History of Glass Manufacturing

OBSILIAN
Crystal Agate Onyx

volcanic rock

NATURALLY FORMED GLASS:

COMPILED AND PRESENTED BY:

BENJAMIN A. ALIANZA
PIP Founding Member CHAIRMAN Technical & Education Committee

7,000 B.C. 1,500 B.C.

- beaded jewelry - first glass containers

History of Glass Manufacturing

1608 glass melting furnace was first built 1880 25% of the glass made was for common bottles 1903 mass production of bottles & jars, in uniform height, weight and capacity 1940 to 1950 tempered glass for doors, windows, etc.

History of Glass Manufacturing

1947 1948 1950s 1952 1961 1965 photosensitive & electrically conducting glass mass production of TV tube blanks leak proof fiber optics developed by Van Heel & OBrian float glass invented by Sir Alastair Pilkington lazer glass invented by Snitzer graded index fiber optics developed in Japan

GLASS CONTAINERS
GLASS TYPES AND GENERAL PROPERTIES: GLASS REFERS TO AN INORGANIC SUBSTANCE FUSED AT HIGH TEMPERATURE AND COOLED QUICKLY SO THAT IT SOLIDIFIES IN A VITREOUS OR NONCRYSTALINE CONDITION. THAT IS, THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE OF THE SOLID GLASS IS PRACTICALLY THE SAME AS LIQUID GLASS, BUT THE COOLED GLASS IS SO VISCOUS THAT THE MASS HAS BECOME RIGID. GLASS HAS NO DISTINCT MELTING OR SOLIDFYING TEMPERATURES. THERE IS GRADUAL SOFTENING WITH HEAT AND GRADUAL SOLIDIFYING WITH COOLING.

GLASS CONTAINERS
MANY METAL OXIDES CAN BE FORMED INTO A GLASSY CONDITION; HOWEVER, ALL COMMERCIAL GLASS IS BASED ON SILICA (QUARTZ), THE PRINCIPAL COMPONENT OF SAND. COMMON BEACH SAND IS UNSUITABLE FOR MAKING COMMERCIAL GLASS, SINCE IT CONTAINS IMPURITIES AND VARIES WIDELY IN COMPOSITION. LARGE DEPOSITS OF HIGH-PURITY SILICA SANDS ARE VARIABLE IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD.

GLASS TYPES AND GENERAL PROPERTIES

GLASS PRODUCTION RELIES ON MANY FORMULATIONS. SILICA SAND FUSED WITH ABOUT 10% SODIUM COMPOUNDS (USUALLY CARBONATES) PRODUCES SODIUM SILICATE OR WATER GLASS, A WATER-SOLUBLE GLASSLIKE FORM. INSOLUBILITY IS IMPARTED BY ADDING CALCIUM COMPOUNDS. SODA-LIME-SILICA GLASS, OR MORE SIMPLY SODA-LIME GLASS, IS THE TYPE MOST COMMONLY USED FOR MOST COMMERCIAL BOTTLES AND JARS.

GLASS TYPES AND GENERAL PROPERTIES

TABLE 8.1 LISTS THE INGREDIENTS COMMONLY USED TO MAKE SODA-LIME GLASS. THE PERCENTAGES OF THE INGREDIENTS WILL VARY SLIGHTLY DEPENDING ON THE MANUFACTURER AND THE EXACT COMPOSITION OF THE RAW MATERIALS AVAILABLE.

History of Glass Manufacturing

TODAY
Glass is still the preferred package for many products

Importance and Uses of Glass

TRANSPORT - headlights CONSTRUCTION glass bricks FURNITURE table tops KITCHEN EQUIPMENT oven doors SCIENCE - microscopes DECORATION & ART picture frames CONTAINERS FOR INDUSTRIES food, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, pharmaceuticals, chemicals and cosmetics

Types of Glass Bottles

ACCORDING TO COLOR
Flint Amber Emerald Green

ACCORDING TO USAGE
Returnable or Multi-Trip Non-returnable or Single Trip

Types of Glass Bottles

ACCORDING TO PHARMA CLASSIFICATION
TYPE I Borosilicate Glass like pyrex TYPE II Soda-Lime-Silica glass BUT TREATED like dextrose bottles TYPE III Soda-Lime-Silica glass BUT UNTREATED like beer and softdrinks bottles

Types of Glass Bottles

ACCORDING TO PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE Narrowmouth (Blow & Blow Process) Widemouth (Press & Blow Process) ACCORDING TO CHEMICAL COMPOSITION SODA-LIME-SILICA
95% of all glass bottles produced is of this type

BOROSILICA
Heat-resistant & with a high resistance to chemical attack

LEAD
Sparkling glass due to increased refractive index

ADVANTAGES of Glass Containers

Chemically inert Impermeable and non-porous Sanitary and odorless Recyclable and non-pollutant Ideal for high speed filling lines Resealable Microwaveable

ADVANTAGES of Glass Containers

Stackable Retortable Transparent, amber or green Proven customer appeal Autoclavable Great for carbonated beverages

DISADVANTAGES of Glass as Packaging

Fragility Does not withstand sudden changes of temperature Weight which increases transport costs

MAJOR RAW MATERIALS for Glass Manufacture

SILICA SAND Forms the structural network of glass SODA ASH Flux to melt glass at moderate temperature LIMESTONE Gives stability, hardness viscosity CULLET Acts as flux FELDSPAR Makes glass harder and more resistant to abrasion, adds luster

MINOR RAW MATERIALS for Glass Manufacture

SALT CAKE, GYPSUM Sources of sulfate which acts as refining agents for oxidized glasses NITER (SODIUM NITRATE) Oxidizes organic or carbonaceous impurities in the batch; together with arsenic it accelerates the evolution of gases early in melting and assures a well-refined glass ARSENIC In combination with niter, it is a powerful oxidizing agent; also a powerful refining agent

MINOR RAW MATERIALS for Glass Manufacture

SELENIUM Masks the bluish green color of ferrous iron resulting in a yellow gray tint in glass CHARCOAL, GRAPHITE Sources of carbon which is a reducing agent necessary to produce amber color SULFUR Introduced as elemental sulfur or in the form of Pyrite to produce amber color CHROMITE, DICHROMATE Colorants to produce emerald or georgia green color

Glass Manufacturing PROCESS FLOW

BATCHING FURNACE MELTING REFINING GLASS FORMING & ANNEALING COLD END COATINGS COLOR LABELING QUALITY CONTROL SYSTEM

Glass Manufacturing PROCESS FLOW

BATCHING
-BATCH PREPARATION Metering, weighing, mixing and cullet addition

Glass Manufacturing PROCESS FLOW

FURNACE MELTING
FURNACE container composed of refractory materials operated in a temperature range of 2600 F to 2850 F (1427 C to 1593 C) used for melting raw materials to bring about the reactions between the ingredients of the batch materials to produce homogenous glass at a temperature suitable for forming the molten materials produced.

Glass Manufacturing PROCESS FLOW

ROLES OF THE FURNACE
CONTAINER MIXING TANK
The release of gases by decomposition of carbonates like soda ash and limestone The current in the glass produced by differences in temperature in the different parts of the furnace directs glass movement from hot to cold areas The stretching of glass by its flow towards the throat and the feeders

HEAT EXCHANGER

Glass Manufacturing PROCESS FLOW

BEHAVIOR OF MAJOR RAW MATERIALS DURING MELTING
SAND wont melt at glass melting temperature SODA ASH decomposes into sodium oxide and carbon dioxide (Na2CO3 --- Na2O & CO2) LIMESTONE calcium carbonate decomposes into CaO & CO2. CaO reacts with Na2O & SiO2 to form silicate FELDSPAR melts at lower temperatures CULLET melts faster

Glass Manufacturing PROCESS FLOW

TWO PROCESSES OF REFINING:
PHYSICAL Removal of gases by rising to the surface Melting of the materials from solid to liquid or plastic state CHEMICO-PHYSICAL The dissolution of gases into the glass The homogenization of dissolved materials into a glass

Glass Manufacturing PROCESS FLOW

END STATE of refining is a glass free from striations, solid and gaseous inclusions:
All materials are melted and become a homogenous mass All gases evolved during melting are released to the atmosphere or dissolved in the glass No other inclusions, homogenous and gases are introduced into the glass before it goes to the machine.

Glass Manufacturing PROCESS FLOW

I.S. MACHINE I.S. means Individual Section and is used in the continuous manufacture of glass containers consisting of several sections.

Glass Manufacturing PROCESS FLOW

ANNEALING is a heating and controlled cooling
process designed to relieve stresses which are usually introduced into the glass container during and immediately after forming.

Glass Manufacturing PROCESS FLOW

COLD END COATINGS
PURPOSE
Protect the glass from surface damage Improve lubricity

PROPERTIES
Lubrication

COATING MATERIALS The cooling rate through the annealing range is very much dependent on the thickness of the glass and the shape of the container.
All organic such as soaps, waxes and oils. Selection is based on ultimate processing type requirements for permanence, lubricity, abrasion protection and safe label adhesion.

Glass Manufacturing PROCESS FLOW

COLD END COATINGS
COATING CONTROLS
Amount of coating must be controlled by dilution and flow control adherence and wetting of surface controlled by temperature.

Glass Manufacturing PROCESS FLOW

COLOR LABELING
CERAMIC COLOR
ACL Paint stands for Applied Color Labels The technical name is Ceramic Vitrifiable Colors or Ceramic Colors

CERAMIC COLOR COMPOSITION

Frit or Flux Inorganic Pigment Vehicle

COATING EQUIPMENT
Transverse spray mechanism used to spray rows of containers Operation criterion of set up critical to proper coating application

DECORATING LEHR
Preheat Zone Firing Zone Annealing Zone Cooling Zone

MAJOR USERS of Glass Containers

Food industry Beer and Beverage industry Wines and Liquor industry Drugs and Pharmaceutical industry
healthcare

Major Control Areas

CONTROL OF GLASS QUALITY Glass Quality the characteristics of the glass itself before & during its passage through the bottle forming machines and the annealing lehr Seeds and blisters Stones Color Density Softening Point

Chemicals
agrochemicals

Cosmetics
Beauty aids

Major Control Areas

WARE QUALITY The characteristics of the finished bottle after the forming operations PHYSICAL STRENGTH * pressure strength * thermal shock resistance * impact strength * degree of annealing * vertical load strength

Major Control Areas

DIMENSIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
Height Body Diameter Ellipticity Verticality Glass Distribution Finish Capacity

Major Control Areas

VISUAL CHARACTERISTICS
Washboard Wave Appearance Checks Dirty Ware Others

Major Control Areas

ACL QUALITY
Underfired Misprint

QUALITY CONTROL for Glass Containers

BAD GLASS
Not well mixed called CORDY GLASS (with the different layers being called cords) which can only be seen under a microscope.

QUALITY CONTROL for Glass Containers

SEEDY GLASS Glass full of bubbles is also a bad glass. The bubbles can be caused by materials, which have not melted fast enough: wrong furnace temperature wrong batch charging wrong firing conditions bricks falling into the furnace

CORDY GLASS
Will break by itself and a mere scratch is enough for the bottle to crack due to:
Wrong temperature in the furnace Wrong batch charging Wrong mixing in batch house Wrong firing The corrosion or the eating up of the refractory bricks

QUALITY CONTROL for Glass Containers

STONES The presence of materials that is not dissolved or melted is called stones. These may be caused about by: - batch not melted due to low temperature - wrong charging - refractory bricks

GLASS TYPES AND GENERAL PROPERTIES

OTHER MINERAL COMPOUNDS MAY BE USED TO IMPROVED PROPERTIES. DECOLORIZERS ADDED TO CLEAR GLASS OVERCOME THE SLIGHT COLOR IMPARTED BY MINERAL IMPURITIES. OTHER ADDITIVES AID IN PROCESSING. COLORANTS AND OPACIFYING AGENTS CHANGE THE FINISHED APPEARANCE. STANDARD GLASS COLORANTS ARE: CHROME OXIDES FOR EMERALD (GREEN GLASS) IRON AND SULFUR FOR AMBER (BROWN GLASS) COBALT OXIDES FOR BLUE GLASS

GLASS TYPES AND GENERAL PROPERTIES

BESIDES SODA-LIME GLASSES, MANY OTHER GLASS TYPES ARE USED FOR SPECIAL APPLICATIONS. THEY ARE RARELY IF EVER, USED FOR PACKAGING PURPOSES. - FOR EXAMPLE, LEAD COMPOUNDS PROVIDE A SOFT GLASS (CRYSTAL GLASS) WITH EXCEPTIONAL OPTICAL PROPERTIES THAT MAY BE USED FOR UPSCALE PERFUME BOTTLES. BORON COMPOUNDS (BORAX,BORON OXIDE) GIVE LOW THERMAL EXPANSION AND HIGH HEAT-SHOCK RESISTANCE. BOROSILICATE GLASSES ALSO HAVE EXCEPTIONALLY LOW EXTRACTABLES AND ARE USED TO CONTAIN THE MOST CRITICAL PARENTERAL DRUGS, THOSE ADMINISTERED BY INJECTION.

GLASS TYPES AND GENERAL PROPERTIES

GLASSES OTHER THAN SODA-LIME CAN CAUSE PROBLEMS IF THEY ARE INCLUDED WITH REGULAR CONTAINER GLASS RECYCLING. FOR EXAMPLE, BOROSILICATE GLASSES OF WHICH PYREX BAKEWARE IS PROBABLY THE MOST VISIBLE EXAMPLE HAVE A SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER MELT TEMPERATURE THAN SODA-LIME GLASS. ALONG WITH PYREX ITEMS, WINDOW GLASS, LABORATORY GLASSWARE, CHINA AND HOUSEHOLD GLASSWARE SHOULD NOT BE INCLUDED IN GLASS COLLECTED FOR RECYCLING.

GLASS TYPES AND

GENERAL PROPERTIES
GLASS HAS MANY ADVANTAGES AS A PACKAGING MATERIAL: IT IS INERT TO MOST CHEMICALS. FOODS DO NOT ATTACK GLASS, NOR DO THEY LEACH OUT MATERIALS THAT MIGHT ALTER TASTE. ITS IMPERMEABILITY IS IMPORTANT FOR LONG-TERM STORAGE OF PRODUCTS SENSITIVE TO VOLATILE LOSS OR OXIDATION BY ATMOSPHERIC OXYGEN. CLARITY ALLOWS PRODUCT VISIBILITY. IT IS GENERALLY PERCEIVED AS HAVING AN UPSCALE IMAGE. THE RIGIDITY OF GLASS MEANS THAT CONTAINER SHAPES AND VOLUMES DO NOT CHANGE UNDER VACUUM, UNDER PRESSURE, OR WHEN THE CONTAINER IS PICKED UP OR HANDLED. IT IS STABLE AT HIGH TEMPERATURES, MAKING IT SUITABLE FOR HOT-FILL AND RETORTABLE PRODUCTS

GLASS TYPES AND GENERAL PROPERTIES

DESPITE THESE ADVANTAGES, MANY TRADITIONAL GLASS MARKETS HAVE BEEN ERODED OR DISPLACED BY PLASTICS. THE DISADVANTAGES OF GLASS ARE ITS BREAKABILITY AND HIGH WEIGHT 2.5 GRAMS (g)/CUBIC CENTIMETER (cc). GLASS MANUFACTURE DEPENDS HEAVILY ON ENERGY SUPPLIES, AND HIGH ENERGY COST OF GLASS.

PHARMACEUTICAL GLASS
ALTHOUGH GLASS IS GENERALLY CLASSED AS INERT, SODIUM AND OTHER IONS WITHIN ITS FORMULATION WILL LEACH OUT INTO CERTAIN SOLUTIONS. WHILE OF NO CONSEQUENCE IN MOST APPLICATIONS, SOME PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS CAN BE AFFECTED. GLASS TYPES 1, 2 AND 3 HAVE SPECIFIC LIMITS TO TITRATABLE ALKALIS SPECIFIED BY THE UNITED STATES PHARMACOPOEIA (USP) FOR EXACTING PHARMACEUTICAL GLASSWARE. USPSPECIFICATION GLASS IS USED MOSTLY FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF AMPOULES AND VIALS THAT TYPICALLY CONTAIN INJECTABLE DRUGS.

PHARMACEUTICAL GLASS
TYPE 1 GLASS IS A BOROSILICATE GLASS AND HAS THE MOST STRINGENT EXTRACTABLES STANDARD. A DISADVANATGES IS THE HIGHER MELTING POINT OF THIS GLASS TYPE. TYPE 2 GLASS IS A SODA-LIME GLASS FORMULA (type 3) THAT HAS BEEN TREATED IN THE ANNEALING OVEN WITH SULFUR TO REDUCE ALKALI SOLUBILITY. THE TREATMENT PRODUCES A DISCOLORED APPEARANCE. TYPE 3 GLASS IS A CONVENTIONAL SODA-LIME GLASS THAT HAS BEEN TESTED AND SHOWS TO HAVE A SPECIFIED EXTRACTIVES LEVEL. SODA-LIME GLASSES NOT MEETING TYPE 3 QUALIFICATION ARE CLASSES AS A USP TYPE NP.

COMMERCIAL GLASS MANUFACTURE

COMMERCIAL GLASS IS MADE IN GAS OR OIL FIRED MELTING OR FUSION FURNACES LINED WITH HIGH TEMPERATURE REFRACTORY MATERIALS. (See Figure 8.1)

COMMERCIAL GLASS MANUFACTURE

COMMERCIAL GLASS MANUFACTURE

PREMIXED RAW MATERIALS ARE CONTINUOSLY FED INTO ONE END OF THE FURNACE WHILE GAS/OIL FIRED HEATING FLAMES ARE DIRECTED OVER THE GLASS SURFACE FORM THE FIRING PORTS LOCATED ALONG THE FURNACE SIDES. THE RAW MATERIALS FUSE INTO GLASS AT ABOUT 1510 C (2750F) ACCOMPANIED BY THE RELEASE OF CARBON DIOXIDE GAS FROM THE DECOMPOSITION OF CARBONATE INGREDIENTS. THE RELEASED GASES AND CONVECTION CURRENTS SERVE TO MIX THE GLASS.

COMMERCIAL GLASS MANUFACTURE

TEN VOLUMES OF AIR ARE REQUIRED TO BURN ONE VOLUME NATURAL GAS. AT THE HIGH TEMPERATURES OF A GLASS FURNACE, ENVIRONMENTALLY OBJECTIONABLE NITROGEN OXIDES CAN FORM. NEWER FURNACES ARE USING OXGEN INSTEAD OF AIR, ELIMINATING A POSSIBLE POLLUTION SOURCE, WHILE ALSO REDUCING THE OVERALL ENERGY REQUIREMENT BY UP TO ONE-THIRD. THE HOT FLUE GASES ARE PASSED THROUGH SOME FORM OF HEAT EXCHANGER THAT IS USED TO HEAT INCOMING COLD AIR OR OXYGEN. (See Figure 8.2)

COMMERCIAL GLASS MANUFACTURE

TYPICAL DEDICATED LARGE-VOLUME PRODUCTION FURNACES MAY HOLD UP TO 500 TONS OF GLASS AND CAN PRODUCE ABOUT 200 TO 400 TONS IN TWENTY-FOUR HOURS. SMALLER FURNACES IN THE 50 TON OR LESS RANGE ARE USED TO PRODUCE SPECIAL GLASSWARE FOR SUCH APPLICATIONS AS FANCY COSMETIC BOTTLES OR ART GLASSWARE. FURNACES OPERATE CONTINUOUSLY FOR TEN OR MORE YEARS BETWEEN MAINTENANCE SHUTDOWNS.

COMMERCIAL GLASS MANUFACTURE

THE DRY MINERAL INGREDIENTS ARE WEIGHED AND BATCH MIXED IN A ROTARY MIXER. A TYPICAL BATCH CONTAINS ABOUT A TON OF SAND, WITH APPROPRIATE AMOUNTS OF SODA, LIME AND OTHER MINERAL COMPOUNDS, AND CONDITIONING MATERIALS. CULLET IS BROKEN GLASS RECOVERED FORM PLANT OPERATIONS AND FROM POST-CONSUMER WASTE. CULLET IS ADDED TO ENHANCE THE MELTING RATE AND SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCE ENERGY REQUIREMENTS. CULLET IS USED IN PERCENTAGES AS HIGH AS 80% OF THE BATCH CHARGE.

COMMERCIAL GLASS MANUFACTURE

THE SURFACE LEVEL OF THE MOLTEN GLASS AT THE FURNACE DRAW-OFF ORIFICE (see Figure 8.1) IS ABOUT 4 METRES , (12 TO 13 ft)ABOVE THE BOTTLE-MANUFACTURING FLOOR LEVEL. MOLTEN GLASS IS GRAVITY-FED THROUGH SPOUTS OF CHUTES TO BOTTLE-FORMING MACHINES.

COMMERCIAL GLASS MANUFACTURE

COMMERCIAL GLASS MANUFACTURE

LARGE PRODUCTION FURNACE CAN BE IN THE ORDER OF 20 METERS (60 ft.) LONG. FUSION OCCURS IN THE MAIN FURNACE CHAMBER, OR TANK. THE MOLTEN GLASS THEN PASSES UNDER THE BRIDGEWALL THAT HOLDS BACK AWAY ANY SCUM OR UNFUSED MATERIAL FLOATING ON THE GLASS SURFACE. THE FOREHEARTH BRINGS THE GLASS TEMPERATURE DOWN TO ASBOUT 1,300C (2,300F). A FURNACE MAY BE EQUIPPED WITH SEVERAL FOREHEARTHS, EACH FEEDING A SEPARATE BOTTLE-MAKING MACHINE ON THE FLOOR BELOW. MOLTEN GLASS HAS THE CONSISTENCY OF MOLASSES AND CAN BE CUT LIKE LEATHER.

COMMERCIAL GLASS MANUFACTURE

COLORING AGENTS MAY BE ADDED EITHER TO THE MELT FURNACE ALONG WITH OTHER INGREDIENTS. OR THEY CAN BE ADDED AT THE FOREHEARTH. BECAUSE OF THE LARGE FURNACE SIZE, STANDARD FURNACE GLASSES ARE RESTRICTED TO THREE COLORS: -FLINT. BASIC CLEAR GLASS. USED FOR THE MAJORITY OF PACKAGING APPLICATIONS. -AMBER. THE FAMILIAR BROWN GLASS IS THE ONLY STANDARD GLASS THAT WILL FILTER OUT LIGHT IN THE CRITICAL ULTRAVIOLET (UV) REGION (300 TO 400 nm). IT IS PRIMARILY USED FOR UV-SENSITIVE PRODUCTS SUCH AS BEER AND SOME PHARMACEUTICALS. -EMERALD. A BRIGHT GREEN GLASS USED MOSTLY FOR WINES AND LIME OR LEMON FLAVORED SOFTDRINKS.

10

COMMERCIAL GLASS MANUFACTURE

VARIOUS BLUE, GREEN AND OPAQUE GLASSES ARE ALSO AVAILABLE. MOST OF THESE ARE PRODUCED BY ADDING SMALLER QUANTITIES OF COLORANT MATERIAL (FRIT) TO FLINT GLASS AS IT FLOWS THROUGH THE FOREHEARTH AREA. SOME COLORS IN WIDE USE BY THE WINE INDUSTRY HAVE BECOME STANDARD COLORS IN THEMSELVES. GEORGIA GREEN, CHAMPAGNE AND DEAD-LEAF GREEN ARE POPULAR SHADES. AN UP-CHARGE OF ABOUT 5% IS TYPICAL FOR NON-STANDARD COLORS PRODUCED IN THE FOREHEARTH SECTION. UNUSUAL COLORS REQUIRED FOR SMALLER ORDERS SUCH AS MIGHT BE REQUIRED FOR THE COSMETICS INDUSTRY WOULD BE PRODUCED IN SMALLER SPECIALTY FURNACES. BLUE GLASS MAKE WHITE PRODUCTS LOOK WHITER. OPAQUE WHITE (OPAL) GLASS ADDS A PRESTIGIOUS APPEARANCE TO TOILETRIES AND COSMETICS.

COMMERCIAL GLASS MANUFACTURE

A

CERAMIC-LINED DRAW-OFF ORIFICE AT THE BOTTOM END OF EACH FOREHEARTH ALLOWS THE GLASS TO EXTRUDE DOWNWARDS IN A CONTROLLED MANNER.
JUST

AFTER THE EXTRUSION DIE, A LARGE SHEAR CUTS THE GLASS FLOW INTO INDIVIDUAL GOBS;
EACH

GOB BEING THE EXACT QUANTITY OF GLASS NEEDED FOR ONE BOTTLE OF THE TYPE BEING PRODUCED.

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
STOCK

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
THE

AND CUSTOM MOLDS

GLASSWARE

BUYERS CAN PURCHASE STOCK GLASSWARE MADE ON EXITING MOLDS DIRECTLY FROM A PLANT OR THROUGH ONE OF THE MANY CONTAINER BROKERS THAT MAY REPRESENT DOZENS OF GLASS MANUFACTURERS FROM AROUND THE WORLD.
ALTERNATELY,

DESIGNS OF A CUSTOM BOTTLE STARTS WITH A DISCUSSION BETWEEN THE PRODUCER AND THE CUSTOMER THAT ESTABLISHES THE DESIGN OBJECTIVES. FROM THESE PARAMETERS, CONCEPT DRAWINGS WILL BE MADE FOR CUSTOMER APPROVAL.
THE

APPROVED CONCEPT WILL THEN BE RENDERED INTO A THREE-DIMENSIONAL, FULL-SIZED ACRYCLIC MODEL OR WOODEN MOCK-UP. THE CUSTOMER CAN USE THIS MODEL TO VERIFY AESTHETIC APPEARANCE AND CHECK FOR LABEL LOCATION AND FIT.
WHEN

IF THE REQUIRED VOLUME IS LARGE ENOUGH, THE PURCHASER MAY ELECT TO HAVE A CUSTOM BOTTLE DESIGNED AND MANUFACTURED TO ITS SPECIFICATIONS.

THE MODEL IS APPROVED, THE GLASS-MAKER WILL PROCEED TO THE MOLD-MAKING STAGE.

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
MANUFACTURER OF A GLASS CONTAINER
REQUIRES TWO MOLDS: A BLANK MOLD IN WHICH AN INITIAL SHAPE IS FORMED AND A BLOW MOLD WHERE THE INITIAL SHAPE IS EXPANDED INTO THE FINISHED BOTTLE OR JAR.

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
TOGETHER TO FORM THE CLOSED CHAMBER
INSIDE OF WHICH THE CONTAINER IS MADE. THE BLOW MOLD WILL BE MADE UP OF A LEFT AND RIGHT HALF THAT FIT TOGETHER TO FORM THE MAIN CONTAINER BODY.

BOTH MOLDS ARE NORMALLY MADE FROM GRAY

OR CAST IRON AND ARE AIR COOLED. SOME MOLDS HAVE AIR BLOWN THROUGH HOLES DRILLED VERTICALLY THROUGH THE BLANK AND BLOW MOLDS.

SINCE GLASS MOLDED HOT BUT SHRINKS WHEN

IT COOLS, THE MOLD HALVES AND ALL OTHER PARTS MUST BE MADE LARGER BY ABOUT 3 MICROMETRES (m) FOR EVERY MILLIMETRE OF A PART LENGTH (0.003 in. /inch.)

11

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
THE BOTTOM OF THE MOLDS HALVES, AGAINST
WHICH THE CONTAINER BOTTOM WILL BE FORMED, IS CLOSED BY A BOTTOM PLATE.

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
THE NECK RING, WHICH FORMS THE THREADED
PART OF THE CONTAINER, IS INCORPORATED INTO THE BLANK MOLD.

THE BOTTOM PLATE MATCH IS THE MOLD

PARTING LINE RUNNING AROUND THE BOTTLE JUST SLIGHTLY UP FROM THE BASE.

PRECISION IS PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT IN THE

FIT OF THE NECK RING HALVES SINCE ANY PROMINENT MOLD PARTING LINES COULD INTERFERE WITH CLOSURE FIT AND SEALING.

MOLD SEAMS ARE VERTICAL PARTING LINES

RUNNING UP OPPOSITE SIDES OF THE CONTAINER WHERE THE MOLD BODY HALVES MEET.

THE NECK MATCH IS A HORIZONTAL LINE

AROUND THE CONTAINER NECK JUST SLIGHTLY BELOW THE NECK RING OF OR TRANSFER BEAD.

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
A SINGLE BLANK AND A SINGLE
BLOW MOLD ARE USUALLY MADE AND TEST RUN TO ENSURE THAT AN ACCEPTABLE BOTTLE CAN BE MADE BEFORE COMMITMENT TO A FULL PRODUCTION SET.

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
BLOWING THE BOTTLE OR JAR DEPENDING ON THEIR GEOMETRY, GLASS
CONTAINERS ARE MADE BY TWO SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT PROCESSES, BLOW-AND-BLOW AND PRESS-AND-BLOW.

BOTH PROCESSES REQUIRE TWO MOLDS: A

BLANK MOLD THAT FORMS AN INITIAL SHAPE OR PARISON AND A BLOW MOLD IN WHICH THE FINAL SHAPE IS PRODUCED. THE BLANK OR PARISON MOLD FORMS THE NECK.

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
THE FINISH (THE PART THAT RECEIVES THE CLOSURE) AND A THE FINISH SECTION THE CAVITY SECTION (MADE IN TWO HALVES TO ALLOW PARISON
REMOVAL) PARTIALLY FORMED BODY KNOWN AS A PARISON. A BLANK MOLD COMES IN A NUMBER OF SECTIONS:

A GUIDE OR FUNNEL FOR INSERTING THE GOB A SEAL FOR THE GOB OPENING ONCE THE GOB IS SETTLED IN THE
MOLD

A BLOWING TUBE THROUGH THE GOB AND NECK OPENINGS

12

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
MOLTEN GLASS FLOWS BY GRAVITY THROUGH DRAW-OFF
ORIFICES WITH OPENING RANGING FROM 12 TO 50 MILLIMETRS (mm) (1/2 TO 2 in.), DEPENDING ON BOTTLE SIZE.
MECHANICAL

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
A MASS PRODUCTION BOTTLE-MAKING MACHINE IS TYPICALLY
MADE UP OF SIX, EIGHT OR TEN INDIVIDUAL SECTIONS (IS); HENCE THE TERM IS MACHINE.

SHEARS, WHICH ARE 25mm (1 in.) BELOW THE ORIFICE AND SYNCHRONIZED WITH THE DRAW-OFF FLOW RATE AND BOTTLE-FORMING MACHINE SPEED, SNIP OFF GOBS OF MOLTEN GLASS. (See Figure 8.3)

EACH SECTION IS AN INDEPENDENT UNIT HOLDING A SET OF

BOTTLE-MAKING MOLDS. FOR LARGE BOTTLES, A SET WOULD CONSIST OF A BLANK MOLD AND A BLOW MOLD.

HIGHER PRODUCTION SPEEDS ARE ACHIEVED FOR SMALLER

EACH GOB MAKES ONE CONTAINER. BOTTLES BY THE USE OF DOUBLE OR TRIPLE GOBS ON ONE MACHINE.

THE

FALLING GOB IS CAUGHT BY A SPOUT AND DIRECTED TO ONE OF THE BLANK MOLDS.

A MOLD SET WOULD THEN CONSIST OF A BLOCK OF TWO OR

THREE BLANK MOLDS AND A SIMILAR BLOCK OF BLOW MOLDS. EACH BLOW MOLDS HAS A NUMBER THAT IS IMPRINTED ON THE BOTTLES MADE BY THAT MOLD.

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
GLASS CONTAINERS PRODUCED BY
TWO PROCESSES DIFFER ONLY IN THE WAY THAT THE PARISON IS PRODUCED. IN THE BLOW-ANDBLOW PROCESS, THE BOTTLE IS BLOWN IN THE FOLLOWING SEQUENCE: (See Figure 8.4)

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
THE GOB IS DROPPED INTO THE BLANK MOLD
THROUGH A FUNNEL-SHAPED GUIDE. NOTE THAT THE BLANK MOLD IS UPSIDE DOWN. GOB TEMPERATURE AT THIS POINT IS ABOUT 985C (1.800F).

THE GUIDE IS REPLACED BY A PARISON

BOTTOMER, AND AIR IS BLOWN INTO THE MOLD (CALLED THE SETTLE BLOW) TO FORCE THE GLASS INTO THE FINISH SECTION. AT THIS POINT, THE BOTTLE FINISH IS COMPLETE.

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
THE PARISON BOTTOMER IS REPLACED BY A SOLID BOTTOM
PLATE, AND AIR IS FORCED THROUGH THE BOTTLE FINISH (CALLED COUNTER BLOW) TO EXPAND THE GLASS UPWARD FORM THE PARISON.

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
AIR FORCES THE GLASS TO CONFORM
TO THE SHAPE OF THE BLOW MOLD.

THE PARISON IS REMOVED FROM THE BLANK MOLD, USING

THE BOTTLE IS COOLED SO THAT IT

CAN STAND WITHOUT BECOMING DISTORTED AND IS THEN PLACED ON CONVEYORS THAT TAKE IT TO THE ANNEALING OVEN.

THE NECK RING (TRANSFER BEAD) AS A GRIPPING FIXTURE, AND ROTATED TO A RIGHT-SIDE-UP ORIENTATION FOR PLACEMENT INTO THE BLOW MOLD.

THE PARISON IS SUPPORTED IN THE BLOW MOLD BY THE

NECK RING.

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BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
IN THE PRESS-AND-BLOW PROCESS, GOB
DELIVERY AND SETTLE-BLOW STEPS ARE SIMILAR TO THOSE IN BLOW-AND-BLOW FORMING.

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE

HOWEVER, IN PRESS-AND-BLOW, THE PARISON IS

PRESSED INTO SHAPE WITH A METAL PLUNGER RATHER THAN BY BEING BLOWN INTO SHAPE. (See Figure 8.5)

THE FINAL BLOWING STEP IN A SEPARATE BLOW

MOLD IS IDENTICAL TO THAT IN THE BLOW-ANDBLOW PROCESS.

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
THE BLOW-AND-BLOW PROCESS IS USED FOR
NARROW-NECKED BOTTLES, WHILE PRESS-ANDBLOW IS USED TO MAKE WIDE-MOUTHED JARS.

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
TYPICAL PRODUCTION RATES
RANGE FROM 60 TO 300 BOTTLES PER MINUTE, DEPENDING ON THE NUMBER OF SECTIONS IN A MACHINE, THE NUMBER OF GOBS BEING EXTRUDED AND THE CONTAINER SIZE.

RECENT ADVANCES HAVE ALLOWED PRESS-ANDBLOW TO BE USED FOR INCREASINGLY SMALLER NECKED CONTAINERS.

THE ADVANTAGE OF PRESS-AND-BLOW IS BETTER

CONTROL OF GLASS DISTRIBUTION.

BOTTLE MANUFACTURE
THE BLOWN BOTTLE IS REMOVED
FROM THE BLOW MOLD WITH TAKEOUT TONGS AND PLACED ON A DEADPLATE TO AIR COOL FOR A FEW MOMENTS BEFORE TRANSFER TO A CONVEYOR THAT WILL TRANSPORT THE CONTAINER TO THE ANNEALING OVEN.

ANNEALING
THE WALLS OF A GLASS BOTTLE ARE COMPARATIVELY THICK,
AND THE COOLING OF SUCH A CROSS-SECTION WILL NOT BE EVEN. IN THEORY, THE INNER AND OUTER SKINS OF A GLASS SECTION WILL BECOME RIGID LONG BEFORE THE INTERNAL TEMPERATURE HAS REDUCED ENOUGH TO PRODUCE THE SAME DEGREE OF RIGIDITY.

THE STILL-CONTRACTING INNER PORTION OF THE WALL WILL

BUILD UP INTERNAL STRESSES AS IT TRIES TO CONTRACT AWAY FROM THE IMMOBILE SKIN SURFACES. UNEVEN COOLING CAN DEVELOP SUBSTANTIAL STRESSES IN THE GLASS.

TO REDUCE INTERNAL STRESSES, THE BOTTLE PASSES THROUGH

AN ANNEALING OVEN, OR LEHR, IMMEDIATELY AFTER REMOVAL FROM THE BLOW MOLD.

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ANNEALING
THE LEHR IS A CONTROLLED-TEMPERATURE OVEN
THROUGH WHICH THE GLASSWARE CARRIED ON A MOVING BELT AT A RATE OF ABOUT 200 TO 300 mm/MINUTE (9 TO 12 in. /MINUTE).

SURFACE COATINGS
A GLASS CONTAINERS INNER AND OUTER SURFACES HAVE SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTICS COMING FROM THE MOLD. THE OUTER SURFACE COMES IN CONTACT WITH THE MOLD AND TAKES THE GRAIN OF THE MOLD SURFACE. HOWEVER, BOTH SURFACES ARE PRISTINE: MONOLITHIC, STERILE AND CHEMICALLY INERT.

THE GLASS TEMPERATURE IS RAISED TO ABOUT 565C

(1,050F), THEN GRADUALLY COOLED UNTIL THE CONTAINERS EXIT AT CLOSE TO ROOM TEMPERATURE WITH ALL INTERNAL STRESSES REDUCED TO SAFE LEVELS. THIS PROCESS TYPICALLY TAKES AN HOUR.

IMPROPER ANNEALED BOTTLES WILL BE FRAGILE AND TEND

TO HAVE HIGH BREAKAGE RATES IN NORMAL TRANSPORT AND FILLING. HOT FILLING WILL ALSO PRODUCE UNACCEPTABLE BREAKAGE LEVELS.

SURFACE COATINGS
PRISTINE GLASS HAS A COMPARATIVELY HIGH COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION, AND SURFACE SCRATCHING OR BRUISING CAN OCCUR WHEN BOTTLES RUB TOGETHER ON HIGH-SPEED FILLING LINES. SCRATCHED GLASS HAS SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER BREAKAGE RESISTANCE, AND GLASS IS TYPICALLY COATED TO REDUCE THE COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION. TWO COATINGS ARE USUALLY USED. THE HOT-END COATING APPLIED AT THE ENTRANCE OF THE ANNEALING LEHR IS USUALLY TIN OR TITANIUM TETRACHLORIDE. IT STRENGTHENS THE GLASS SURFACE AND ACT AS A PRIMER OR BONDING-AGENT COAT FOR THE COLD-END-FRICTION-REDUCING COAT APPLIED AT THE LEHR EXIT.

SURFACE COATINGS
MANY DIFFERENT COLD-END COATINGS ARE AVAILABLE, DEPENDING ON THE FILLING PROCESS AND END USE. OLEIC ACID, MONOSTEARATES, WAXES, SILICONES AND POLYETHYLENES ARE TYPICAL COLD-END COATINGS. THE LABEL ADHESIVES WILL NEED TO BE COMPATIBLE WITH THE COLD-END COATING.

INSPECTION AND PACKING

VISUAL INSPECTION HAS BEEN LARGELY REPLACED BY MECHANICAL AND ELECTRONIC MEANS. SQUEEZE TESTERS PASS CONTAINERS BETWEEN TWO ROLLERS THAT SUBJECT THE CONTAINER WALLS TO A COMPRESSIVE FORCE. PLUG GAUGES CHECK HEIGHT, PERPENDICULARITY, AND INSIDE AND OUTSIDE FINISH DIAMETERS. OPTICAL DEVICES INSPECT FOR STONES, BLISTERS, CHECKS, BIRD SWINGS, AND OTHER BLEMISHES OR IRREGULARITIES BY ROTATING THE CONTAINER PAST A BANK OF PHOTOCELLS.

INSPECTION AND PACKING

A NUMBER OF LARGER PHYSICAL DEFECTS ARE SHOWN IN Figure 8.7. IN ADDITION TO THESE, GLASSWARE MIGHT HAVE A NUMBER OF SURFACE OR COSMETIC DEFECTS:

A BLISTER IS A BUBBLE IN THE GLASS NOT GREATER THAN 1.5 mm (0.06 in.). A SEED IS A CONTAMINATING GRAIN OR GIRT LESS THAN 1.5 mm (0.06 in.). A CHECK IS A SMALL CRACK ON THE GLASS SURFACE. A STONE IS A PARTICLE OF UNMELTED MATERIAL IN THE CONTAINER.

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INSPECTION AND PACKING

FAULTY CONTAINERS (OFFWARE) ARE EJECTED FROM THE LINE AND CRUSHED INTO CULLET. GLASS CONTAINERS CAN BE TRANSPORTED IN REUSABLE CORRUGATED SHIPPERS, WHICH ARE LOADED WITH THE FILLED BOTTLES. OTHERS ARE SHIPPED IN TIERS ON PALLETS, A METHOD BEST SUITED FOR HIGH-SPEED PRODUCTION LINES WHERE AUTOMATIC EQUIPMENT CAN BE USED TO CLEAR TIERS OFF THE PALLET AND FEED THEM INTO THE FILLING MACHINE.

TOLERANCES
VARIATIONS INHERENT TO GLASS PRODUCTION PREVENT THE MANUFACTURE OF PRECISELY IDENTICAL CONTAINERS. TOLERANCE FOR VARIATION IN ANY GIVEN BOTTLE CHARACTERISTIC WILL VARY DEPENDING ON BOTTLE SIZE AND DESIGN. HOWEVER, GLASS PACKAGING INSTITUTE (GPI) SUGGESTS THE FOLLOWING RANGES:

CAPACITY WEIGHT HEIGHT DIAMETER

1% FOR LARGE BOTTLES, UP TO 15% FOR SMALL BOTTLES GENERALLY 5% OF SPECIFIED WEIGHT. 0.5% TO 0.8% OF SPECIFIED OVERALL HEIGHT. 1.5% FOR 200 mm (8 in.) BOTTLES TO 3% FOR 25 mm (1in.) BOTTLES

TOLERANCES
THE DIVISION BETWEEN WHAT IS A SMALL AND A LARGE BOTTLE IS VAGUE. FOR COMPARISON, THE CAPACITY TOLERANCE FOR A TYPICAL 341MILLILITER (ml) BEER BOTTLE IS ABOUT 1.3%.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

DESIGN PROTECTION
A GLASS CONTAINERS DESIGN OR SHAPE CANNOT BE PATENTED, BUT IT CAN BE PROTECTED BY REGISTRATION. UNDER THE TRADEMARK ACT, CONTINUAL PROTECTION CAN BE MAINTAINED FOR A SPECIAL BOTTLE DESIGN. DECORATION MAY BE INCORPORATED AS A PART OF A DESIGN AND ALSO PROTECTED. A FUNCTIONAL DETAIL, WHICH CAN BE CONSIDERED AS A NEW INVENTION, MAY BE CONSIDERED FOR A PATENT, SUBJECT TO THE SAME CONDITIONS AS A REGULAR PATENT CASE.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

BOTTLES PARTS AND SHAPES
Figure 8.6 Illustrates the terms used to describe parts of bottle. Figure 8.7 Illustrates simple shapes and some of the defects that occur with increasingly complex shapes.

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BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

VISCOUS GLASS FLOWS EASIEST INTO MOLDS WITH SMOOTH, ROUND SHAPES. ROUND BOTTLES ARE EASIEST TO MANUFACTURE SINCE THEY ARE AN EXPANSION OF THE CIRCULAR PARISON, ELIMINATING COMPLEX MATERIAL-DISTRIBUTION PROBLEMS. ROUND SHAPES RUN EASILY ON FILLING LINES AND CAN BE LABELED AT RELATIVELY HIGH SPEEDS. THEY CAN BE ACCURATELY POSITIONED IN A SPOT-LABELER VIA AN INDEXING LABEL LUG ON THE BOTTLE EXTERIOR. ROUND BOTTLES HAVE GREATER STRENGTH-TO-WEIGHT RATIOS AND BETTER MATERIAL UTILIZATION THAN IRREGULAR SHAPES. (See Table 8.2)

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

REPRESENTATIVE GLASS WEIGHTS FOR ROUND AND IRREGULAR BOTTLES.
CAPACITY
30 mL 340 mL 455 mL 905 mL

ROUND
45g 225g 285g 455g

IRREGULAR
55g 285g 355g 565g

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

BOSTON ROUND (See Figure 8.7), HAVE VERY EFFICIENT GLASS USAGE PER ENCLOSED VOLUME AND ARE MADE TO STANDARDIZED DIMENSIONS.
THIS FACILITATES ORDERING SMALL QUANTITIES FORM STOCK, AT LOW COST.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

SQUARE SHAPES, ANGULAR SHAPES, FLAT SHAPES AND SHARP CORNERS ARE MORE DIFFICULT TO FORM PROPERLY AND HAVE MANY INHERENT PROBLEMS. FOR EXAMPLE, FLAT FLASKS ARE PRONE TO HAVING TWO SIDES OF THE PARISON TOUCH MOMENTARILY DURING TRANSFER FROM THE BLANK TO THE BLOW MOLD. THIS RESULT IN SPIKES OR IN EXTREME CASES A BIRD SWING ON THE SIDE OF THE BOTTLE. (See Figure 8.7) RECTANGULAR BOTTLES STILL HAVE A ROUND FINISH, A FACTOR REQUIRING CAREFUL DESIGN TO AVOID STRESS POINTS.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

FINISH AND CLOSURES A BOTTLE FINISH IS DEFINED AS THE PART THAT WILL RECEIVE THE CLOSURE.

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BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

BOTTLE FINISHES ARE BROADLY CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO DIAMETER (EXPRESSED AS THE NOMINAL INSIDE DIAMETER IN MILLIMETRES), SEALING METHOD AND SPECIAL FEATURES. STANDARDS FOR FINISH SIZES AND TOLERANCES HAVE BEEN SET BY THE GLASS PACKAGING INSTITUTE, AND ARE FOLLOWED BY THE BOTTLE MAKER AND CLOSURE MAKER. CONTINUOUS THREAD (CT), LUG, CROWN, THREAD CROWN AND A ROLL-ON ARE COMMON FINISH DESIGNS.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

CLOSURES ARE SELECTED ON THE BASIS OF COST, UTILITY AND DECORATION. PARTICULAR CLOSURE REQUIREMENTS WILL DICTATE SPECIFIC BOTTLE FINISH DESIGNS. THE THREAD PROFILE FOR GLASS HAS A CURVED OR PARTIALLY SEMICIRCULAR PROFILE, WHILE PLASTIC-BOTTLE THREADS HAVE FLAT LANDS. CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN TO MATCH THE CORRECT BOTTLE AND CLOSURE THREAD PROFILES.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

NECK AND SHOULDER AREAS NECKS DESIGNS HAVE PARTICULAR IMPACT ON FILLING, AIR DISPLACEMENT AND DISPENSING. DIFFERENCES IN FILL LEVEL ARE MORE VISIBLE IN LONG, NARROW NECKS. HEADSPACE IS SOMETIMES NEEDED TO PROVIDE FOR THERMAL EXPANSION AND TO FACILITATE FILLING. A CHOKE NECK IS A MANUFACTURING DEFECT WERE EXCESS GLASS HAS BEEN DISTRIBUTED TO THE INSIDE OF THE FINISH OR OPENING. OVERPRESS IS A DEFECT WHERE A SMALL RIDGE OF GLASS HAS BEEN FORMED ON THE SEALING SURFACE OF THE BOTTLE FINISH. (See Figure 8.7)

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

THE UPPER SHOULDER IS THE AREA DIRECTLY BELOW THE NECK. BLENDING OF UPPER SHOULDER AND NECK IS IMPORTANT TO GOOD DESIGN AND EFFICIENT PRODUCTION. THE LOWER SHOULDER IS THE INTEGRATION POINT BETWEEN UPPER SHOULDER AND BODY. IT IS A VULNERABLE SPOT FOR ABUSIVE CONTACT WITH OTHER BOTTLES AND THE ORIGIN OF MANY HANDLING AND SHIPPING FRACTURES. CONTACT AREA WITH OTHER BOTTLES SHOULD BE AS LARGE AS POSSIBLE.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

SIDES THE SIDES ARE THE MOST GENERALIZED AREA OF THE BOTTLE. LABELLING STYLES AND MEANS OF PREVENTING SCUFFING MUST BE CONSIDERED. BOTTLES ARE OFTEN WITH LABEL PANELS THAT ARE RECESSED TO PREVENT SCUFFING. (See Figure 8.7, CENTER) THE PANEL MAY HAVE PROMINENT BASE AND SHOULDER RIDGES AS PART OF THE DESIGNS. IN ANGULAR BOTTLES, ROUND CORNERS RATHER THAN BEVELED ONES ARE PREFERABLE FOR WRAP-AROUND OR THREE-SIDED LABELING. SPOT LABELING IS NORMALLY A ONE- OR TWO SIDED APPLICATION, BUT FOUR-SIDED LABELERS ARE AVAILABLE. LABELLING OF NONROUNDED SHAPES IS TYPICALLY SLOWER THAN FOR ROUND SHAPES.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

HEEL AND BASE THE HEEL IS A HIGH-ABUSE AREA. IT SHOULD START AS HIGH FROM THE BASE AS POSSIBLE, CURVING INTO THE BASE TO A SUITABLE BASE DIAMETER. THE BODY-TO-BASE CURVE SHOULD COMBINE 3 RADII. THE LARGEST RADIUS BLENDS BODY TO HEEL, WHILE THE SMALLEST BLENDS HEEL INTO BASE.

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BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

THE DIAMETER OF THE BASE SHOULD BE AS LARGE AS POSSIBLE WITHIN CONSTRAINTS OF GOOD DESIGN. THE CENTER OF THE BASE IS ALWAYS DOMED INWARD (THE PUSH-UP) TO ENSURE A FLAT STABLE BOTTOM THAT WILL NOT CAUSE THE BOTTLE TO ROCK. THE CIRCULAR BEARING SURFACE ON WHICH THE BOTTLE REST WILL USUALLY HAVE A STIPPLED OF KNURLED PATTERN SO THAT SCRATCHES THAT INEVITABLY OCCUR DURING HANDLING AND USAGE DO NOT WEAKEN THE BOTTLES BODY.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

KETCHUP BOTTLES AND OTHER SAUCE BOTTLES REQUIRE THAT BOTH HEEL AND BASE BE HEAVIER AND CONTOURED TO ALLOW CONSUMERS TO TAP THEM SAFELY AND COMFORTABLY WHEN EXPELLING THE CONTENTS.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

SOME WIDE-MOUTHED JAR BASES HAVE DESIGNED-IN STACKING FEATURES. THERE ARE TWO TYPES: -CONTAINER BASE FIRST INTO RECESSED CAP -INDENTED CONTAINER BASE FITS OVER CAP A HEEL TAP IS A MANUFACTURING DEFECT WERE EXCESS GLASS HAS BEEN DISTRIBUTED TO THE HEEL AREA. (See Figure 8.7)

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

STABILITY AND MACHINABILITY CENTER OF GRAVITY AND THE BASE SURFACE AREA WILL DETERMINE A BOTTLES STABILITY. STABLE BOTTLES MINIMIZE HANDLING PROBLEMS ON BOTH MANUFACTURING AND FILLING LINES. TALL AND NARROW BOTTLES PRESENT THE MOST PROBLEMS IN MANUFACTURING, PACKAGING LINE HANDLING AND LABELING DUE TO THE HIGH CENTER OF GRAVITY. SHORT BOTTLES, USUALLY WITH ROUND OR OVAL BODIES, ARE AN EFFICIENT TYPE FOR MACHINE HANDLING AND PRESENT MINIMAL LABELING PROBLEMS. EXAMPLES OF THIS TYPE OF BOTTLE INCLUDE BABY FOOD AND COLD CREAM JARS

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE, BOTTLE DESIGNS SHOULD BE ALL-ROUND TROUBLE-FREE TO MANUFACTURE, FILL AND SHIP. SOME DESIGNS ARE INHERENTLY WEAKER OR MORE PRONE TO CAUSE TROUBLE IN THEIR FILLING AND DISTRIBUTION CYCLE THAN OTHERS.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

DECORATING AND LABELING SOME DECORATIVE EFFECTS ARE MOLDED INTO THE BOTTLE GLASS; OTHERS ARE ADDED ON AFTER THE BOTTLE HAS BEEN MOLDED. EFFECTS SUCH AS SURFACE TEXTURES OR MOLDED-IN LETTERING ARE PRODUCED BY CREATING THE MIRROR DESIGN ON THE BLOW MOLDS INTERIOR SURFACE. IN THE SAME MANNER, A CUT-GLASS EFFECT CAN BE OBTAINED, PROVIDED THE DEPTHOF THE V-SHAPED GROOVES DOES NOT EXCEED 25% OF THE GROOVE WIDTH. THE CUT-GLASS EFFECT ENHANCES THE APPEARANCE OF CLEAR FLINT GLASS WITHOUT IMPAIRING PRODUCT VISIBILITY.

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BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

STIPPLING OR TEXTURING HAS DECORATIVE VALUE, BUT IT CAN REDUCE PRODUCT VISIBILITY. THIS CAN BE USED ON THE CONTAINERS LOWER PORTION TO MASK PRODUCT SEDIMENTS OR ON THE UPPER PORTION TO MASK UNEVEN FILL HEIGHTS.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

LABELS AREAS MUST BE CAREFULLY CONSIDERED PRIOR TO A DESIGN COMMITMENT. LABEL PANELS MUST BE LARGE ENOUGH TO ACCEPT THE PROPOSED LABEL, AND IN THE INSTANCE OF PAPER LABELS, CAN CURVE IN ONLY ONE AXIS.

ROUND BOTTLES LABEL FASTER THAN FLAT SHAPES, PARTICULARLY IF MORE THAN ONE FACE IS BEING LABELED.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

LABEL PANELS WHERE THE LABEL IS RECESSED ENOUGH TO PREVENT CONTACT AND ABRASION WITH OTHER LABELS OR BOTTLES PARTS ARE AN IMPORTANT DESIGN FEATURE. (See Figure 8.7) IN SOME DESIGNS, PROMINENT RIDGES ENCIRCLE THE BOTTLE ARE A PART OF THE OVERALL DESIGN APPEARNCE.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

WRAPAROUND LABELS USE MINIMAL AMOUNTS OF ADHESIVES, REQUIRING ONLY A BAND OF ADHESIVES TO GLUE THE LABEL TO ITSELF AT THE OVERLAP. A STRIPE OF LABEL PICK-UP ADHESIVE IS APPLIED DIRECTLY TO THE CONTAINER.

SPOT LABELS CAN BE APPLIED TO VIRTUALLY ANY LOCATION ON A CONTAINER. ADHESIVE CAN BE APPLIED TO THE CONTAINER OR TO THE LABEL BACK. WRAP-AROUND LABELS ARE IMPRACTICAL FOR BOTTLES WITH CONCAVE OR CONVEX SURFACES.

OTHER, APPARENTLY STRAIGHT-WALLED BOTTLES ACTUALLY HAVE A SLIGHT (0.08 mm OR 0.003 in.) HOURGLASS SIDEWALL CURVE.

PAPER SPOT LABELS MAY BE USED IF THE CONTOUR IS IN ONE AXIS. PLASTIC SHRINKABLE LABELS ARE LIKELY A BETTER CHOICE.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

THE SHRINK PROPERTIES OF PLASTIC LABELS HAVE THE ADVANTAGE OF BEING ABLE TO CONFORM TO AREAS THAT CURVE IN TWO AXES. CLEAR LABELS MADE FROM THE MATERIALS SUCH AS POLYPROPYLENE ARE USED TO CREATE VARIOUS DECORATIVE EFFECTS, INCLUDING EXCELLENT IMITATIONS OF SCREEN PRINTED DECORATION.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

SCREEN PRINTING CAN BE USED TO APPLY DECORATION DIRECTLY TO THE BOTTLE SURFACE.
IN MOST INSTANCES, SUCH INKS ARE FIRED ON TO PRODUCE AN EXTREMELY DURABLE APPLIED CERAMIC LABEL (ACL). -THE PROCESS HAS SOME COLOR LIMITATIONS, AND PROCESS PRINTING CANNOT BE DONE ACL LABELING IS COMMON IN MARKETS WHERE GLASS SOFT DRINK BOTTLES ARE REFILLED.

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BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

DECALS AND PRESSURE-SENSITIVE LABELS ARE TWO OTHER DECORATING OPTIONS. THESE OFFER THE FULL RANGE OF PRINTING POSSIBILITIES.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

A FROSTED APPEARANCE CAN BE PRODUCED BY ETCHING BOTTLES WITH HYDROFLUORIC ACIS (A RELATIVELY COSTLY PROCESS) OR BY SANDBLASTING. THESE SURFACES SHOW WET SPOTS WHEN HANDLED, DUE TO SURFACE MOISTURE ON THE HAND. CERAMIC FROSTING IS ACHIEVED BY SPRAYING THE BOTTLE EXTERIOR WITH A CERAMIC PAINT, OR FRIT, MADE FROM A GROUND GLASS-AND-OIL MIXTURE, AND THEN FIRING. DURING FIRING, THE OIL-EVAPORATES AND THE GROUND GLASS IS FUSED TO THE BOTTLE SURFACE. THIS PROCESS IS USED PRIMARILY FOR FANCY COSMETICS CONTAINERS.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

IN MANY DESIGNS IT IS NECESSARY TO REGISTER OR ALIGN A LABEL WITH ANOTHER DESIGN FEATURE. TYPICAL SITUATIONS INVOLVE THE NEED TO: REGISTER THE APPLICATIONS SO THAT A LABEL DOES NOT FALL ACROSS A MOLD PARTING LINE. ACTUATE AUTOMATIC ACL OR OTHER LABELING MACHINERY. ALIGN LABELS WITH CLOSURE FEATURES. ALIGN AN APPLIED LABEL WITH OTHER LABELS OR MARKINGS. REGISTRATION FEATURES ARE MOST OFTEN FOUND ON ROUND CONTAINERS, AND ARE USUALLY IN THE FORM OF A PROJECTING LUG OR A SMALL RECESS ALONG THE BASE PERIMETER OR ON THE BOTTLE BASE ITSELF.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

VIALS AND AMPOULES VIALS AND AMPOULES, USED MAINLY FOR PHARMACEUTICAL AND SERA, ARE MADE FROM PREFORMED TUBING STOCK RATHER BY THE BLOWING METHODS USED FOR GLASS BOTTLES. AMPOULES ARE SEALED GLASS CONTAINERS WITH A CONSTRICTION THAT HAS BEEN TREATED TO ALLOW FOR EASY FRACTURE. THIS MAY BE CONTROLLED SCORE, OR IT MAY BE COATED WITH A CERAMIC PAINT THAT CAUSES A STRESS CONCENTRATION IN THE CONSTRICTION. STANDARD AMPOULES SIZES ARE 1, 2, 5, 10 AND 20 ml.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

SERUMS VIALS ARE SMALL BOTTLES THAT ARE FITTED WITH A RUBBER SEPTUM RETAINED BY AN ALUMINUM NECK RING. THE RUBBER SEPTUM IS PIERCED BY A NEEDLE CANNULA TO WITHDRAW SERUM. UNLIKE AN AMPOULE, THE VIAL CAN BE ACCESSED SEVERAL TIMES. VIALS COME IN STANDARD SIZES OF 1, 2, 3, 5, 10 AND 20 ml.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

Table 8.3 GAS VOLUMES OF COMMON CARBONATED BEVERAGES. PRODUCT FRUIT FLAVOR SOFTDRINKS BEER COLAS MIXERS FRESCA TAB, SPRITE 7-Up GAS VOLUMES 1.5 TO 2.5 mL 2.5 TO 3.0 mL 3.5 TO 4.3 mL 4.5 TO 5.0 mL 2.7 TO 3.3 mL 3.6 TO 4.2mL 4.0mL

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BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

THE PRESSURE DEVELOPED BY CARBONATED BEVERAGE DEPENDS ON, AMONG OTHER FACTORS, THE AMOUNT OF GAS DISSOLVED IN THE PRODUCT. BEVERAGE PRODUCERS EXPRESS THIS AS THE NUMBER OF GAS DISSOLVED IN A UNIT VOLUME OF THE PRODUCT. FOR EXAMPLE, IF A 48 oz. VOLUME OF CARBON DIOXIDE AT STANDARD CONDITIONS IS DISSOLVED IN 12 oz. OF BEVERAGE IS SAID TO YIELD 4 GAS VOLUMES. TABLE 8.3 LISTS COMMON GAS VOLUME RANGES.

BOTTLE DESIGN FEATURES

CARBONATED BEVERAGE AND BEER BOTTLES MUST WITHSTAND INTERNAL GAS PRESSURE AND MUST BE WELL CAPPED. INTERNAL PRESSURE IN A SOFT DRINK CONTAINER MAY REACH 0.34 MILLIPASCALS (50 psi), WHILE BEER DURING PASTEURIZATION MAY REACH 0.83 MILLIPASCALS (120 psi).

THE STRESS ON THE GLASS CAUSES A LOSS OF BOTTLE STRENGTH OVER TIME WITH THE GREATEST LOSS OCCURING WITHIN THE FIRST WEEK AFTER FILLING. BOTTLE DESIGNS FOR PASTEURIZED PRODUCTS ARE ALWAYS ROUND IN CROSS-SECTION AND HAVE GENTLY CURVING RADII IN ORDER TO MAXIMIZE BOTTLE STRENGTH.

22