4 Estuarine Mixing

Initial concepts: tides and salinity Tide-resolving models Tidal-average models Tracers for model calibration Mixing diagrams Residence time Dual tracers

What is an estuary?
A semi-enclosed coastal body of water which has a free connection with the open sea and within which sea water is measurably diluted with fresh water derived from land drainage (Pritchard, 1952) Where the river meets the ocean Like a river but with tides and salinity gradients

Tidal motion
Tidal Channel (t) 2ao Head 2o ao = tidal amplitude 2ao = tidal range Tt = tidal period 2o = tidal excursion Mouth Gravitational and centrifugal acceleration (E with M & S) Ocean range ~ 0.5 m Coastal waters may have much larger ranges Tt Ocean

Equilibrium tide; moon only

Low Water surface

High

High

Low At any time: 2 high and 2 low tides; At any location: ~ 2 high and 2 low tides per day

Combined sun and moon

T=6.8d

Lunar 29.5d month

S
13.6d

27.3d

20.5d

Sun and moon aligned (full and new moon) => spring tide; Sun and moon opposed (1st and 3rd quarters) => neap tide Because the earth revolves, period of spring-neap cycle = 365d/[(365/27.3)-1] = 29.5 days Number of full moons per year

And because the moon revolves

24.8 Lunar day

24 h

Lunar day = 29.5 d /(29.5 1) = 24.8 hours Dominant (lunar semi-diurnal tidal) period is 12.4 h

Also a diurnal period

Side View Because of the earths declination higher latitudes tend to experience a single (diurnal) cycle per rotation In general a number of tidal constituents are required to compose an accurate tidal signal H Top View

L H L

Full Moon

Last Quarter Moon Phase

New Moon

First Quarter

Tidal displacement above reference

12.4 hr

Los Angles, California (outer harbor) o o 33 43' N, 118 16' W

5 0
14.7d St. Michael, Alaska (on the being sea) o o 63 29' N, 162 02' W

Mixed tide (with strong semi-diurnal component; lower latitude) Diurnal tide (higher latitude) Spring-neap cycle

24.8 hr

10

15

20

25

30

Date in July 1963

Figure by MIT OCW.

Ippen, 1969

Idealized (linear) tidal motion

(t) Qf

(t ) = a cos(t )
u (t ) = Qf A

= 2/Tt

2o

+ u max cos(t + )

u max Tt (t ) = u t + sin(t + ) 2 2 o ( x) = u max Tt

Tidal excursion Upstream tidal prism

Pu ( x) = Vu ,high ( x) Vu ,lowh

Pu(x)

High Tide Low Tide 2(x) High Tide

Vu(x)

Low Tide 2(x) Pu(x)

Now introduce salinity

River Qf
Tidal, Freshwater

Estuary
Salinity Intrusion

Ocean

Head of Tide

Mouth

10 S=0 PSU = practical salinity unit,

20

30 S=35 psu

an operational definition of salinity (mass fraction: ppt, o/oo or g/kg)

Equation of State
= (T ) + ( S ) + (TSS ) (T ) = 10001
( S ) = AS + BS 3 / 2 + CS 2

(Gill, 1982; ch 6)

(Also pressure at deep depths)

T + 288.9414 (T 3.9863) 2 508929.2(T + 68.12963)

A = 0.824493 4.0899 x10 3 T + 7.6438 x10 5 T 2 8.2467 x10 7 T 3 + 5.3875 x10 9 T B = 5.72466 x10 3 + 1.0227 x10 4 T 1.6546 x10 6 T 2 C = 4.8314 x10 4 1 3 (TSS ) = TSS 1 10 x SG

= kg/m3, T in oC, S in PSU (g/kg), TSS in mg/L

Seawater Density ( 1 Units ) 48 44 40 36 Temperature (oC) 32 28 24 20 16 12 8 4 0 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

Figure by MIT OCW.
-10

Fischer, et al. (1979) t = 1000*(-1)

-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

-8

-6 -4

( in g/cm3)

SALINITY (% )

Seawater Density ( 1 Units ) 48 44 40 36 Temperature (oC) 32 28 24 20 16 12 8 4 0 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40

-10

Example:
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

-8

-6

Salt water Freshwater density difference o Ocean salinity ~ 35 psu Freshwater salinity 0 psu Temperatures 0 to 30C
o = [28-0]/1000=0.028
(0C) = [22-(-4)]/1000=0.026 (30C)

SALINITY (% )
Figure by MIT OCW.

Estuary classification
10 S=0 20 30 S=35 psu

Well mixed: isohaline lines approach vertical (Delaware R) Partially mixed: isohaline lines slant Vertically stratified (salt wedge): isohaline lines approach horizontal (Mississippi R.) Desire to classify to know what type of model/analysis to use; several options available; none is perfect

Estuary classification, contd

Densimetric Estuary number (Harleman & Abraham, 1966; Thatcher & Harleman, 1972)

PF Ed = t d Q f Tt Fd =

Pt = tidal prism; Q f = freshwater flow rate; Tt = tidal period

uo
Fd is a densimetric Froude number

g ( o / )h

u o = maximum tidal velocity; h = estuary depth; o / = salt water fresh water density difference

Estuary classification, contd

Estuary Richardson number (Fischer, 1972; 1979)
R= o gQ f / W

u t 3
1

~ Ed

W = estuary width; u t = RMS tidal velocity 0.71u o

R ~ potential energy rate/kinetic energy rate well-mixed partially stratified vertically stratified (salt wedge)

R < 0.08 0.08 < R < 0.8 0.8 < R

Example later

Estuary classification, contd

The definitions are related

E d ~ R 1 ~

ut

3 2

u f ud

Each involves 3 velocities:

u t = RMS tidal velocity

Tends to mix estuary Tends to stratify estuary

u f = fresh water velocity = Q f /A

u d = density velocity = g( o / )h Tends to stratify estuary

Hanson-Rattray (1966)
10
10

2 1
P=

Semi-empirical Predicts

-2

3.3 x

-1

10

-1

Fm = 10

< - Salinity stratification

Fm = 10 P = 3. 3

-1

salinity stratification

10

-2

Fm = 10

Fm = 1

-3

Fm = 10

S -1 S0 10

-3

S S o = ( S b S s ) S
-4
-3

-2

10

3. 3

10

Increases w/ P, decreases w/ Fm

10

10

-4

10-2

Velocity stratification average surf vel / u s /u f =tidal tidal and depth aver vel

3. 3

10-3

10

us uf

10

10

Velocity stratification ->

Figure by MIT OCW.

uf uf ; Fm = P= ud ut

Decreases w/ Fm

Tide resolving models

Well-mixed (1-D) estuary

c c 1 c q L (c L c ) AE ( t ) + ri + re + u (t ) = L + A t x A x x
Major difference between river and well-mixed estuary are 1) u is time-varying, 2) EL is constrained by reversing tide. Look at 2) first

Characteristic dispersion time scales

EL ~ Uc2Tc ~ u*2Tc

(Fischer et al., 1979)

For rivers, two possible time scales, Tc:

Ttm ~ B2/ET and Tvm ~ h2/Ez Ttm >> Tvm => EL ~ u*2 Ttm (after transverse mixing)

For estuaries, additional possibility: Tc = Tt/2

Ttm >> Tt/2 ~ Tvm => EL ~ u*2 Ttm or u*2 Tt/2

Previous example, B = 100 m, H = 5 m, u = 1 m/s Tvm = 750 s, Ttm = 34000 s, Tt/2= 22000 s (6.2 h)

Dispersion in reversing flow

narrow channel

B t=0 Tc=Ttm
u* B 2 EL ~ ET
2

0.5Tt

Dispersion governed by Ttm,

Dispersion in reversing flow, contd

narrow channel

B t=0 Ttm
Dispersion governed by Ttm, E L ~ wide channel
u* B ET
2 2

0.5Tt

l ~ ET Tc
t=0 Tc = 0.5Tt
2 2 2 2

u* ET Tt l E ~ u T ~ Dispersion governed by Tt, t * L B2 B

Effects of reversing u(t)

Mass continuously injected at x = 0

C land High tide Low tide x 0 2o ocean

An actual simulation
1.0

Harleman, 1971

0.5

N = 400.0 H.W.S N = 30.0

N = 400.5 L.W.S N = 30.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

0.0 -2.0

-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

Figure by MIT OCW.

Continuous injection at x = 0; output after 30, 400 tidal periods (high slack) and 30.5 and 400.5 tidal cycles (low slack)

x / 2 o

Tidal-average models
Perhaps we dont care to resolve intratidal time-dependence Strong non-uniformities prevent resolution of intra-tidal variability Long term calculations more efficient with tidal-average time step However, averaging obscures physics

Tidal-average models, contd

Analogous, in principle, to time and cross-sectional averaging

u = u + u

Triple bars imply tidal average

c = c + c
Insert into GE and tidal-average

c c c 1 + r + r AE +u = i e L t x A x x
Tidal average Tidal average velocity disp coef

Structurally similar to equation for river transport => similar solutions

Tidal average dispersion

Tidal pumping (shown)

Ebb

Asymmetric ebb (a) & flood (b) Tidal averaging => mean velocity (c) Trans mixing + trans velocity gradients => dispersion!

Similar drivers
Flood

Tidal trapping Coriolis + density Depth-dependent tidal reversal

Net

EL ~ (2o)2/Tt

General result
A B C

Conservative Tracer; 3 injection locations

x c

Non-conservative tracer; middle location

x c

Non-conservative tracer; 3 locations

x

Comments
For conservative tracer, c(x)

Is independent of xd for x > xd Decrease with xd for x < xd

If you must pollute, do it downstream (more discussion later) Several specific solutions in notes

Conclusion applies loosely even if not 1-D

Signell, MWRA (1999)

One example
Rectangular channel; no through flow
0= d dc E L kc dx dc
E L ~ ( 2 o ) 2 / Tt = x 2
2 dc 2d c kc 0 = 2x + x 2 dx dx

& m q" = A

xd

Solution
q x 1 2 2 x 1 2+ 2 c + ( x, x d ) c L = 1 2 2 1 2 2 x d L xd

x > xd

= 1 + 4k /
x < xd

q " x 1 2+ 2 x 1 2+ 2 c _( x, x d ) c L = 2+ 2 1 2 2 x1 L xd d

WE4-1 Proposed relocation of Gillettes Intake

Proposal to shorten Fort Point Channel as part of the Big Dig threatened to limit Gillettes cooling water source

Details
Boston Harbor
1700m 1700m

2ao=2.9 m; h=6 m; k=0.1 day-1

700 600

Discharge (xd) Intake (xi)

400

Qo = 1.4 m3/s; To = 6C
0

Existing Channel

Modified Channel

Proposed remedies: move discharge and/or intake downstream. How far?

Results of analysis
3 2.5
Temperature (C)

Existing

2 1.5 1 0.5

Mod Chan

MC + Disch

xd
0 0

400 m

500

1000 Distance (m)

1500

2000

Existing: Ti (x=600) ~ 0.8C; Modified: Ti ~ 2.4C Moving intake 400 m downstream (x=600) yields Ti ~ 0.8C Moving discharge 300 m downstream (x=900) also yields Ti ~ 0.8C

Tidal Prism Method

Treats whole channel as single well-mixed box Mass that leaves on ebb does not returns Except for harbors/short channels, this overestimates flushing; underestimates c. Hence common to discount P by defining the effective volume P of clean water. E.g., P = 0.5 P Formal ways to compute return factor using phase of circulation outside harbor
High tide Qf Low tide

Pf = Qf Tt Pctp Tt & =m

& Tt m ctp = P
P = total tidal prism f = freshness =(So-Sn)/So

Modified Tidal Prism Method

Divides channel into segments of length 2o Assumes EL = (2o)2/Tf <=> net ds transport during Tt is Pn 2o,n
Qf Pn Vn Vn+1=Vn+Pn High tide Low tide

Pn f n = Qf Tt Pn cn & =m Tt & Tt m cn = Pn

fn = freshness =(So-Sn)/So mass injected continuously upstream of section n (behaves like freshwater)

Comments
Modified Tidal Prism Method has been modified and re-modified many times Ad-hoc assumption => not always agreement with data Non-conservative contaminates reduced in concentration by
r 1 (1 r )e kTt r = 2a / h

Salinity as tracer to measure EL

Steady, tidal average flow
d (u f AS ) = d ( AE L dS ) dx dx ds

Integrate with S = dS/dx at head, x=0

EL = uf S dS / dx

Example: Delaware R (WE 4-2)

Measured salinity profiles

C&D

Cheater

Cheater

3.0 4.0 PRESSURE (db) 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0

3.0 4.0

C&D

2.0

74.6

DRBC RIVER MILES 55.9 37.3

18.8

0.0

2.0

74.6

DRBC RIVER MILES 55.9 37.3

18

18.8

0.0

6 2 4 8

10

14

22 26 24

PRESSURE (db)

2.0

6.0 4.0

10.0

14.0 16.0

18.0 20.0

22.0 24.0

26.0 28.0

5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0

20 12 16

8.0

12.0

12.0 140.0

120.0

100.0

80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0

12.0 140.0

120.0

100.0

80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0

DISTANCE FROM BAY MOUTH (km)

DISTANCE FROM BAY MOUTH (km)

October 1986
2.0 74.6 DRBC RIVER MILES 55.9 37.3
C&D 8 16

April 1987
0.0 2.0 74.6 DRBC RIVER MILES 55.9 37.3
C&D 12 16 2 4 14 6 10 20 8 28.0 18 24 22 26

Salinity profiles show river to be well-mixed. Should it be? What is EL?

18.8

18.8

0.0

Cheater

3.0 4.0 PRESSURE (db) 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0

2 4 6 10

12

20

24 26

4.0 PRESSURE (db) 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0

18 14

22

12.0 140.0

120.0

100.0

80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0

12.0 140.0

Cheater

3.0

120.0

100.0

80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0

DISTANCE FROM BAY MOUTH (km)

DISTANCE FROM BAY MOUTH (km)

Figure by MIT OCW.

November 1987

April 1988

Kawabe et al. (1990)

 Head
2.0 74.6

DRBC RIVER MILES 55.9 37.3

C&D 8 16

18.8

0.0

Mouth (ocean)

Cheater

3.0 4.0 PRESSURE (db) 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0

2 4 6 10

12

20

24 26

18 14

22

November 1987

~ h (m)
EL = uf S

12.0 140.0

120.0

100.0

80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0

Figure by MIT OCW.

DISTANCE FROM BAY MOUTH (km)

dS / dx S / x (260)(8) (1.5 x10 4 )(8) / 20000) 350 m 2 / s

(Q f / A) S

Qf = 260 m3/s;

A = 1.5x104 m2; (70-90 km)

S = 8 psu (80 km); S/x = (12-4) psu/20 km

Should river be well-mixed?

R=

g
3

Qf W

ut

(0.025)(10)(260) / 4000 0.02 < 0.08 3 1

Yes!

Box models
Qf Qf Q12 c1 c2 Qf Q23 c3 Qf Q34 c4

Q f + f 2 Q1, 2 = f 1 (Q1, 2 + Q f ) f1 (Q1, 2 + Q f ) + f 3 Q2,3 = f 2 (Q1, 2 + Q2,3 + Q f ) f 2 (Q2,3 + Q f ) + f 4 Q2,3 = f 3 (Q2,3 + Q3, 4 + Q f )
n equations in n unknowns; boxes dictated by geometry

Salinity as direct measure of c

Qf 0 xd x L

Use measured salinity distribution S(x) resulting from river discharge Qf entering at head (x=0) to infer concentration distribution c(x) of mass entering continuously at downstream location xd.

Qf 0 S/So xd

x L

S/So

0 0 xd L

Qf 0 S/So, f xd
f = (So-Sx)/So Freshness: ND concentration of fresh water

x L

S/So

0 0 xd L

Qf 0 xd

x L

Effective downestuary transport rate, Qeff

Qeff = Qf fx

Hypothetical flow rate necessary to transport freshness downstream by advection only (no tidal dispersion)

Qeff f = Q f = Q f f E L A
Qeff = Q f E L A df f dx

df dx
Qeff really accounts for both advection and dispersion

Qf 0 S/So, f
Qeff = Qf/f

x xd Qeff/Qf L Qeff/Qf 4

S/So 2

0 0 xd L

Qf 0 xd

x L

Downstream from xd, mass is transported like freshness

Qeff f = Q f

& Qeff c = m

& cx m = fx Qf
So S x cx = S o m & Q f

Concentration at xd

So Sd cd = S o

m & Q f

Qf 0 S/So, f
So S x cx = S o

x xd
m & Q f

L Qeff/Qf c Qeff/Qf 4 S/So 2

0 0 xd L

Qf 0 xd

x L

Upstream from xd, mass is transported like salinity

cx S x = cd S d
& Sx So Sd m cx = So Q f Sd
cd

Qf 0 xd Qeff/Qf c 1 f S/So

x L Qeff/Qf 4

& Sx S/So, f c = S o S d m x So Q f Sd

0 0 xd L

(Conservative) Mixing Diagrams

c cmax x
Concentration of conservative contaminant discharged at head (using freshness as tracer)

So S x cx = S o

m & Q f

c x = a bS x
& m = c max S a= Qf

0 0 So

aka C-S (or T-S, etc.) diagram, or property-salinity diagram

Uses for Property-S diagrams

Determine end-member concentration & ) and loading (So, Qf known, but not m Identify extraneous sources (we think & = Q f co but cmax > co) we know m Distinguish different water masses Predict quality of mixed water masses Detect non-conservative behavior

Determining end member c

c
1) Extrapolate to get cmax 2)

& = Q f c max m

3) If cmax > measured co, difference is extraneous source(s)

0 0 So

Distinguishing water masses

N-S diagram for Massachusetts Bay, Kelly (1993) Used to identify coastal water vs offshore waters

Non-conservative behavior c
cmax x

0 0 So

Non-conservative behavior c
cmax x 0 0 So S +

Non-conservative behavior c
cmax x 0 0 So
Note that conservative mixing curve is only linear if conditions are steady and there is a single source

Two conservative sources look like one NC source

c

0 0 So

Two conservative sources look like one NC source

c

1+2

0 0 So

Transient Conditions
200

X
100

Fall

WE4-2 Nitrate-Salinity diagrams in Delaware R

Ciufuentes, et al. (1990)

200 Summer 100

Nitrate (M)

200 Spring 100

Solid lines are predictions for conservative tracer & salinity at 4 times (not linear because river flow varies in space and time) Symbols are data for nitrate & salinity Why the discrepancy in fall, spring?

200 Water 100

Salinity (% )

16

32

Figure by MIT OCW.

Residence times
Why? Compare with k-1

Also to determine if model has reached steady state Approaches

tres >> k-1 => reactions are important tres << k-1 => reaction not important

Continuous tracer Instantaneous tracer

Related time scales

Continuous tracer release; c(x,y,z) monitored after steady state

V

t res =

cdV
0

& m

M & m

& m

SS inventory over renewal rate; heuristic interpretation

Types of Tracers
Advantages and Disadvantages of each

& m

Deliberate tracer (e.g., dye) Tracer of opportunity (e.g. trace metals from WWTP) Freshwater inflow (freshwater fraction approach; residence time sometimes called flushing time)
V

t res =

fdV
0

Qf

WE 4-4 Trace metals to calculate residences times for Boston Harbor

2500 Residence Time in Boston Harbor 3.4 Days

10 Days
Zn

2000 Cu 1500 Cr

1000 Ni Pb Cd PAH 40 60 80 100 120 140

2 Days

500 PCB 0

0 Hg 20 cV t res = & m (2.5 x10 6 kg / m 3 )(6.3 x10 2 m 3 ) = = 3.4d 5 (1.7 x10 kg / yr ) /(365d / yr )

160

180

Total Load to Harbor (kg/yr) (Thousands)

Figure by MIT OCW.

Shea and Kelly, 1992

Comments
Ignore re-entries (by convention) If multiple sources, tres is average time weighted by mass inflow rate Assumes steady-state, but fix-ups applicable to transient loading Residence time reflects injection location; not property of water body unless well mixed, in which case:
c( x, y, z ) = c = const
t res cV = & m

Tres depends on discharge location

A B C
V

t res =

cdV
0

& m

M & m

x c

tres

> tres

> tres

x c

Instantaneous Release; c(x,y,z,t) monitored over time

Unit mass

& m
1 1

m*

f*

0
Rate of injection

t
dm * f * (t ) = dt

0
Mass leaving rate

Mass remaining in system

f * (t )dt = 1
0

Instantaneous release, contd

f* is also distribution of residence times (mass leaving no longer resides). By definition, tres is mean (first temporal moment) of f*

t res =
0

& dm f *tdt tdt = m * t 0 + m * (t )dt dt 0 0

0th moment of m*

1st moment of f*

For mass of arbitrary loading Mo (not necessarily one)

t res =

f (t )tdt M (t )dt
0

M(t) = mass remaining f(t) is mass leaving rate

Mo

Mo

Thus two more operational definitions of residence time: 1st temporal moment of f(t) and 0th temporal moment of M(t)

WE 4-5 Residence time of CSO effluent in Fort Point Channel

Rhodamine WT injected instantaneously at channel head on three dates; results for one survey:
N
18 ft

Boston Inner Harbor

18

ft

Northern Ave.

Congress St. Summer St.

18 ft

Gillette Dorchester Ave.

Adams, et al. (1998)

BOS 070

Broadway

Dye 100

Meters 0 500

Figure by MIT OCW.

Fort Point Channel dye release, contd

12 Total Mass of Dye (Kg) 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

t res =
TIME (Hours after injection)

M (t )dt
0

Mo

2.7 day

Figure by MIT OCW.

tres

Adams, et al. (1998)

Comments
f(t) can be obtained from time rate of change of M(t); or from measurements of mass leaving (at mouth) Residence times for continuous and instantaneous releases are equivalent f(t) of f*(t) conveniently used to assess first order mass loss.
F = f * (t )e kt dt
0

F = total fraction of mass that leaves

WE 4-6 Residence time of bacteria in CSO effluent in Fort Point Channel (Adams et al., 1995)
40 35 Mass loss from FPC (%/10hrs) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0.5 2 50 100 Time (h) 150 1 0.25 1.6 1.4

f*(t) 1990

1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 200

Residence time distributions f(t) determined from distributions of m(t). Indicator bacteria disappear (die or settle) at rates of 0.25 to 2 d-1 What fraction of bacteria would disappear for 1990 conditions?

F = f * (t )e kt dt
0

Figure by MIT OCW.

Fraction (of viable bacteria) that leave Fraction that are removed within channel

1 F

k=2.0 d-1 => F=0.15 (85% removed); k=0.25 d-1=> F=0.55 (45% removed)

Relative advantages of 3 approaches?

M (t) Mo f (t) C(V)

Instantaneous Instantaneous Continuous

t1 =

M (t )dt
0

Mo

t2 =

f (t )tdt
0

Mo

t3 =

cdV
0

& m

Amount of tracer (e.g., dye) required? Effort to dispense? Number of surveys and their spatial extent? Total duration of study?

Other related time scales

Flushing time use to describe decay of initial concentration distribution (convenient for numerical models); used by EPA for WQ in marinas (see example) Age of water (oceanography): time since tracer entered ocean or was last at surface (complement of tres) Concepts often used interchangeably, but in general different; be careful

Dual Tracers
Used to empirically distinguish fate from transport: introduce two tracers (one conservative; one reactive) instantaneously. Applies to any time of water body, but consider well mixed tidal channel

dM c = k f M c dt dM nc = k f M nc kM nc dt

Mass of conservative tracer declines due to tidal flushing Mass of NC tracer declines due to tidal flushing and decay

d M nc = k M nc Ratio of masses declines due to decay M M c c dt

M nc

= Mc

M nc

e kt Mc o

WE 4-7 Fort Point Channel again

2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8

Best-fitted line

Fluorescent pigment particles (yellow DayGlo paint) were injected with dye. Pigment particles settle as well as flush. R = (Mp/Mpo)/(Md/Mdo) k = ksettle = 0.25 d-1 k = ws/h ws = kh = (0.25d-1)(6m) =1.5 m d-1 More in Chapter 9

0.6

k3 = 0.25 d-1

0.4

0.2

20

40

60

80

Time (hr)
Figure by MIT OCW.

Adams, et al. (1998)