
t
R .
Magnetic
permeability
r

Przenikalno
magnetyczna
See Magnetization curve
Mesh Oczko Loop that does not contain any other loop within it.
Mesh or delta ( A)
connection
Skojarzenie w trjkt
Individual phase windings/loads are connected to
form a closed path. Delta () connection in case of a
three-phase system.
Modified nodal
analysis
Zmodyfikowana
metoda potencjaw
wzowych
Modification in which the unknowns are not only
the usual nodal voltages but also currents of
resistiveless branches (ideal voltage sources and
short-circuit elements).
Multi-terminal
element or circuit
Wielobiegunnik
Element or circuit with m terminals available for
external connections.
Mutual
inductance
M
Indukcyjno
wzajemna
Coefficient of proportionality relating current
passing through one coil and flux caused by this
current in the second (coupled) coil:
2 1
L L k M =
k coupling coefficient.
Natural or
zero-input
response
Odpowied
naturalna
Response to the initial condition, when all source
excitations are set to zero.
Neutral line Przewd zerowy
For a star connection, line connecting a common
junction point of a generator and a load star.
Nodal analysis
Metoda potencjaw
wzowych
KCL equations with currents expressed by node
voltages and branch parameters:
s
I GV =
G conductance matrix;
s
I - vector of source currents of individual nodes.
Lossy device Ukad ze stratami
Device that dissipates energy, such as resistor or
lossy two-port (line).
Lossless device Ukad bez strat
Device, such as ideal coil or capacitor or lossless
line, in which energy can only be stored and never
298
dissipated.
Node Wze
Connection point between two or more elements.
Number of circuit nodes is denotes as n.
Noninear resistive
circuit
Nieliniowy obwd
rezystorowy
Circuit that contains at least one nonlinear resistor.
Norton equivalent
Schemat zastpczy
Thevenina
Independent current source
s
J or ) ( e j J
s
in
parallel with a conductance
t
G or admittance
) ( e j Y
t
.
Nortons theorem
Twierdzenie
Thevenina
For any linear active two-terminal circuit its linear
equivalent circuit can be found. This circuit consists
of the parallel connection of a current source and
total (equivalent) conductance (admittance),
- the current source is the short circuit current of
the circuit,
- the conductance (admittance) is the conductance
(admittance) at the terminals when all the
independent sources are deactivated.
See Deactivation of independent source, Norton
equivalent
Ohms Law Prawo Ohma
The voltage across the terminals of a resistor is
related to the current flowing into the positive
terminal as
RI U = .
Open-circuit (oc)
Rozwarcie, bieg
luzem
Condition that exists when the current between two
terminals is zero, irrespective of the voltage across
the terminals.
Open-circuit
voltage
o
E
Napicie biegu
luzem
Voltage that appears between two terminals of a
circuit or element in the open-circuit condition.
Operating or
Q-point
(Quiescent point)
Punkt pracy
The point on an element U I characteristic at
which the circuit Kirchhoffs laws are satisfied. The
coordinates at this point are the operating voltage
Q
U and the operating current
Q
I .
Output signal
y Y or or
) (s Y or ) ( e j Y
Sygna wyjciowy Response of a system.
Overdamped
response
Odpowied silnie
tumiona
Nonoscillatory response of the RLC - circuit
condition that exists when all poles of the response
are real and distinct.
Parallel
connection
Poczenie
rwnolege
Arrangement of elements so that each element has
the same voltage appearing across it.
Parallel resonant
circuit
Rwnlegy obwd
rezonansowy
Circuit with a resistor, capacitor and inductor in
parallel.
Parameter
tolerance
X
tol
Tolerancja
parametru
Ratio of the parameter design deviation to its
nominal value:
n
X
X X tol / A = .
299
Port Wrota
Pair of circuit terminals to which another subcircuit
may be attached. Current entering one terminal is
equal to the current leaving the other.
Passive circuit Obwd pasywny
Circuit consisting of resistors, capacitors and
inductors, that can only store and/or dissipate
energy.
Passive element Element pasywny
Total energy supplied to it from the rest of the
circuit is always nonnegative.
Such element cannot deliver net power to a circuit.
Period of
oscillations
T
Okres oscylacji
Time between two subsequent maximum points of a
periodic (sinusoidal) waveform..
Permanent
(natural) magnet
Magnes trway
Magnet made of the iron compound magnetite
(Fe
3
O
4
).
Phase shift

Przesunicie fazowe
Phase angle between an element voltage and its
current, with current as the reference,
i u
o o = .
Phase shift per
distance
|
Przesunicie fazowe See Propagation constant
Phase voltage
i
V
Napicie fazowe
Voltage appearing at a phase impedance. For the
four-wire system, the voltage between line 1 or 2 or
3 and the neutral.
Phasor diagram Wykres wektorowy Phasors expressed graphically in a complex plane.
Phasor voltage or
current
) ( or ) ( e e j I j U
Napicie lub prd
symboliczny
Complex number associated with sinusoidal voltage
or current,
) ( exp ) ( ) ( e o e e
u
U j U = or
) ( exp ) ( ) ( e o e e
i
I j I =
Piecewise-Linear
Approximation
(PWLA):
Aproksymacja
odcinkowo-liniowa
Approximation of the nonlinear U I characteristic
by linear segments. For each segment its Thevenin
or Norton equivalent can be found.
Planar circuit Obwd planarny
Circuit whose diagram (graph) can be drawn on a
plane without branches crossing each other.
Poles of transfer
function
k
s
Bieguny
transmitancji
Roots of the denominator polynomial of the transfer
function ) (s K .
Neper
Np
Neper See Propagation constant
Potential
(node voltage)
v V or
Potencja
Voltage between the reference point P and the other
one A:
AP A
U V = ;
B A AB
V V U = .
Power
p P or
Moc
Energy per unit period of time,
dt dw p / = ;
}
=
t
pdt w
0
.
In the dc case: UI P = ; t UI w = .
Unit: watt ] [J/s [W] = .
Power factor
pf
Wspczynnik mocy
czynnej
Ratio of an average power to an apparent power:
S P pf / cos = =
300
See Average power, Apparent power
Primary coil
(winding)
Uzwojenie pierwotne
Coil shown on the left-hand side of the model of a
transformer. Winding connected to a source.
Propagation
constant
) (s or ) ( e j
Staa propagacji
) )( ( ) ( sC G sL R s + + =
For the distortionless line:
v s s / ) ( + = o or | o e j j + = ) (
RG = o - attenuation constant
in [1/m] or neper per meter [Np/m],
LC v / 1 = - propagation (phase) velocity
in [m/s],
v LC / e e | = = - phase shift per distance.
Propagation
velocity
v
Prdko
rozchodzenia si
fali
See Propagation function
Proportionality Proporcjonalno
When an input to a linear resistive circuit is acting
alone, then scaling the input by a constant K implies
that the response is also scaled by K.
See Linearity
Pulse Impuls prostoktny
Function of time, built of step functions, that is zero
for 0 < t , has magnitude 1 for t s s t 0 , and is
equal to zero for t > t .
Quality factor
of
practical
capacitor
practical coil
bandpass circuit
Dobro
kondensatora, cewki
lub obwodu o
wasnociach
selektywnych
Measure of the circuit energy storage property in
relation to its energy dissipation property.
- Capacitor: C R Q
C C
e e = ) ( .
- Inductor:
L L
R L Q / ) ( e e = .
Bandpass circuit:
cycle per dissipated energy total
stored energy maximum
2t = Q
- Series RLC circuit: C L R Q / / 1 =
- Parallel RLC circuit: L C G Q / / 1 =
Reactance
) (e X
Reaktancja See Impedance in phasor-domain
Reactive power
Q
Moc bierna
Power oscillating between the circuit reactive
elements (capacitors and inductors) and the power
source, sin UI Q = .
Unit: var, volt-ampere-reactive [VAr].
Reciprocal circuit
Obwd podlegajcy
zasadzie
wzajemnoci
Circuit whose node equations have symmetric
conductance matrix,
ji ij
G G = .
See Linear resistive circuit.
Reflection
coefficients
) ( ), ( s N s M
Wspczynniki
odbicia
Coefficients of the incident and reflected waves,
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) (
s Z s Z
s Z s Z
s M
t
t

= ;
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) (
s Z s Z
s Z s Z
s N
l
l
+

=
301
Relative
sensitivity
F
X
Sr
Wraliwo
wzgldna
) / /( ) / (
n n F
X
X F X F Sr
n
X X=
c c =
See Sensitivity of circuit variable
Reluctance or
magnetic
resistance
m
R
Opr magnetyczny
Parameter describing linear magnetic element, ratio
of the magnetic voltage drop to the flux flowing
) /(
0
S l R
r m
=
l - mean length of a core, S - its cross-section area.
Resistance
R
Oporno (opr)
Coefficient of proportionality between the voltage
and the current of linear resistor. Unit: ohm
[]=[V/A].
Resistance
in phasor-domain
) (e R
Rezystancja See Impedance in phasor-domain
Resistor Opornik
Element whose primary purpose is to introduce
resistance, i.e. to impede current flow and voltage
drop into a circuit. Resistor converts electric energy
into heat.
Resonance Rezonans
Condition in a two-terminal circuit, occurring at the
resonant frequency, when the equivalent impedance
) ( e j Z or admittance ) ( e j Y becomes a real
number (circuit becomes non-reactive).
Resonant
frequency
r
e
Czstotliwo
rezonansowa
Frequency at which a two-terminal circuit becomes
purely resistive. In the series or parallel RLC circuit,
also frequency of the undamped transient response:
LC
r
/ 1 = e .
Right hand rule Regua prawej doni
If a current-carrying conductor is grasped in the
right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction
of the conventional current, the fingers will then
point in the direction of the magnetic lines of flux.
Secondary coil
(winding)
Uzwojenie wtrne
Coil shown on the right-hand side of the model of a
transformer. Winding connected to a load.
Sensitivity of
circuit variable
F
X
S
Wraliwo funkcji
ukadowej
Sensitivity of F with respect to X:
n
X F S
F
X
X X=
c c = ) / (
Separation
(voltage/current
substitution)
principle
Zasada
wyodrbnienia
Two subcircuits connected in m nodes can be
separated by means of 1 m pairs of voltage or
current sources connected between the arbitrarily
selected reference node and each of other 1 m
nodes. Value of the voltage source connected
between two nodes is equal to the original circuit
voltage. Value of the current source equals the total
current entering/leaving the node from/to one of the
subcircuits.
Series connection
Poczenie
szeregowe
Circuit of a series of elements connected so that the
same current passes through each element.
Series Resonant
Circuit
Szeregowy obwd
rezonansowy
Circuit with a series connection of a resistor,
capacitor and inductor.
Set of Zbir odci Cutsets around all individual nodes except the
302
independent
cutsets
niezalenych
reference one, their number: 1 = n t
Set of
independent loops
Zbir oczek
niezalenych
All meshes of a circuit. Their number: 1 + = n b l
Short-circuit (sc) Zwarcie
Condition that exists when the voltage across two
terminals is zero, irrespective of the current between
the two terminals.
Short-circuit
current
s
J
Prd zwarcia
Current passing an active element (practical source)
in the short-circuit condition.
Siemens
S
Siemens See Conductance
Signal variable in
time
f t f = ) (
Sygna zmienny w
czasie
Real valued function of time; waveform that
conveys information, denoted by a small letter.
Standing wave
ratio
S
Wspczynnik fali
stojcej
Ratio of the maximum to the minimum rms voltages
along a line
( ) ( ) N N U U S
x x
+ = = 1 / 1 /
min max
Standing waves Fale stojce
Plots of ) ( e j U
x
and e j I
x
( with their maxima
and minima occurring at fixed locations along the
line.
Star or wye (Y)
connection
Skojarzenie w
gwiazd
Individual phase windings/loads are joined in a
common junction point. Wye (Y) connection in case
of a three-phase system.
Steady-state
analysis
Analiza w stanie
ustalonym
Analysis of a circuit behavior resulting after have
been on for a long time.
Step-down
transformer
Transformator
obniajcy
Transformer of the turns ratio less than one.
Step-up
transformer
Transformator
podwyszajcy
Transformer of the turns ratio greater than one.
Stray capacitance
Pojemno midzy
wzem a mas
Unwanted capacitance between a circuit node
(element terminal) and ground.
Stray or parasitic
or shunting
capacitance
Pojemno
bocznikujca
Unwanted capacitance that exists between element
terminals or between a terminal and ground.
Stray or parasitic
inductance
Indukcyjno
doprowadze
Unwanted inductance of element connections.
Superposition Superpozycja
When a number of inputs are applied
simultaneously to a linear circuit, the response is the
sum of responses due to each input acting alone.
See Linearity
Superposition
principle
Zasada superpozycji
For a linear circuit containing independent sources,
the voltage across (or the current through) any
element may be obtained by adding algebraically all
the individual voltages (or currents) caused by each
independent source acting alone with all other
sources deactivated.
303
Remark: Power cant be found by superposing
power losses.
See Deactivation of independent source
Susceptance
) (e B Susceptancja see Admittance in phasor-domain
System System
Interconnection of electrical elements and circuits to
achieve a desired objective.
Thevenin
equivalent
Schemat zastpczy
Thevenina
Independent voltage source
o
E or ) ( e j E
o
in series
with a resistance
t
R or impedance ) ( e j Z
t
Thevenins
theorem
Twierdzenie
Thevenina
For any linear active two-terminal subcircuit its
linear equivalent circuit can be found. This circuit
consists of the series connection of a voltage source
and total (equivalent) resistance (impedance):
- the voltage source is the open-circuit voltage of
the subcircuit
- the resistance (impedance) is the resistance
(impedance) at the terminals when all the
independent sources are deactivated.
See Deactivation of independent source
Three-phase
source
Generator
trjfazowy
Three voltage sources of the same frequency and
magnitude, and the phase shift or
o
120 between any
two of them, connected in the form of Y or A.
Time constant
T
Staa czasowa
Parameter of exponentially decaying or rising
response. After one time constant the response
drops to % 38 ~ of its initial value or rises to % 62 ~
of its end value,
- for RL circuit:
t
R L T / = ,
- for RC circuit: C R T
t
= .
Tolerance
margins of circuit
parameter
+
X X ,
Granice obszaru
tolerancji
Margins specifying the allowed (by the design)
variation of parameter X from its nominal value
n
X :
X X X
n
A =

X X X
n
A + =
+
.
Tolerance region
(box)
Obszar tolerancji
Parallelepiped in the parameter space
P
9 with
planes parallel with the coordinate axes, designated
by the tolerance margins of all circuit parameters.
Total flux or
flux linkage
t

Strumie cakowity
The total flux linked by the z turns of the coil,
z
t
= .
See Magnetic flux
Transfer function
in s-domain
) (s K
Transmitancja
operatorowa
Ratio of the response (output signal) of a circuit to
an excitation (input signal) expressed as a function
of s (initial conditions are assumed to be zero).
Transfer function
(gain) for dc
signals
Transmitancja
Ratio of the response (output signal) of a circuit to
an excitation (input signal)
304
K
Transformation Transformacja
Conversion of a set of equations from one domain
to another, e.g. from the t-domain to the s-domain.
Transformer Transformator
Magnetic circuit with two or more multi-turn coils
wound on a common core.
Transfer function
in frequency
domain
) ( e j K
Czstotliwociowa
funkcja przejcia
See Frequency response
Transient analysis
(state)
Analiza stanw
przejciowych
(nieustalonych)
Analysis of a circuit behavior for a period of time
immediately after independent source or sources
have been turned on or turned off, at 0 = t . In stable
circuits, transient state vanishes after
max
5T , where
max
T is the maximum time constant.
Transmission line Linia duga
Two-wire line connecting the input circuit with the
output circuit.
Traveling waves Fale wdrujce
Initial and reflected waves traveling from the line
input to its output forward waves and reflected
waves traveling in the opposite direction
backward waves.
The reflected waves interference can be disregarded
if time parameter(s) of a transmitted signal is(are)
much greater than the line propagation time t .
Turns ratio
n
Przekadnia
Ratio
1 2
/ z z n = , where
2
z and
1
z are turns in
secondary and primary coil of an ideal transformer.
Two-port Czwrnik
Four terminal element identified by two distinct
pairs of terminals - ports.
Two-terminal
element or circuit
Dwjnik
Element/circuit connected at a pair of terminals,
described by a single U I relationship.
See Element law...
Undamped
response
Odpowied nie
tumiona
Transient response in LC (resistiveless) circuit.
Undamped
natural frequency
Czstotliwo drga
wasnych
See Resonant frequency
Underdamped
response
Odpowied sabo
tumiona
Periodic response of the 2
nd
order circuit condition
that exists when two poles of the response are
complex conjugates.
Unit Impulse
(Dirac delta)
function
) (t o
Funkcja impulsowa
Infinitely short pulse of infinitely large magnitude -
its value is zero for 0 = t , infinity at 0 = t and its
area is equal to 1. Unit: [1/s].
Unit Ramp
function
) (t r
Funkcja liniowo
narastajca
) ( ) ( t t t r 1 = , an integral of the unit step function.
Unit Step function
) (t 1 Skok jednostkowy
Dimensionless function of time that is zero for 0 < t
and unity for 0 > t .
305
Unity coupling Sprzenie idealne
Coupling with 1 = k .
See Mutual inductance
Voltage
(potential
difference)
u U or
Napicie
(rnica
potencjaw)
Work required to move a unit charge = Q 1 [C]
from one point A to another B,
1
AB AB
=
=
Q
W U .
Unit: volt [V].
Voltage divider Dzielnik napicia
Circuit of a series of resistors that divides the input
voltage U by the ratio of the
i
R to the total series
resistance

=
=
n
i
i t
R R
1
,
t i i
R UR U / = .
Var Var See Reactive power
Worst Case
Najgorszy
przypadek
Case when deviation of circuit variable, caused by
the design tolerances, reaches its maximum
max
F A .
Initial condition
0
) 0 (
L L
I i =
0
) 0 (
C C
U u =
Warunek
pocztkowy
Current that flows through a coil at 0 = t .
Voltage drop across a capacitor at 0 = t .
Zeros of transfer
function
k
q
Zera transmitancji
Roots of the numerator polynomial of the transfer
function ) (s K .
See Transfer function in s-domain
306
REFERENCES
J.Chojcan et.al, Zbir Zada z Teorii Obwodw cz.I i cz.II, Skrypty Uczelniane
Politechniki lskiej, 1985 (in Polish).
L.O.Chua, Pen-Min Lin, Computer-Aided Analysis of Electronic Circuits, Algorithms
and Computational Techniques, Prentice-Hall, 1975.
L.O.Chua, Pen-Min Lin, Komputerowa Analiza Ukadw Elektronicznych, WNT,
1981 (in Polish).
R.C.Dorf, Introduction to Electric Circuits, J.Wiley & Sons, 1989.
W.H.Hayt, J.E.Kemmerly, Engineering Circuit Analysis, McGraw-Hill, 1993.
A.M.Howatson, Electrical Circuits and Systems, Oxford University Press, 1996.
D.E.Johnson et.al, Electric Circuit Analysis, J.Wiley & Sons, 1999.
A.Macura, Teoria Obwodw - Obwody Prdu Staego, Skrypt Uczelniany
Politechniki lskiej, 1990 (in Polish).
A.Macura, Teoria Obwodw - Obwody Prdu Zmiennego, Skrypt Uczelniany
Politechniki lskiej, 1990 (in Polish).
J.Ogrodzki, Circuit Simulation Methods and Algorithms, CRC PRESS, 1994.
J.Osiowski, J.Szabatin, Podstawy Teorii Obwodw tom I i II, WNT 1995 (in Polish).
307
INDEX
3-phase
A A system, 243
balanced generator, 237
balanced system, 240
combinational system, 244
four-wire system, 239
power transferred, 244
three-wire system, 240
YY system, 240
ac, see current, alternating
active
element, 16
m-terminal element, 71
admittance
complex, 176
Laplace, 122
ammeter, 19
ampere, 10
ampereturn, 108
amplitude, 170
response, 212
arrows of standing wave, 267
attenuation constant, 251
bandwidth, 203
Bode plot, 215
corrected, 216
uncorrected, 216
branch, 23
branch current analysis, 30
branch voltage analysis, 31
capacitance
definition, 114
shunting, 235
stray, 198
capacitor
boundary behaviour, 121
circuit symbol, 114, 175
energy stored, 115
ideal-summary, 195
initial condition, 115
instantaneous power, 115
law in phasor domain, 175
law in time-domain, 114
practical, 199
s-domain equivalent, 117
cascade matrix, 72
charge, 8
circuit
1
st
order, 126, 133
2
nd
order, 136
adjoint, 89
diagram, 23
graph, 23
ideal, 85
magnetic, 226
MIMO, 13, 58
order, 126
parameter (constant), 13, 85
parameter tolerance, 86
practical, 85
RC, 129, 213
response, 13
response-locus, 223
RL, 126
single-loop, 96, 110
SISO, 13, 57, 156, 212
variable, 85
coil, 109, see inductor
complex
exponential function, 286
general exponential function, 287
number angle, 283
number conjugate, 284
number exponential form, 283
number magnitude, 283
number polar form, 283
number rectangular form, 283
numbers addition/subtraction, 284
numbers division, 286
numbers multiplication, 285
plane, 283
conductance, 18, 113, 176
dynamic, 100
matrix, 67
convolution, 158
core, 227
toroidal, 110, 117
coupled coils, 226
coupling
coefficient, 227
unity, 231
current, 10
alternating, 170
arrowhead, 15
308
conventional, 15
direct, 10
divider, 41
secondary-to-primary ratio, 231
current source
controlled, 78
ideal, 20
practical, 47
damping coefficient, 138
dc, see current, direct
decibel, 215
delta (mesh) connection, 243
dependent (controlled) element, 78
design
deviation, 87
tolerance, 87
diamagnetics, 107
differentiator
ideal, 160
RC, 160, 164
step response, 161
diode
ideal, 93
practical, 93
Zener's, 94
dissipation factor, 199
distributed constants, 247
dot convention, 228
electric field intensity, 8
emf, see voltage source, ideal
energy
definition, 8
electrical, 11
thermal, 11
Euler's formula, 283
excitation, 13, 156
exponential
decay, 278
rise, 279
farad, 114
Faraday's law, 118
ferromagnetics, 107
filter
band-pass, 219
band-stop, 220
definition, 217
high-pass, 218
low-pass, 218
flux, see magnetic flux
leakage, 231, 234
total (linkage), 117
frequency
angular, 170
break, cut-off, 216
damped resonant, 138
half-power, 203
normalized, 202
resonant, 198, 200
response, 192, 212
gain
curve, 214
logarithmic scale, 215
transfer function, 215
Heaviside's formula, 276
henry, 117
hybrid matrix, 72
impedance
characteristic, 249, 264
complex, 176
Laplace, 122
reflected, 230
triangular form, 177
impulse, 280
incremental analysis, 60
inductance, 117
mutual, 227
inductor, 117
boundary behaviour, 121
circuit symbol, 118, 174
energy stored, 119
ideal-summary, 193
initial condition, 118
instantaneous power, 119
law in phasor domain, 174
law in time-domain, 118
practical, 133, 197
s-domain equivalents, 120
initial
time, 111
value (condition), 111, 115, 118
input
port, 70
signal, 13
integrator
ideal, 158
RC, 158
step response, 159
joule, 9
KCL
in dc domain, 25
309
phasor domain, 173
s-domain, 112
time-domain, 111
KVL
in dc domain, 26
magnetic circuit, 109
phasor domain, 173
s-domain, 112
time-domain, 112
Laplace
domain function, 275
inverse transform, 276
transform, 275
transformation, 111
line
distortionless, 251
half-wave, 272
input impedance, 269
losses, 187
lossless, 251
matched-generator, 255, 261
matched-load, 253, 265, 269
open-circuited, 268, 270
quarter-wave, 271
short-circuited, 269, 270
voltage, current, 238
load
impedance, 249, 264
resistance, 47, 266
logarithmic
plot, 215
scale, 215
loop, 23
lumped constants, 247
magnetic
field intensity, 106
flux, 106
flux density, 107
permeability, 107
resistance, 108
voltage, 108
magnetization curve (B-H curve), 107
magnetomotive force, 109
matter, 8
mesh, 23
m-terminal element
active, 71
passive, 67
neper, 266
neutral
artificial, 245
line current, 239
terminal, 238
Newton-Raphson iterations, 100
nodal analysis (equations), 32
node
definition, 23
voltage, 10
nodes of standing wave, 267
nominal value, 85
nonlinear element
bilateral, 17
unilateral, 17
normal (Gauss) distribution, 85
Norton equivalent, 45, 47
Norton's theorem, 44
ohm, 18
Ohm's law, 18
s-domain, 122
op amp, 80
open-circuit voltage, 44
output
port, 70
signal, 13
overcurrent
parallel RLC circuit, 208
RC circuit, 143
overvoltage
RL circuit, 145
series RLC circuit, 204
parallel connection, 41, 95
parallel RLC circuit, 206
quality factor, 207
passband, 217
passive
element, 16
m-terminal element, 67
sign convention, 16
per unit length parameters, 247
permeability, 231
phase
angle, 170
response, 212
sequence, 237
shift curve, 214
shift per distance, 264
voltage, current, 238
phasor, 171
circuit, 180
diagram, 181, 241, 287
310
pole-zero plot, 157
port, 68
primary, secondary, 230
potential, see node voltage
power
apparent, 187
average, real, 185
balance, 38
complex, 189
dc, 11
factor, 185
factor correction, 188
factor lagging, 186
factor leading, 186
instantaneous, 185
peak, 185
reactive, 188
transfer, 53, 65, 189
primary parameters, see per unit length
parameters
primary port, circuit, 230
principle
of charge conservation, 115
of flux conservation, 118
propagation
constant, 249
velocity, 251
pulse
ideal, 280
practical, 163
PWL approximation, 98
Q-point, 96
quality factor, 198
capacitor, 199
coil, 198
parallel RLC circuit, 207
series RLC circuit, 202
ramp, 281
RC circuit, 129
natural response, 142
reactance, 176
rectangular waveform, 172
reflection coefficients, 250
reluctance, see resistance, magnetic
resistance, 18, 113, 176
critical, 138
equivalent (total), 40, 44
internal, 48
leakage, 199
matrix, 72
resistor
circuit symbol, 17, 174
energy dissipated, 114
ideal-summary, 192
instantaneous power, 113
law in phasor domain, 173
law in time-domain, 112
s-domain equivalent, 114
resonance, 200
overcurrent, 208
overvoltage, 204
resonant
circuit, 200, 208
curve, 202, 207
frequency, 200
parallel RLC circuit, 206
series RLC circuit, 201
response
1
st
order circuit, 133
2
nd
order, 281
complete, 125, 147
critically-damped, 139
forced, 125, 126
impulse, 157
natural, 125, 142
overdamped, 138
step, 158
undamped, 139
underdamped, 138
right hand rule, 108
RL circuit, 126
natural response, 144
rms value, 170
sawtooth waveform, 172
secondary port, circuit, 230
sensitivity, 88
analysis, 88
relative, 89
separation principle, 64
series connection, 40, 94
series RLC circuit
resonance, 201
transient analysis, 137
short-circuit current, 44
siemens, 18
source substitution theorem, see separation
principle
standard deviation, 86
standing wave ratio, 268
standing waves, 266
311
steady state
response, 127
time, 111
value, 111
step
ideal, 277
practical, 163
stopband, 217
superposition principle, 58
susceptance, 176
telegraphist's equations, see transmission
line equations
tesla, 107
Thevenin equivalent, 45, 47, 186
Thevenin's theorem, 44
three-terminal element, 68
time constant
RC circuit, 130
RL circuit, 128
tolerance
margins, 85
region, 86
transfer function
dc domain, 57
differentiator, 160
gain, 215
integrator, 158
properties, 157
s-domain, 156
zeroes and poles, 157, 215
transfer function-zeroes and poles, 276
transformer
auto, 233
basic, 230
ideal, 231
practical, iron core, 234
step-up(down), 232
tap point, 233
turns ratio, 232
transient
analysis, 111
response, 111, 127
transistor, 79
transmission line, 247
equations in phasor-domain, 266
equations in time-domain, 248
traveling waves
backward, 250
forward, 250
graphical representation, 253
T-shape structure, 69
two-port, 70, 213
two-terminal circuit, 175
two-terminal element
active, 43
general, 15
passive, 40
volt, 10
voltage, 9
arrowhead, 15
divider, 40, 57, 85
double subscript notation, 15
secondary-to-primary ratio, 231
voltage source
controlled (dependent), 78
ideal, 19
practical, 47
volt-ampere, 187
voltmeter, 18
watt, 185
wattmeter, 244
wavelength, 267
weber, 107
winding
losses, 234
resistance, 197
work, 9
worst case analysis, 87
wye(star) connection, 238