ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

VOLUME TWO
STEREOCHEMISTRY

AND THE CHEMISTRY OF NATURAL PRODUCTS

by
I.

L.

FINAR

[Link], Ph.D.(LoncL), A.R.I.C.

Senior Lecturer in Organic Chemistry,

Northern Polytechnic, Holloway, London

LONGMANS

LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO LTD

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Associated companies, branches and representatives throughout the world

Second and Third 'Editions

/.

L. Finar, 1959 and 1964

First Published 19S6

Second Impression 1958 Second Edition 1959 Second Impression 1960 Third Edition 1964

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PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION

This third edition has been revised to bring it up to date. This has been made possible by the information I have obtained from articles written by experts on important developments in their field of research. Since the volume of research published on topics dealt with (and not dealt with) in this book make it impossible to include all new work, I have therefore had to choose, but any deficiencies in my choice are, I hope, partly compensated by the reading references given at the end of each chapter. Chapter III has been rewritten (and renamed), but the section on transition state theory of reactions has been omitted; it has now been included in Volume I (4th ed., 1963). Expanded topics include nuclear magnetic
resonance, correlation of- configurations, conformational analysis, molecular overcrowding, the Beckmann rearrangement, nucleophilic substitution at a saturated carbon atom, elimination and addition reactions, carotenoids, penicillins, amino-acids, biosynthesis, etc. Some additions are rotatory dispersion, electron spin resonance, specification of absolute configurations, Newman projection formulae, neighbouring group participation, the WagnerMeerwein rearrangement, sesquiterpenes, etc.
I.

L.

FINAR

1964

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

This volume has now been revised to bring
it up to date; this has involved the expansion of some sections and the addition of new material. It may be useful if I indicate briefly the more important changes I have made in this new edition. Two major additions are conformational analysis and biosynthesis in each case I have given an introduction to the problem, and have also discussed various applications. Some other additions are nuclear magnetic resonance, correlation of configurations, woflavones, and vitamin B 12 Expanded topics include dipole moments, molecular rotation, optical isomerism, steric effects (including steric factors and the transition state, molecular overcrowding), ascorbic acid, structure and synthesis of cholesterol, vitamin A 1( polypeptides, mechanism of enzyme action, fiavones, streptomycin and patulin. I wish to thank those reviewers and correspondents who have pointed out errors and have made suggestions for improving the book.
:

I.

L.

FINAR

1958

VI

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

In the Preface of my earlier book, Organic Chemistry, Longmans, Green (1954, 2nd ed.), I expressed the opinion that the chemistry of natural products is the application of the principles of Organic Chemistry. The present work is, in this sense, a continuation of my earlier one. It is my belief that a student who has mastered the principles will be well on the road to mastering the applications when he begins to study them. At the same time, a study of the applications will bring home to the student the dictum of Faraday: " Ce n'est pas assez de savoir les principes, il faut savoir Manipuler " (quoted by Faraday from the Dictionnaire de Trevoux). In the sections on Stereochemistry, I have assumed no previous knowledge of this subject. This has meant a certain amount of repetition of some of the material in my earlier book, but I thought that this way of dealing with the subject would be preferable, since the alternative would have led to discontinuity. I have omitted an account of the stereochemistry of co-ordinated compounds since this subject is dealt with in textbooks on Inorganic Chemistry. The section of this book dealing with natural products has presented many difficulties. I have tried to give a general indication of the problems involved, and in doing so I have chosen, to a large extent, the most typical
for fairly detailed discussion. At the same time, I believe that the subject matter covered should serve as a good introduction to the organic chemistry required by students reading for Part II of the Special Honours degree in chemistry of the London University. I have given a selected number of reading references at the end of each chapter to enable students to extend their knowledge and also to make up for any omissions I may have made. It is impossible to express my indebtedness to those authors of monographs, articles, etc., from which I have gained so much information, and I can only hope that some measure of my gratitude is expressed by the references I have given to their works. Since physical measurements are now very much used in elucidating structures of organic compounds, I have included a short chapter on these measurements (Chapter I). I have introduced only a minimum amount of theory in this chapter to enable the student to understand the terms used; the main object is to indicate the applications of physical measurements. In this book, cross-references are indicated by section and chapter. If a cross-reference occurs to another section in that chapter, then only the section number is given. It should also be noted that the numbers assigned to formulae, etc., are confined to each section, and not carried on to subsequent sections in that chapter. When references have been given to my earlier volume, the latter has been referred to as Volume I. In such cases the pages have not been quoted since the pagination of the various editions changes. The student, however, should have no difficulty in locating the reference from the index of Volume I.
I.

compounds

L.

FINAR

1955

Vll

CONTENTS
LIST OF
CHAPTER
I.

JOURNAL ABBREVIATIONS

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CONSTITUTION

Introduction, 1. Melting point, 3.

der Waals forces, 1. The hydrogen bond, 2. Boiling point, 4. Solubility, 4. Viscosity, 5. Molecular volumes, 5. Parachor, 6. Refrachor, 7. Refractive index, 7. Molecular rotation, 8. Rotatory dispersion, 10. Dipole

Van

.... AND CHEMICAL ....

Absorption spectra,
17. 13.

PAGE *xii

moments, 11. Magnetic susceptibility, 12. X-ray analysis, 16. Electron diffraction,
graphy,
ance,
17. 17.

Neutron

crystallo-

Electron spin resonance,

17.

Nuclear magnetic reson-

II.

OPTICAL ISOMERISM
Stereoisomerism: definitions, 20. Optical isomerism, 20. The tetrahedral carbon atom, 21. Conformational analysis, 28. Conventions used in stereochemistry, 30. Correlation of configurations,
Specification of asymmetric configurations, 35. Elements of 37. Number of isomers in optically active compounds, 40. The racemic modification, 45. Properties of the racemic modification, 48. Methods for determining the nature of the racemic modification, 49. Quasi-racemate method, 50. Resolution of racemic modifications, 51. The cause of optical activity, 56.
34.

20

symmetry,

III.

NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION AT A

SATURATED CARBON ATOM

S N 1 and S N 2 mechanisms,
Polar effects, 61.
65.

....

60

60.

Factors affecting mechanism:

Steric effects, 63. Nature of the halogen atom, Nature of reagent, 66. Nature of solvent, 67. Walden Inversion, 69. Mechanism of Walden inversion, 71. S N i mechan-

ism, 73.

Participation of neighbouring groups, 74. Asymmetric Synthesis: Partial asymmetric synthesis, 79. Conformational analysis, 82. Absolute asymmetric synthesis, 85.

IV.

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM
Nature of geometrical isomerism,
87.

....

87

Rotation about a double bond, 88. Modern theory of the nature of double bonds, 88. Nomenclature of geometrical isomers, 89. Determination of configuration of geometrical isomers, 91. Stereochemistry of addition reactions, 98. Stereochemistry of elimination reactions, 100. Stereochemistry of Cyclic Compounds: eycZoPropane types, 105. cycZoButane types, 107. cye/oPentane types, 108. cj/c/oHexane types; conformational analysis, 109. Fused ring systems; conformational analysis, 116.

V.

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF DIPHENYL COMPOUNDS

Configuration of the diphenyl molecule, 126. Optical activity of the diphenyl compounds, 127. Absolute configurations of diphenyls, 130. Other examples of restricted rotation, 130. Molecular overcrowding, 133. Racemisation of diphenyl compounds, 135. Evidence for the obstacle theory, 138. Stereochemistry OF THE AlXENES, 139. STEREOCHEMISTRY OF THE SPIRANS, 140. ix

126

CONTENTS
CHAPTER

PAGB

VI.

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SOME ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON

.

143

Shapes of molecules, 143. Nitrogen compounds, 143. Phosphorus compounds, 161. Arsenic compounds, 163. Antimony compounds, Sulphur compounds, 169. Silicon compounds, 174. Tin 169. compounds, 174. Germanium compounds, 174. Selenium compounds, 174. Tellurium compounds, 175.

VII.

CARBOHYDRATES
Determination of the configuration of the monosaccharides, 176. Ring structure of the monosaccharides, 181. Methods for determining the size of sugar rings, 187. Conformational analysis, 201. isoPropylidene derivatives of the monosaccharides, 203. Vitamin C,
208. 224.

176

Disaccharides, 214. Trisaccharides, 223. Photosynthesis, 232. Glycosides, 234.

.

Polysaccharides,

VIII.

TERPENES

242

Isoprene rule, 242. Isolation of terpenes, 244. General methods Monoterpenes: Acyclic monofor determining structure, 244. Monocyclic monoterpenes, 255. Bicyclic monoterpenes, 245. terpenes, 271. Correlation of configuration, 292. Sesquiterpenes: Acyclic sesquiterpenes, 295. Monocyclic sesquiterpenes, 297. BiDiterpenes, 308. Triterpenes, 313. cyclic sesquiterpenes, 299. Biosynthesis of terpenes, 314. Polyterpenes Rubber, 317.
:

IX.

CAROTENOIDS
Introduction, 321. Carotenes, 321. Carotenoid acids, 336. phylls, 335.

321
Vitamin A, 330. Xantho-

X.

POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS

Introduction, 339. General methods of preparation, 339. anthracenes, 347. Phenanthrene derivatives, 351.

339

Benz-

XL STEROIDS
Introduction, 358. Sterols: Cholesterol, 359. Stereochemistry of the steroids, 376. Conformational analysis, 380. Ergosterol, 382. Vitamin D group, 384. Stigmasterol, 387. Biosynthesis of sterols, Bile Acids, 390. Sex Hormones Androgens, 395. (Estro389. Gestagens, 409. Adrenal Cortical Hormones, 415. gens, 398. Auxins, 418.
:

358

XII.

HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING .421 TWO OR MORE HETERO-ATOMS

. .

Nomenclature, 421.

Azoles: Pyrazoles, 421.

Imidazoles, 428.

Oxazoles, 430. Thiazoles, 431. Triazoles, 433. Sydnones, 434. Azines: Pyridazines, 437. Pyrimidines, 438. Tetrazoles, 436. Pyrazines, 444. Benzodiazines, 445. Oxazines, 446. PhenoxThiazines, 447. Triazines and Tetrazines, 447. azines, 446.

XIII.

AMINO-ACIDS AND PROTEINS

.449

General methods of preparation, Classification of amino-acids, 449. General properties of aminoIsolation of amino-acids, 457. 449. Thyroxine, 462. Proteins: General nature of acids, 458. Structure of proteins, 468. Polypeptides, 471. proteins, 465. Enzymes: Nomenclature, 477. Classification, 477. Conditions for enzyme action, 478. Biosynthesis of amino-acids and proteins, 480.

XIV.

ALKALOIDS
Introduction, 484.

484
Extraction of alkaloids, 484.
General methods PhenylethylClassification, 488. group, 495. Pyridine group, 497. Quinoline group, 520. isoQuinogroup, 537. Biosynthesis of alka-

for determining structure, 485. amine group, 489. Pyrrolidine Pyrrolidine-Pyridine group, 504. Phenanthrene line group, 533. loids, 541.

CONTENTS

XI

XV.

ANTHOCYANINS
Introduction, 645. General nature of anthocyanins, 545. Structure of the anthocyanidins, 546. Flavones, 557. moFlavones, 565. Biosynthesis of flavonoids, 566. Depsides, 566.

545

XVI.

PURINES AND NUCLEIC ACIDS

Introduction,

.569

569. Uric acid, 569. Purine derivatives, 576. Xanthine bases, 580. Biosynthesis of purines, 586. Nucleic Acids, 587.

XVII.

VITAMINS
Introduction, 598.
619.

598

Vitamin

Vitamin

complex, 598.

Vitamin

group

group, 623.

XVIII.

CHEMOTHERAPY
Introduction, 627. Arsenical drugs, 631.

627

Sulphonamides, 627. Antimalarials, 630. Antibiotics: The Penicillins, 632. Streptomycin, 637. Aureomycin and Terramycin, 638. Patulin, 639. Chloramphenicol, 640.

XIX.

HEMOGLOBIN, CHLOROPHYLL AND PHTHALOCYANINES

Introduction, 643. Haemoglobin, 643. Biosynthesis of porphyrin 654. Chlorophyll, 656. Phthalocyanines, 662.

643

AUTHOR INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX

667

674

LIST OF
Abbreviations Ann. Reports (Chem. Soc.)
Ber.
Bull. Soc. chim.

JOURNAL ABBREVIATIONS
Journals Annual Reports of the Progress of Chemistry (The Chemical Society, London). Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft (name now changed to Chemische Berichte).
Bulletin de la Socit chimique de France.

Chem. Reviews Chem. and Ind.

Experientia
Ind. chim. belg. Ind. Eng. Chem.
J.

Chemical Reviews.
Chemistry and Industry.
Experientia.
Industrie chimique beige.
Industrial
Soc.

and Engineering Chemistry.

Amer. Chem. J. Chem. Educ.

Journal of the American Chemical Society. Journal of Chemical Education.

Journal of the Chemical Society.

J.C.S.
J. J.

Pharm. Pharmacol. Roy. Inst. Chem.

Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. Journal of the Royal Institute of Chemistry.

Nature.

Nature
Proc. Chem. Soc.
Quart. Reviews (Chem. Soc.)
Science

Proceedings of the Chemical Society.

Quarterly Reviews of the Chemical Society (London)

Science.

Tetrahedron

Tetrahedron.

Xll

CHAPTER

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION

A tremendous amount of work has been and is being 1. Introduction. done to elucidate the relationships between physical properties and chemical structure. An ideal state to be achieved is one where the chemist can predict with great accuracy the physical properties of an organic compound whose structure is known, or formulate the correct structure of an organic compound from a detailed knowledge of its physical properties. A great deal of progress has been made in this direction as is readily perceived by examining the methods of elucidating structures of organic compounds over the last few decades. In the early work, the structure of an organic compound was solved by purely chemical means. These are, briefly:
(i)

(ii)
(iii)

(iv)

Qualitative analysis. Quantitative analysis, which leads to the empirical formula. Determination of the molecular weight, which leads to the molecular formula. If the molecule is relatively simple, the various possible structures are written down (based on the valency of carbon being four, that of hydrogen one, oxygen two, etc.). Then the reactions of the compound are studied, and the structure which best fits the facts is chosen. In those cases where the molecules are not relatively simple, the compounds are examined by specific tests to ascertain the nature of the various groups present (see, e.g., alkaloids, 4. XIV). The compounds are also degraded and the smaller fragments examined. By this means it is possible to suggest a tentative structure.

(v)

The final stage for elucidation of structure is synthesis, and in general, the larger the number of syntheses of a compound by different routes, the more reliable will be the structure assigned to that
compound.

In recent years, chemists are making increasing use of physical properties, in addition to purely chemical methods, to ascertain the structures of new compounds. Furthermore, information on structure has been obtained from physical measurements where such information could not have been obtained by chemical methods. The early chemists identified pure compounds by physical characteristics such as boiling point, melting point, refractive index; nowadays many other physical properties are also used to characterise pure compounds. The following account describes a number of relationships between physical properties and chemical constitution, and their application to the problem of elucidating chemical structure.
2. Van der Waals forces. Ostwald (1910) classified physical properties as additive (these properties depend only on the nature and number of atoms in a molecule), constitutive (these properties depend on the nature, number and arrangement of the atoms in the molecule), and colligative (these properties depend only on the number of molecules present, and are independent of their chemical constitution). It is extremely doubtful whether any one of these three classes of properties is absolutely independent of either or both of the others, except for the case of molecular weights, which may be regarded as truly additive and independent of the other two.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH.

In constitutive and colligative properties, forces between molecules have a very great effect on these properties. Attractive forces between molecules of a substance must be assumed in order to explain cohesion in liquids and Ideal gases obey the equation PV solids. RT, but real gases do not, partly because of the attractive forces between molecules. Van der Waals (1873) was the first to attempt to modify the ideal gas law for the behaviour of real gases by allowing for these attractive forces (he introduced the term a/v % to correct for them). These intermolecular forces are now usually referred to as van der Waals forces, but they are also known as residual or secondary valencies. These forces may be forces of attraction or forces of repulsion; the former explain cohesion, and the latter must be assumed to exist at short distances, otherwise molecules would collapse into one another when intermolecular distances become very small. The distances to which atoms held together by van der Waals forces can approach each other, i.e., the distances at which the repulsion becomes very large, are known as van der Waals radii. Some values (in Angstroms) are:

H, 1-20; O, 140; N, 1-50; CI, 1-80; S, 1-85. These values are very useful in connection with molecules that exhibit the steric effect, e.g., substituted diphenyl compounds (2. V).
but they are greater for of elements. In fact, the more asymmetrical the molecule, the greater are the van der Waals forces. These forces originate from three different causes: (i) Forces due to the interaction between the permanent dipole moments of the molecules (Keesom, 1916, 1921). These forces are known as Keesom forces or the dipole-dipole effect, and are dependent on temperature. (ii) Forces which result from the interaction of a permanent dipole and induced dipoles. Although a molecule may not possess a permanent dipole, nevertheless a dipole may be induced under the influence of neighbouring molecules which do possess a permanent dipole (Debye, 1920, 1921). These forces are known as Debye forces, the dipole-induced dipole effect or induction effect, and are almost independent of temperature. (iii) London (1930) showed from wave mechanics that a third form of
forces),

Van der Waals forces are electrostatic weak forces {i.e., in comparison with bond compounds than for atoms and molecules

in nature.

They

are relatively

nucleus and its " electron cloud forces is also acting. are in a state of vibration, and when two atoms are sufficiently close to each other, the two nuclei and the two electron clouds tend to vibrate together, thereby leading to attraction between different molecules. These forces are

van der Waals

"

forces, dispersion forces, or the wave-mechanical of temperature. It should be noted that the induced forces are smaller than the other two, and that the dispersion forces are usually the greatest. It can now be seen that all those physical properties which depend on intermolecular forces, e.g., melting point, boiling point, viscosity, etc., will thus be largely determined by the van der Waals forces. Van der Waals forces may also be responsible for the formation of molecular complexes (see Vol. I).

known
effect,

as

London

and are independent

particularly important case of electrostatic 3. The hydrogen bond. attraction is that which occurs in hydrogen bonding (Vol. I, Ch. II) ; it occurs mainly in compounds containing hydroxyl or imino groups. There are two types of hydrogen bonding, intermolecular and intramolecular. Intermolecular bonding gives rise to association, thereby raising the boiling point ; it also raises the surface tension and the viscosity, but lowers the dielectric constant. Intermolecular hydrogen bonding may exist in compounds in the liquid or solid state, and its formation is Very much affected by the shape of

4]

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION

i.e., by the spatial or steric factor; e.g., w-pentanol is completely associated, whereas totf.-pentanol is only partially associated. Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is also responsible for the formation of various molecular compounds, and also affects solubility if the compound can form hydrogen bonds with the solvent. Intramolecular hydrogen bonding gives rise to chelation, i.e., ring formation, and this normally occurs only with the formation of 5-, 6-, or 7-membered rings. Chelation has been used to explain the volatility of orthocompounds such as o-halogenophenols and o-nitrophenols (as compared with the corresponding m- and ^-derivatives). Chelation has also been used to account for various or^o-substituted benzoic acids being stronger acids than the corresponding m- and ^-derivatives (see Vol. I, Ch. XXVIII). When chelation occurs, the ring formed must be planar or almost planar.

the molecules,

Should another group be present which prevents the formation of a planar chelate structure, then chelation will be diminished or even completely inhibited (Hunter et al., 1938; cf. steric inhibition of resonance, Vol. I, Ch. XXVIII). Compound I is chelated, but II is associated and not chelated. In I the o-nitro-group can enter into the formation of a planar six-membered

CHjCO

^
I

CH 3 Ca

,H

owing to the strong repulsion between the negatively charged oxygen atoms of the two nitro-groups, the plane of each nitro-group will tend to be perpendicular to the plane of the benzene ring, and consequently a chelated planar six-membered ring cannot be formed. The presence of hydrogen bonding may be detected by various means, e.g., infra-red absorption spectra, X-ray analysis, electron diffraction, examring.
II,

In

ination of boiling points, melting points, solubility, etc. The best appears to be that of infra-red absorption spectra (see 15b).

method

4. Melting point. In most solids the atoms or molecules are in a state of vibration about their fixed mean positions. These vibrations are due to the thermal energy and their amplitudes are small compared with interatomic distances. As the temperature of the solid is raised, the amplitude of vibration increases and a point is reached when the crystalline structure suddenly becomes unstable; this is the melting point. In many homologous series the melting points of the M-members rise continuously, tending towards a maximum value. On the other hand, some homologous series show an alternation or oscillation of melting points " the saw-tooth rule ", e.g., in the fatty acid series the melting point of an "even " acid is higher than that of the " odd " acid immediately below and
it. It has been shown by X-ray analysis that this alternation of melting points depends on the packing of the crystals. The shape of the molecule is closely related to the melting point; the more symmetrical the molecule, the higher is the melting point. Thus with isomers, branching of the chain (which increases symmetry) usually raises the melting point; also *ras-isomers usually have a higher melting point than the cis-, the former haying greater symmetry than the latter (see 5. IV). In the benzene series, of the three disubstituted derivatives, the ^-compound usually has the highest melting point. Apart from the usual van der Waals forces which affect melting points

above

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH.

hydrogen bonding may also play a part, e.g., the melting point of an alcohol is higher than that of its corresponding alkane. This may be attributed to hydrogen bonding, which is possible in the former but not in the latter. Various empirical formulae have been developed from which it is possible
to calculate melting points; these formulae, however, only relate members of an homologous series. The method of mixed melting points has long been used to identify a compound, and is based on the principle that two different compounds mutually lower the melting point of each component in the mixture. This method, however, is unreliable when the two compounds form a solid solution.

The boiling point of a liquid is that temperature at 5. Boiling point. which the vapour pressure is equal to that of the external pressure. Thus
the boiling point varies with the pressure, being raised as the pressure
increased.
is

the boiling point usually increases regularly for (1842) found that with the aliphatic alcohols, acids, esters, etc., the boiling point is raised by 19 for each increase of CH 2 in the composition. In the case of isomers the greater the branching of the carbon chain, the lower is the boiling point. Calculation has shown that the boiling point of the w-alkanes should be proportional to the number of carbon atoms in the molecule. This relationship, however, is not observed in practice, and the cause of this deviation still remains to be elucidated. One strongly favoured theory attributes the cause to the fact that the carbon chains of w-alkanes in the liquid phase exist largely in a coiled configuration. As the branching increases, the coil becomes denser, and this lowers the boiling point. In aromatic disubstituted compounds the boiling point of the ortho-isomer is greater than that of the meta-isomer which, in turn, may have a higher boiling point than the ^am-isomer, but in many cases the boiling points are about the same. Since the boiling point depends on the van der Waals forces, any structural change which affects these forces will consequently change the boiling One such structural change is the branching of the carbon chain point. Another type of change is that of substituting hydrogen by (see above). a negative group. This introduces a dipole moment (or increases the value of an existing dipole moment), thereby increasing the attractive forces between the molecules and consequently raising the boiling point, e.g., the boiling points of the nitro-alkanes are very much higher than those of the corresponding alkanes. The possibility of intermolecular hydrogen bonding also raises the boiling point, e.g., alcohols boil at higher temperatures than the corresponding alkanes.
series,

In an homologous

the w-members,

e.g.,

Kopp

It is believed that solubility depends on the following 6. Solubility. intermolecular forces: solvent/solute; solute/solute; solvent/solvent. The solubility of a non-electrolyte in water depends, to a very large extent, on whether the compound can form hydrogen bonds with the water, e.g., the alkanes are insoluble, or almost insoluble, in water. Methane, however, is more soluble than any of its homologues. The reason for this is uncertain hydrogen bonding with water is unlikely, and so other factors must play a part, e.g., molecular size. A useful guide in organic chemistry is that " like dissolves like ", e.g., if a compound contains a hydroxyl group, then the best solvents for that compound also usually contain hydroxyl groups " (hydrogen bonding between solvent and solute is possible). This " rule " " like to mean that the cohesion is accepted by many who use the word forces in

both solvent and solute

arise

from the same source,

e.g.,

alkanes

8]

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION

and alkyl halides are miscible; the cohesion forces of both of these groups of compounds are largely due to dispersion forces. In some cases solubility may be due, at least partly, to the formation of a compound between the solute and the solvent, e.g., ether dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with the formation of an oxonium salt,

(CHJ,OH}+HS04 -

Viscosity (the resistance to flow due to the internal 7. Viscosity. friction in a liquid) depends, among other factors, on the van der Waals
forces acting between the molecules. Since these forces depend on the size of the molecules, the viscosity will also depend on these properties. At the same time, since the Keesom forces (2) depend on temperature, viscosity will also depend on temperature; other factors, however, also play a part. number of relationships have been found between the viscosity of pure liquids and their chemical structure, e.g., (i) In an homologous series, viscosity increases with the molecular weight. (ii) With isomers the viscosity of the -compound is greater than that of isomers with branched carbon chains. (iii) Abnormal viscosities are shown by associated liquids. Viscosity measurements have thus been used to determine the degree of association in liquids. (iv) The viscosity of a fo-aws-compound is greater than that of the corre-

shape and

sponding as-isomer. Equations have been developed relating viscosity to the shape and size of large molecules (macromolecules) in solution, and so viscosity measurements have offered a means of determining the shape of, e.g., proteins, and the molecular weight of, e.g., polysaccharides.
8.
litres

Molecular volumes. The molecular volume (Vm ) is given by the equation v _ gram molecular weight

of a liquid in milli-

density

The

between molecular volume and chemical composition was studied by Kopp (1839-1855). Since the density of a liquid varies with the temperature, it was necessary to choose a standard temperature for comparison. Kopp chose the boiling point of the liquid as the standard temperature. This choice was accidental, but proved to be a fortunate one since the absolute boiling point of a liquid at atmospheric pressure is approximately two-thirds of the critical temperature, i.e., Kopp unknowingly compared liquids in their corresponding states, the theory of which did not appear until 1879. As a result of his work, Kopp was able to compile a table of atomic volumes based on the assumption that the molecular volume was an additive property, e.g.,
relation

H
O (0=0)
0(0H)
It

11-0 5-5 12-2 7-8

CI

Br
I

22-8 27-8 37-5

should be noted that Kopp found that the atomic volume of oxygen (and sulphur) depended on its state of combination. Kopp also showed that the molecular volume of a compound can be calculated from the sum of the atomic volumes, e.g., acetone, CH 3 'COCH 3
.

3C

6H
O(CO)

= 33-0 = 33-0 = 12-2

78-2

Molecular weight of acetone Density at b.p.

. .

, molecular volume

(obs.) V ;

[cole.)

= 58 = 0-749 58 tt-^tk = 77-4 0-749

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH.

Further work has shown that the molecular volume is not strictly addibut also partly constitutive (as recognised by Kopp who, however, tended to overlook this feature). If purely additive, then isomers with similar structures will have the same molecular volume. This has been found to be the case for, e.g., isomeric esters, but when the isomers belong to different homologous series, the agreement may be poor. Later tables have been compiled for atomic volumes with structural corrections. Even so, the relation breaks down in the case of highly polar liquids where the attractive forces between the molecules are so great that the additive (and structural) properties of the atomic volumes are completely masked.
tive,

9.

Parachor.

Macleod (1923) introduced the following equation:

= C(* - d y
a

where y is the surface tension, dt and dg the densities of the liquid and vapour respectively, and C is a constant which is independent of the
temperature. Macleod's equation can be rewritten as:
r*
dl

c*
dg

Sugden (1924) multiplied both sides of this equation weight, M, and pointed out that the expression

by the molecular

should also be valid. Sugden called the constant P for a given compound the parachor of that compound. Provided the temperature is not too high, dg will be negligible compared with di, and so we have

Hence the parachor represents the molecular volume of a liquid at the temperature when its surface tension is unity. Thus a comparison of parachors of different liquids gives a comparison of molecular volumes at temperatures at which liquids have the same surface tension. By this means allowance is made for the van der Waals forces, and consequently the comparison of molecular volumes is carried out under comparable
conditions.

The parachor is largely an additive property, but it is also partly constiThe following table of atomic and structural parachors is that given by Mumford and Phillips (1929).
tutive.

H
N
CI

9-2 15-4

Single

bond
19

Co-ordinate bond

20
17-5

Double bond
Triple
4567-

Br
I

55 69 90 50

bond 3-Membered

38
ring 12-5

3
0-8

-4

The parachor has been used

alternative structures,
e.g.,

^-benzoquinone.

to enable a choice to be made between structures I and II had been suggested for Most of the chemical evidence favoured I, but Graebe

11]

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION

(1867) proposed II to explain some of the properties of this compound (see Vol. I). The parachor has been used to decide between these two:
[P] calculated for I is 233-6;
[6

9-2

+4
X

15-4

+2
I.

x 20

+4

19

+ 0-8]
0-8]

[P] calculated for II is 215-4; [6 X 9-2 [P] observed is 236-8.

+4

15-4

+ 2X20 + 3X19 + 2X

This indicates structure

II

According to Sutton (1952), the parachor is not a satisfactory property for the analysis of molecular structure. It is, however, still useful as a physical characteristic of the liquid-vapour system.
10. Refrachor. Joshi and Tuli (1951) have introduced a new physical constant which they have named the refrachor, [F]. This has been obtained by associating the parachor, [P], with the refractive index, (wg>), according to the following equation:
[F]

-[P] log

1)

The authors have found that the observed refrachor of any compound is composed of two constants, one dependent on the nature of the atoms, and the other on structural factors, e.g., type of bond, size of ring, etc., i.e., the refrachor is partly additive and partly constitutive. Joshi and
Tuli have used the refrachor to determine the percentage of tautomers in equilibrium mixtures, e.g., they found that ethyl acetoacetate contains 7-7 per cent, enol, and penta-2 4-dione 72-4 per cent. enol.
:

11. Refractive

index.

Lorentz

and Lorenz

(1880)

simultaneously

showed that

wa
where

the molecular refradivity, n the refractive index, the moleand d the density. The value of n depends on the wavelength and on temperature; d depends on temperature. Molecular refractivity has been shown to have both additive and constitutive properties. The following table of atomic and structural refractivities has been calculated for the H line.
is

cular weight,

2-413

CI

H
O(OH)
O(CO)
O(ethers)

1092
1-522 2-189 1-639

Br
I

Double bond (C=C) Triple bond (C=C)

5-933 8-803 13-757 1-686 2-328

Molecular refractivities have been used to determine the structure of compounds, e.g., terpenes (see 25. VIII). They have also been used to detect the presence of tautomers and to calculate the amount of each form present. Let us consider ethyl acetoacetate as an example; this behaves as the keto form CH 3COCH 2-C0 2C2 B and as the enol form CH sC(OH)=CH'C0 2C2 5

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
calculated molecular refractivities of these forms are:

[CH.

The

CH 3 CO-CH
6

-C0 2 C 2 H6

10 2

H
(CO)
(ether)

= = = =

14-478 10-92 4-378 1-639

CH3 -C(OH)=:CH-C0 C H5 6 C = 14-478 10 H = 10-92

2 2

31-415

= = (ether) = Double bond =

(OH)
(CO)

1-522 2-189 1-639 1-686

32-434
refractivity of ethyl acetoacetate is 31-89; hence both forms are present. When a compound contains two or more double bonds, the value of the molecular refractivity depends not only on their number but also on their relative positions. When the double bonds are conjugated, then anomalous results are obtained, the observed molecular refractivity being higher than that calculated, e.g., the observed value for hexa-1 3 5-triene is 2-06 units greater than the value calculated. This anomaly is known as optical exaltation, and it usually increases with increase in length of conjugation (in unsubstituted chains). Although optical exaltation is characteristic of acyclic compounds, it is also exhibited by cyclic compounds. In single-ring systems,
: :

The observed molecular

benzene, pyridine, pyrrole, etc., the optical exaltation is negligible; been attributed to resonance. In polycyclic aromatic compounds, however, the exaltation may have a large value. In general, large exaltations are shown by those compounds which exhibit large electronic effects. Another application of the refractive index is its relation to hydrogen bonding. Arshid et al. (1955, 1956) have used the square of the refractive index to detect hydrogen-bond complexes.
e.g.,

this has

12. Molecular rotation. When a substance possesses the property of rotating the plane of polarisation of a beam of plane-polarised light passing through it, that substance is said to be optically active. The measurement of the rotatory power of a substance is carried out by means of a polarimeter. If the substance rotates the plane of polarisation to the right, i.e., the analyser has to be turned to the right (clockwise) to restore the original field, the substance is said to be dextrorotatory; if to the left (anti-clockwise),
Ixvorotatory.
It
(i)

has been found that the amount of the rotation depends, for a given

number of factors: The amount of the rotation is thickness of the layer traversed. directly proportional to the length of the active substance traversed (Biot,
substance, on a

The

1835).

The rotatory power is approximately (ii) The wavelength of the light. inversely proportional to the square of the wavelength (Biot, 1835). There are some exceptions, and in certain cases it has been found that the rotation changes sign. This change in rotatory power with change in wavelength Hence it is necessary (for comparison of is known as rotatory dispersion. rotatory power) to use monochromatic light; the sodium d line (yellow: 5893 A) is one wavelength that is commonly used (see also 12a). The rotatory power usually increases with rise in (iii) The temperature. temperature, but many cases are known where the rotatory power decreases. Hence, for comparison, it is necessary to state the temperature in practice, measurements are usually carried out at 20 or 25. The nature of the solvent affects the rotation, and so (iv) The solvent. it is necessary to state the solvent used in the measurement of the rotatory
;

12]

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION

power. There appears to be some relation between the effect of a solvent on rotatory power and its dipole moment. (v) The concentration. The rotation appears to be independent of the concentration provided that the solution is dilute. In concentrated solutions, however, the rotation varies with the concentration; the causes for this have been attributed to association, dissociation, or solvation (see
also vi).
(vi) The amount of rotation exhibited by a given substance when all the preceding factors (i-v) have been fixed may be varied by the presence of other compounds which are not, in themselves, optically active, e.g., inorganic salts. It is important to note in this connection that optically active acids or bases, in the form of their salts, give rotations which are independent of the nature of the non-optically active ion provided that the solutions are very dilute. In very dilute solutions, salts are completely dissociated, and it is only the optically active ion which then contributes to the rotation. The rotation of a salt formed from an optically active acid and an optically active base reaches a constant value in dilute solutions, and the rotation is the sum of the rotations of the anion and cation. This property has been used to detect optical activity (see 5a. VI). When recording the rotations of substances, the value commonly given is

the specific rotation, fVl

This

is

obtained from the equation:

[I
where
I

nrs

or

H! =

ccx

I
;

the thickness of the layer in decimetres, d the density of the liquid (if it is a pure compound), c the number of grams of substance per millilitre of solution (if a solution is being examined), a the observed rotation, t the temperature and X the wavelength of the light used. The solvent should also be stated (see iv).
is

The molecular rotation, TmT,

is

obtained by multiplying the specific

rotation by the molecular weight, M. Since large numbers are usually obtained, a common practice is to divide the result by one hundred; thus:

fal X

L Ja 100 between structure and optical activity is discussed later (see 2, 3. II). The property of optical activity has been used in the study of the configuration of molecules and. mechanisms of various reactions, and also to decide between alternative structures for a given compound. The use of optical rotations in the determination of structure depends largely on the application of two rules. (i) Rule of Optical Superposition (van't Hoff, 1894) When a compound contains two or more asymmetric centres, the total rotatory power of the molecules is the algebraic sum of the contributions of each asymmetric centre. This rule is based on the assumption that the contribution of each asymmetric centre is independent of the other asymmetric centres present. It has been found, however, that the contribution of a given asymmetric

The

relation

centre is affected by neighbouring centres and also by the presence of chainbranching and unsaturation. Hence the rule, although useful, must be treated with reserve (see also 6. VII). A more satisfactory rule is the Rule of Shift (Freudenberg, 1933): If two asymmetric molecules A and B are changed in the same way to give A' and B', then the differences in molecular rotation (A' A) and (B' B) are of the same sign (see, e.g., 4b. XI).

10

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
:

[CH.

The effect of a given structural (ii) Distance Rule (Tschugaev, 1898) change on the contribution of an asymmetric centre decreases the further the centre of change is from the asymmetric centre.
Only asymmetric molecules have the power, under normal conditions, to rotate the plane of polarisation (of plane-polarised light). Faraday (1845), however, found that any transparent substance can rotate the plane of polarisation when placed in a strong magnetic field. This property of magnetic optical rotation (Faraday effect) is mainly an additive one, but is also partly constitutive.
12a. Rotatory dispersion. In 12wehavediscussedthemethodof optical rotations using monochromatic rotations. There is also, however, the method Optical rotatory dispersion is the change in rotatory of rotatory dispersion. power with change in wavelength, and rotatory dispersion measurements are valuable only for asymmetric compounds. In order to study the essential parts of dispersion curves, it is necessary to measure the optical rotation of a substance right through an absorption band of that substance. This is experimentally possible only if this absorption band is in an accessible part of the spectrum. Up to the present, the carbonyl group (Amax. at 280-300 mp) is the only convenient absorbing group that fulfils the necessary requirements. Thus, at the moment, measurements are taken in the

range 700 to 270 mp. There are three types of rotatory dispersion curves: (a) Plain curves; We shall (6) single Cotton Effect curves; (c) multiple Cotton Effect curves. describe (a) and (6); (c) shows two or more peaks and a corresponding

number
curves,

of troughs.

Plain curves.

These show no

maximum or minimum,

i.e.,

they are smooth

more

positive or negative according as the rotation becomes positive or negative as the wavelength changes from longer to shorter

and may be

values (Fig. la). Single Cotton Effect curves. These are also known as anomalous curves and show a maximum and a minimum, both of these occurring in the region

$
300 ny<
(a)

700mft
Fig. 1.1.

300 m/<
(*)

700 m//

maximum absorption (Fig. 1 6). The curves are said to be positive or negative according as the peak or trough occurs in the longer wavelength. Thus the curve shown in Fig. 1 (&) is positive. As pointed out above, to obtain single Cotton Effect curves (see also 8. The wavelength of maxiIll) the molecule must contain a carbonyl group. ultraviolet absorption is referred to as " the optically active absorption band ", and since rotatory dispersion measurements are of value only for asymmetric compounds, to obtain suitable curves compounds containing a carbonyl group in an asymmetric environment must be used. Enantiomorphs have curves which are mirror images of each other; compounds
of

mum

13]

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION

11

which are enantiomorphic in the neighbourhood of the carbonyl group have dispersion curves which are approximately mirror images of each other; and compounds which have the same relative configurations in the neighbourhood of the carbonyl group have dispersion curves of the same sign. There are many applications of rotatory dispersion: (i) quantitative
(ii) identification of the carbonyl group; (iii) location of carbonyl groups; (iv) the determination of relative configurations; (v) the determination of absolute configurations; (vi) the determination of conformation. Some examples of these applications are described in the text

analytical uses;

(see Index).

Dipole moments. When the centres of gravity of the electrons nuclei in a molecule do not coincide, the molecule will possess a permanent dipole moment, ft, the value of which is given by fi e X d, where e is the electronic charge, and d the distance between the charges (positive and negative centres). Since e is of the order of 10 -10 e.s.u., and d 10~ 8 cm., p is therefore of the order 10~ 18 e.s.u. This unit is known as the Debye (D), in honour of Debye, who did a great deal of work on dipole moments. The dipole moment is a vector quantity, and its direction in a molecule is often indicated by an arrow parallel to the line joining the points of
13.

and

charge, and pointing towards the negative end, e.g., CI (Sidgwick, 1930). The greater the value of the dipole moment, the greater is the polarity of the bond. It should be noted that the terms polar and non-polar are used to describe bonds, molecules and groups. Bond dipoles are produced because of the different electron-attracting powers of atoms (or groups) joined by that bond. This unequal electronegativity producing a dipole moment seems to be a satisfactory explanation for many simple molecules, but is unsatisfactory in other cases. Thus a number of factors must operate in determining the value of the dipole moment. It is now believed that four factors contribute to the bond moment: (i) The unequal sharing of the bonding electrons arising from the different electronegativities of the two atoms produces a dipole moment. (ii) In covalent bonds a dipole is produced because of the difference in size of the two atoms. The centres of gravity (of the charges) are at the nucleus of each contributing atom. Thus, if the atoms are different in size, the resultant centre of gravity is not at the mid-point of the bond, and so a

bond moment
(iii)

results.

Hybridisation of orbitals produces asymmetric atomic orbitals; consequently the centres of gravity of the hybridised orbitals are no longer at the parent nuclei. Only if the orbitals are pure s, p or d, are the centres of gravity at the parent nuclei. Thus hybridised orbitals produce a bond

moment.
(iv) Lone-pair electrons (e.g., on the oxygen atom in water) are not " pure " s electrons; they are " impure " because of hybridisation with p electrons. If lone-pair electrons were not hybridised, their centre of gravity would be at the nucleus; hybridisation, however, displaces the centre of gravity from the nucleus and so the asymmetric orbital produced gives rise to a bond moment which may be so large as to outweigh the contributions of the other factors to the dipole moment. The following points are useful in organic chemistry: (i) In the bond Z, where Z is any atom other than hydrogen or carbon,

the hydrogen atom (ii) In the bond C

Z, where Z

is

the positive end of the dipole, i.e., Z. is any atom other than carbon, the carbon
i.e.,

atom

is

the positive end of the dipole,

(Coulson, 1942).

12

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. I

(iii) When a molecule contains two or more polar bonds, the resultant dipole moment of the molecule is obtained by the vectorial addition of the constituent bond dipole moments. symmetrical molecule will thus be non-polar, although it may contain polar bonds, e.g., CC1 4 has a zero dipole moment although each C CI bond is strongly polar. Since dipole moments are vector quantities, the sum of two equal and opposite group moments will be zero only if the two vectors are collinear or parallel. When the group moment is directed along the axis of the bond formed by the " key " atom of the group and the carbon atom to which it is joined, then that group is said to have a linear moment. Such groups On the other hand, groups which have are H, halogen, Me, CN, 2 etc. This problem of linear non-linear moments are OH, OR, C0 2 H, a etc. or non-linear group moments has a very important bearing on the use of dipole data in, e.g., elucidating configurations of geometrical isomers (see 5. IV), orientation in benzene derivatives (see Vol. I). When any molecule (polar or non-polar) is placed in an electric field, the electrons are displaced from their normal positions (towards the positive pole of the external field). The positive nuclei are also displaced (towards the negative pole of the external field), but their displacement is much less than that of the electrons because of their relatively large masses. These displacements give rise to an induced dipole, and this exists only while the external electric field is present. The value of the induced dipole depends on the strength of the external field and on the polarisability of the molecule, i.e., the ease with which the charged centres are displaced by the external If P is the total dipole moment, P^ the permanent dipole moment, field. and Pa the induced dipole moment, then

N0

NH

P
"Pf,

= P + Pa

decreases as the temperature rises, but Pa is independent of the temperaThe value of P in solution depends on the nature of the solvent and on the concentration. By means of dipole moment measurements, it has been possible to get a great deal of information about molecules, e.g., (i) Configurations of molecules have been ascertained, e.g., water has a dipole moment and hence the molecule cannot be linear. In a similar way it has been shown that ammonia and phosphorus trichloride are not flat molecules. (ii) Orientations in benzene derivatives have been examined by dipole moments (see Vol. I). At the same time, this method has shown that the
ture.

benzene molecule is flat. (iii) Dipole moment measurements have been used to distinguish between
geometrical isomers (see 5. IV). (iv) Dipole moments have been used to demonstrate the existence of reso-

nance and to elucidate electronic structures. (v) Energy differences between different conformations been calculated from dipole moment data.

(see 4a. II)

have

(vi) The existence of dipole moments gives rise to association, the formation of molecular complexes, etc.

When a substance is placed in a mag14. Magnetic susceptibility. netic field, the substance may or may not become magnetised. If I is the intensity of magnetisation induced, and the strength of the magnetic field

H
I

inducing

it,

then the magnetic susceptibility,

K

k, is

given by

15]

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION

induction, B, is given

13

The magnetic

by

B=H
Since
I

*H,

+ 4ttI = H(l + 4n K

The quantity

4jik is called the magnetic permeability, /i. Elements other than iron, nickel and cobalt (which are ferromagnetic) may be divided into two groups:
1
-f(i)

Paramagnetic:

in this group

[i is

greater than unity

and k

is

there-

fore positive.
(ii) Diamagnetic: in this group fi is less than unity and k is therefore negative. All compounds are either paramagnetic or diamagnetic. Paramagnetic substances possess a permanent magnetic moment and consequently orient themselves along the external magnetic field. Diamagnetic substances do not possess a permanent magnetic moment, and tend to orient themselves at right angles to the external magnetic field. Electrons, because of their spin, possess magnetic dipoles. When electrons are paired {i.e., their spins are anti-parallel), then the magnetic field is cancelled out. Most organic compounds are diamagnetic, since their elec" Odd electron molecules ", however, are paramagnetic trons are paired. &

(see also 19).

Magnetic susceptibility has been used to obtain information on the nature bonds and the configuration of co-ordination compounds. Organic compounds which are paramagnetic are generally free radicals (odd electron molecules), and the degree of dissociation of, e.g., hexaphenylethane into triphenylmethyl has been measured by means of its magnetic susceptibility.
of 15. Absorption spectra. When light (this term will be used for electromagnetic waves; of any wavelength) is absorbed by a molecule, the molecule undergoes transition from a state of lower to a state of higher energy. If the molecule is monatomic, the energy absorbed can only be used to raise the energy levels of electrons. If, however, the molecule consists of more than one atom, the light absorbed may bring about changes in electronic,

rotational or vibrational energy. Electronic transitions give absorption (or emission) in the visible and ultraviolet parts of the spectrum, whereas rotational and vibrational changes give absorption (or emission) respectively in the far and near infra-red. Electronic transitions may be accompanied

by the other two.

study of these energy changes gives information on

the structure of molecules.

Spectrum
Ultraviolet Visible Near infra-red Far infra-red

....
.
.

Wavelength (A)

2000-4000 4000-7500 7500-15 x 10 4 15 x 10 4 -100 x 10 4

The
/i,

position of the absorption band can be given as the wavelength A (cm., A, m/j.) or as the wave number, v (cm. -1 ). 1 fi (micron) = in- 3 mm. 1 m/i (millimicron) = 10~ 6 mm.
1

(Angstrom)

10~ 8 cm.
v

10-'

mm.

m =
fi

10 A.

10*

(cm.- 1 )
1

-1 v (cm. )

10 4
A
(/i)

10 8
A (A)

A (cm.)

If I is the intensity of an incident beam of monochromatic light, and I that of the emergent beam which has passed through an absorbing medium of thickness I, then
I

10-"

or

log 10

^=

el

14

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. I

where e is the extinction coefficient of the medium. The ratio I /I is called the transmittance of the medium, and the reciprocal the opacity; the function log10 I /I is called the density (d). If the absorbing substance is in solution (the solvent being colourless), and if c is the concentration (number of grams per litre), then
I

=i

io-rf

This equation is Beer's law (1852), and is obeyed by most solutions provided they are dilute. In more concentrated solutions there may be divergencies from Beer's law, and these may be caused by association, changes
in solvation, etc. If the extinction coefficient is plotted against the wavelength of the light used, the absorption curve of the compound is obtained, and this is characteristic for a pure compound (under identical conditions).

15a. Ultraviolet and visible absorption spectra. When a molecule absorbs light, it will be raised from the ground state to an excited state. The position of the absorption band depends on the difference between the energy levels of the ground and excited states. Any change in the structure of the molecule which alters the energy difference between the ground and excited states will thus affect the position of the absorption band. This shifting of bands (in the ultraviolet and visible regions) is concerned with the problem of colour (see Vol. I, Ch. XXXI). With few exceptions, only molecules containing multiple bonds give rise to absorption in the near ultraviolet. In compounds containing only one multiple-bond group, the intensity of the absorption maxima may be very low, but when several of these groups are present in conjugation, the absorption is strong, e.g., an isolated oxo (carbonyl) group has an absorption at Amax. 2750 A; an isolated ethylene bond has an absorption at ^max. 1950 A. When a compound contains an oxo group conjugated with an ethylenic bond, i.e., the compound is an ocjS-unsaturated oxo compound, the two bands no and longer occur in their original positions, but are shifted to 3100-3300 2200-2600 A, respectively. Thus, in a compound in which the presence of an ethylenic bond and an oxo group has been demonstrated (by chemical methods), it is also possible to tell, by examination of the ultraviolet absorption spectrum, whether the two groups are conjugated or not. (see, e.g., cholestenone, 3(ii). XI). Ultraviolet and visible absorption spectra have also been used to differentiate between geometrical isomers and to detect the presence or absence of restricted rotation in diphenyl compounds (2. V).

In a molecule which has some definite conatoms vibrate with frequencies which depend on the masses of the atoms and on the restoring forces brought into play when the molecule is distorted from its equilibrium configuration. The energy for these vibrations is absorbed from the incident light, and thereby gives A given bond has a characteristic absorption rise to a vibrational spectrum. band, but the frequency depends, to some extent, on the nature of the other atoms joined to the two atoms under consideration. It is thus possible to ascertain the nature of bonds (and therefore groups) in unknown compounds by comparing their infra-red spectra with tables of infra-red absorption spectra. At the same time it is also possible to verify tentative structures (obtained from chemical evidence) by comparison with spectra of similar compounds of known structure. The study of infra-red spectra leads to information on many types of
15b. Infra-red spectra.
figuration, the constituent

problems,
(i)

e.g.,

Infra-red spectroscopy has been used to distinguish between geo-

15c]

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION

15

metrical isomers, and recently Kuhn (1950) has shown that the spectra of the stereoisomers methyl a- and ^-glycosides are different. It also appears that enantiomorphs in the solid phase often exhibit different absorption spectra. Infra-red spectroscopy has also been a very valuable method in conformational studies (see 11. IV). (ii) The three isomeric disubstituted benzenes have characteristic absorption bands, and this offers a means of determining their orientation. (hi) Infra-red spectroscopy has given a great deal of information about the problem of free rotation about a single bond; e.g., since the intensity of absorption is proportional to the concentration, it has been possible to ascertain the presence and amounts of different conformations in a mixture (the intensities vary with the temperature when two or more conformations are present). (iv) Tautomeric mixtures have been examined and the amounts of the tautomers obtained. In many cases the existence of tautomerism can be ascertained by infra-red spectroscopy (cf. iii). (v) Infra-red spectroscopy appears to be the best means of ascertaining the presence of hydrogen bonding (both in association and chelation). In " ordinary " experiments it is not possible to distinguish between intraand intermolecuiar hydrogen bonding. These two modes of bonding can, however, be differentiated by obtaining a series of spectra at different dilutions. As the dilution increases, the absorption due to intermolecuiar hydrogen bonding decreases, whereas the intramolecular hydrogen-bonding absorption is unaffected. (vi) It is possible to evaluate dipole moments from infra-red spectra. (vii) When a bond between two atoms is stretched, a restoring force immediately operates. If the distortion is small, the restoring force may be assumed to be directly proportional to the distortion, i.e.,

f
where k is the

oc

or

the bond. It is possible to calculate the values of these force constants from infra-red (vibrational) spectra. (viii) The far infra-red or micro-wave region contains the pure rotational spectrum. Micro-wave spectroscopy (a recent development) offers a very good method for measuring bond lengths. It is possible to calculate atomic radii from bond lengths, but the value depends on whether the bond is single, double or triple, and also on the charges (if any) on the atoms concerned. Thus the character of a bond can be ascertained from its length, e.g., if a bond length (determined experimentally) differs significantly from the sum of the atomic radii, then the bond is not " normal ". Resonance may be the cause of this. Some atomic covalent radii (in Angstroms) are:
stretching force constant of

H
C C C

0-30 0-77 (double) 0-67 0-60 (triple)

(single)

N N
O O

0-70 (double) 0-61 0-55 (triple) 0-66 (single) (double) 0-57

(single)

CI 0-99 Br 1-14
I

1-33

104

Micro-wave spectroscopy is particularly useful for information on the molecular structure of polar gases, and is also used for showing the presence
of free radicals.

15c. Raman spectra. When a beam of monochromatic light passes through a transparent medium, most of the light is transmitted or scattered without change in wavelength. Some of the light, however, is converted into longer wavelengths, i.e., lower frequency (a smaller amount of the light may be changed into shorter wavelengths, i.e., higher frequency). The

16

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH.

change from higher to lower frequency is known as the Raman effect (Raman shift) It is independent of the frequency of the light used, but is characteristic for a given bond. Raman spectra have been used to obtain information on structure, e.g., the Raman spectrum of formaldehyde in aqueous solution shows the absence of the oxo group, and so it is inferred that formaldehyde is hydrated: CH 2 (OH) 2 Raman spectra have also been used to ascertain the existence of keto-enol tautomerisrft and different conformations, to provide evidence for resonance, to differentiate between geometrical isomers, to show the presence of association, and to give information on force constants of bonds.
.
.

X-rays may be used with gases, liquids or solids, 16. X-ray analysis. but in organic chemistry they are usually confined to solids, which may be single crystals, or substances consisting of a mass of minute crystals (powder method), or fibres. When X-rays (wavelength 0-7-1-5 A) fall on solids, they are diffracted to produce patterns (formed on a photographic film). Since X-rays are diffracted mainly by the orbital electrons of the atoms, the Because of this, it is diffraction will be a function of the atomic number. difficult to differentiate between atoms whose atomic numbers are very Furthermore, since the scattering close together, e.g., carbon and nitrogen. power of hydrogen atoms (for X-rays) is very low, it is normally impossible to locate these atoms except in very favourable conditions, and then only with fairly simple compounds. Two problems are involved in the interpretation of X-ray diffraction patterns, viz., the dimensions of the unit cell and the positions of the individual atoms in the molecule. The positions of the diffracted beams depend on the dimensions of the unit cell. A knowledge of these dimensions leads to the following applications: looking up tables of unit (i) Identification of stibstances; this is done by
cells.

Determination of molecular weights. If V is the volume of the Unit d the density of the compound, and n the number of molecules in a unit cell, then the molecular weight, M, is given by
(ii)

cell,

M= n
Many long-chain polymers (iii) Determination of the shapes of molecules. These fibres are composed of bundles exist as fibres, e.g., cellulose, keratin. of tiny crystals with one axis parallel, or nearly parallel, to the fibre axis. When X-rays fall on the fibre in a direction perpendicular to its length, then the pattern obtained is similar to that from a single crystal rotated
about a principal axis. It is thus possible to obtain the unit cell dimensions of such fibres (see, e.g., rubber, 33. VIII). The intensities of the diffracted beams depend on the positions of the atoms in the unit cell. A knowledge of these relative intensities leads to
the following applications:
(i)

Determination of bond lengths, valency angles, and the general elec-

tron distribution in molecules.

This offers a means of dis(ii) Determination of molecular symmetry. tinguishing between geometrical isomers, and also of ascertaining the shape of a molecule, e.g., the diphenyl molecule has a centre of symmetry, and therefore the two benzene rings must be coplanar (see 2. V). This application was originally used for (iii) Determination of structure. compounds of known structure. Trial models based on the structure of the " fitted ", molecule were compared with the X-ray patterns, and if they confirmed the structure already accepted. If the patterns did not fit, then More recently, it was necessary to look for another structural formula.

19a]

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION

17

however. X-ray analysis has been applied to compounds of unknown or partially known structures, e.g., penicillin (6a. XVIII). (iv) X-ray analysis has been used to elucidate the conformations of rotational isomers (4a. II), and also to determine the absolute configurations of enantiomorphs (5. II).
17. Electron diffraction. Electron diffraction is another direct method for determining the spatial arrangement of atoms in a molecule, and is

usually confined to gases or

compounds in the vapour state, but may be used for solids and liquids. Electrons exhibit a dual behaviour, particle or wave, according to the nature of the experiment. The wavelength of
electrons is inversely proportional to their about 0-06 for the voltages generally used.

momentum:

ing power, hydrogen atoms are

difficult, if

of electron diffraction it is possible to obtain values of bond lengths and the size and shape of molecules, particularly macromolecules. Electron diffraction studies have been particularly useful in the investigation of conformations in cyc/ohexane compounds (see 11. IV).
18. Neutron crystallography. beam of slow neutrons is diffracted crystalline substances. The equivalent wavelength of a slow beam of neutrons is 1 A, and since this is of the order of interatomic distances in crystals, the neutrons will be diffracted. This method of analysis is particularly useful for determining the positions of light atoms, a problem which is very difficult, and often impossible, with X-ray analysis. Thus neutron diffraction is extremely useful for locating hydrogen atoms. In addition to studying solids, neutron diffraction has also been applied to gases, pure liquids and solutions.

By means

the wavelength is Because of their small diffractnot impossible, to locate.

by

19. Electron spin resonance. Electrons possess spin (and consequently a magnetic moment) and are therefore capable of interacting with an external magnetic field. The spin of one electron of a covalent pair and its resulting interaction with a magnetic field is cancelled by the equal and opposite spin of its partner (see also 14). An unpaired electron, however, will have an interaction that is not cancelled out and the energy of its interaction may change if its spin changes to the opposite direction (an electron has a spin quantum number s; this can have values of +J and \), For an unpaired electron to change the sign of its spin in a magnetic field in the direction of greater energy, it must absorb energy, and it will do this if electromagnetic energy of the appropriate wavelength is supplied. By choosing a suitable strength for the magnetic field, the unpaired electron can be made to absorb in the micro-wave region; a field of about 3000 gauss is usually uged in conjunction with radiation of a frequency in the region of 9 kMc./sec. This method of producing a spectrum is known as electron spin resonance (ESR) or electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). ESR is used as a method for the study of free radicals; it affords a means of detecting and measuring the concentration of free radicals, and also supplies specific information about their structure. The application of ESR has shown that free radicals

take part in photosynthesis.

19a. Nuclear magnetic resonance. Just as electrons have spin, so have the protons and neutrons in atomic nuclei. In most nuclei the spins are not cancelled out and hence such nuclei possess a resultant nuclear magnetic moment. When the nucleus possesses a magnetic moment, the ground state consists of two or more energy levels which are indistinguishable from each other. Transition from one level to another, however, can be induced by absorption or emission of a quantum of radiation of the proper frequency which is determined by the energy difference between the

18

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. I

two nuclear levels. This frequency occurs in the radiofrequency region, and can be varied by changing the strength of the applied field. In this way is obtained the spectrum by the method of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The resonance frequencies of most magnetic nuclei lie between 0-1 and 40 Mc. for fields varying from 1000 to 10,000 gauss. Of particular importance are the nuclear properties of the proton; here we have the special case of NMR, proton magnetic resonance. A large proportion of the work in this field has been done with protons; protons give the strongest signals. Analysis of structure by NMR depends mainly on the fact that although the same nucleus is being examined, the NMR spectrum depends on the environment of that nucleus. This difference in resonance frequency has been called chemical shift; chemical shifts are small. Thus olefins; a it is possible to identify CH in saturated hydrocarbons and in methyl group attached to a saturated carbon atom can be differentiated from one attached to an unsaturated one; etc. NMR has been used to provide information on molecular structure, to It has identify molecules, and to examine the crystal structure of solids. of also been used to measure keto-enol equilibria and for the detection
association, etc. and for distinguishing

NMR

is

between various

also useful in conformational analysis (4a. II) cis- and trans-isomvcs (5. IV).

READING REFERENCES
Partington, An Advanced Treatise on Physical Chemistry, Longmans, Green. Vol. I-V (19491964). Ferguson, Electronic Structures of Organic Molecules, Prentice-Hall (1952). Ketelaar, Chemical Constitution, Elsevier (1953). Gilman, Advanced Organic Chemistry, Wiley (1943, 2nd ed.). (i) Vol. II. Ch. 23. Con(n) Vol. Ill (19a) stitution and Physical Properties of Organic Compounds, Chemistry. Ch. 2. Applications of Infra-red and Ultra-violet Spectra to Organic Wells, Structural Inorganic Chemistry, Oxford Press (1950, 2nd ed.). Syrkin and Dyatkina, Structure of Molecules and the Chemical Bond, Butterworth (1950 translated and revised by Partridge and Jordan). Weissberger (Ed.), Technique of Organic Chemistry, Interscience Publishers. Vol. 1 Physical Methods of Organic Chemistry. (1949, 2nd ed.). I (1950); Berl (Ed.), Physical Methods in Chemical Analysis, Academic Press. Vol.

Waters, Physical Aspects of Organic Chemistry, Routledge and Kegan Paul (1950, 4th ed.). 5th ed.). Reilly and Rae, Physico-Chemical Methods, Methuen (Vol. I and II; 1954, Stuart, Die Struklur des Freien Molekiils, Springer-Verlag (1952). Mizushima, Structure of Molecules and Internal Rotation, Academic Press (1954). Ch. III. Ingold, Structure and Mechanism in Organic Chemistry, Bell and Sons (1953).

Braude and Nachod (Ed.), Determination of Organic Structures by Physical Methods, Academic Press (1955). Nachod and Phillips, Vol. 2 (1962). Pimental and McClellan, The Hydrogen Bond, Freeman and Co. (1960). Quayle, The Parachors of Organic Compounds, Chem. Reviews, 1953, 53, 439. Dierassi, Optical Rotatory Dispersion, McGraw-Hill (1960).

Physical Properties of Molecules.

Advances in Organic Chemistry, Interscience (1960). Klyne, Optical Rotatory Dispersion and the Study of Organic Structures, Vol. I, p. 239. Smith, Electric Dipole Moments, Butterworth (1955). Herzberg, Infrared and Raman Spectra, Van Nostrand (1945). Whiffen, Rotation Spectra, Quart. Reviews (Chem. Soc), 1950, 4, 131. Bellamy, The Infrared Spectra of Complex Molecules, Methuen (1958, 2nd ed.). Cross, Introduction to Practical Infrared Spectroscopy, Butterworth (1959). Mason, Molecular Electronic Absorption Spectra, Quart. Reviews (Chem. Soc), 19bl,
15, 287.

Walker and Straw,

Spectra, /. Roy. Inst. Chem., 1961, 83. Spectroscopy, Vol. I (1961), Chapman and Hall. Robertson, Organic Crystals and Molecules, Cornell (1953). Crystal Analysis: Jeffrey and Cruikshank, Molecular Structure Determination by X-Ray Modern Methods and their Accuracy, Quart. Reviews (Chem. Soc), 1953, 7, 335. Soc), Richards, The Location of Hydrogen Atoms in Crystals, Quart. Reviews (Chem. 1956, 10, 480.

Rose,

Raman

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION

Ann. Review of Phys. Chem.

19

Wiley (1956). Ch. 11. Steric on Certain Physical Properties. McMillan, Electron Paramagnetic Resonance of Free Radicals, /. Chem. Educ, 1961,
Effects
38, 438.

Newman

(Vol. I, 1950;

).

(Ed.), Steric Effects in Organic Chemistry,

Advances in Organic Chemistry, Interscience (1960). Conroy, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in Organic Structural Elucidation, Vol. 2, p. 265. Corio, The Analysis of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectra, Chem. Reviews, 1960,
OUj ouo.

Roberts, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy, /. Chem. Educ, 1961, 37, 581 Durrant and Durrant, Introduction to Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, Longmans Green Ch. 1-12 (Quantum Theory, Valency, Spectra, etc.). (1962).

CHAPTER

II

OPTICAL ISOMERISM
Stereoisomerism. Stereochemistry is the " chemistry of space ", stereochemistry deals with the spatial arrangements of atoms and groups Stereoisomerism is exhibited by isomers having the same in a molecule. structure but differing in their spatial arrangement, i.e., having different Different configurations are possible because carbon forms configurations. mainly covalent bonds and these have direction in space. The covalent bond is formed by the overlapping of atomic orbitals, the bond energy being greater the greater the overlap of the component orbitals. To get the maximum overlap of orbitals, the orbitals should be in the same plane. Thus non-spherical orbitals tend to form bonds in the direction of the greatest concentration of the orbital, and this consequently produces a directional bond (see also Vol. I, Ch. II). There are two types of stereoisomerism, optical isomerism and geometrical isomerism (ofs-trans isomerism). It is not easy to define them, but their meanings will become clear as the study of stereochemistry progresses. Even so, it is highly desirable to have some idea about their meanings at this stage, and so the following summaries are given. Optical isomerism is characterised by compounds having the same structure but different configurations, and because of their molecular asymmetry these compounds rotate the plane of polarisation of plane-polarised Optical isomers have similar physical and chemical properties the light. most marked difference between them is their action on plane-polarised Optical isomers may rotate the plane of polarisation by light (see 12. I). equal and opposite amounts these optical isomers are enantiomorphs (see On the other hand, some optical isomers may rotate the plane of |). polarisation by different amounts; these are diastereoisomers (see 7b). Finally, some optical isomers may possess no rotation at all; these are diastereoisomers of the meso-type (see 7d). Geometrical isomerism is characterised by compounds having the same structure but different configurations, and because of their molecular symmetry these compounds do not rotate the plane of polarisation of planeGeometrical isomers differ in all their physical and in many polarised light. of their chemical properties. They can also exhibit optical isomerism if the structure of the molecule, apart from giving rise to geometrical isomerIn general, geometrical isomerism involves moleism, is also asymmetric. cules which can assume different stable configurations, the ability to do so being due, e.g., to the presence of a double bond, a ring structure, or
1.
i.e.,
;
;

the steric effect (see Ch.

IV and

V).

It has been found that only those structures, 2. Optical isomerism. crystalline or molecular, which are not superimposable on their mirror images, are optically active. Such structures may be dissymmetric, or asymmetric. Asymmetric structures have no elements of symmetry at all, but dissymmetric structures, although possessing some elements of symmetry, are nevertheless still capable of existing in two forms (one the mirror image of the other) which are not superimposable. To avoid unnecessary complications, we shall use the term asymmetric to cover both cases (of asymmetry

and dissymmetry).

A
its

given molecule which has at least one element of symmetry (6) when "classical" configuration (i.e., the Fischer projection formula; 5) is 20

3]

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

21

inspected may, however, have a conformation (4a) which is devoid of any element of symmetry. At first sight, such a molecule might be supposed to be optically active. In practice, however, it is not; individual molecules are optically active, but statistically, the whole collection of molecules is not. It therefore follows that when a molecule can exist in one or more conformations, then provided that at least one of the conformations (whether preferred or not) is superimposable on its mirror image, the compound will not be optically active (see 11 for a discussion of this problem). Optical activity due to crystalline structure. There are many substances which are optically active in the solid state only, e.g., quartz, sodium chlorate, benzil, etc. Let us consider quartz, the first substance shown to be optically active (Arago, 1811). Quartz exists in two crystalline forms, one of which is dextrorotatory and the other laevorotatory. These two forms are mirror images and are not superimposable. Such pairs of crystals are said to be enantiomorphous (quartz crystals are actually hemihedral and are mirror images) X-ray analysis has shown that the quartz crystal lattice is built up of silicon and oxygen atoms arranged in left- and right-handed spirals. One is the mirror image of the other, and the two are not superimposable. When quartz crystals are fused, the optical activity is lost. Therefore the optical activity is entirely due to the asymmetry of the crystalline structure, since fusion brings about only a physical change. Thus we have a group of substances which are optically active only so long as they remain solid; fusion, vaporisation or solution in a solvent causes loss of
.

optical activity. Optical activity due to molecular structure. There are many compounds which are optically active in the solid, fused, gaseous or dissolved state, e.g., glucose, tartaric acid, etc. In this case the optical activity is entirely due to the asymmetry of the molecular structure (see, however, 11). The original molecule and its non-superimposable mirror image are known

as enantiomorphs (this name is taken from crystallography) or optical antipodes. They are also often referred to as optical isomers, but there is a tendency to reserve this term to denote all isomers which have the same structural formula but different configurations (see 1).

Properties of enantiomorphs. It appears that enantiomorphs are identical physically except in two respects: (i) their manner of rotating polarised light; the rotations are equal but opposite.
(ii) the absorption coefficients for dextro- and lavocircularly polarised light are different; this difference is known as circular dichroism or the Cotton effect (see also 8. III). The crystal forms of enantiomorphs may be mirror images of each other,

i.e.,

the crystals themselves

[see also 10(i)].

may be enantiomorphous, but this is unusual Enantiomorphs are similar chemically, but their rates of

reaction with other optically active compounds are usually different [see 10(vii)]. They may also be different physiologically, e.g., (-f-)-histidine is sweet, ( )-tasteless; ( )-nicotine is more poisbnous than (+)-.
3. The tetrahedral carbon atom. In 1874, van't Hoff and Le Bel, independently, gave the solution to the problem of optical isomerism in organic compounds, van't Hoff proposed the theory that if the four valencies of the carbon atom are arranged tetrahedrally (not necessarily regular) with the carbon atom at the centre, then all the cases of isomerism known are accounted for. Le Bel's theory is substantially the same as van't Hoff 's, but differs in that whereas van't Hoff believed that the valency distribution was definitely tetrahedral and fixed as such, Le Bel believed that the valency directions were not rigidly fixed, and did not specify the tetrahedral arrangement.

22

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. II

but thought that whatever the spatial arrangement, the molecule Cdbde would be asymmetric. Later work has shown that van't Hoff's theory is more in keeping with the facts (see below). Both van't Hoff's and Le Bel's theories were based on the assumption that the four hydrogen atoms in methane are equivalent; this assumption has been shown to be correct by means of chemical and physico-chemical methods. Before the tetrahedral was proposed, it was believed that the four carbon valencies were planar, with the carbon atom at the centre of a square (Kekule, 1858). Pasteur (1848) stated that all substances fell into two groups, those which were superimposable on their mirror images, and those which were not. In substances such as quartz, Optical activity is due to the dissymmetry of the crystal structure, but in compounds like sucrose the optical activity is due to molecular dissymmetry. Since it is impossible to have molecular dissymmetry if the molecule is fiat, Pasteur's work is based on the idea that molecules are three-dimensional and arranged dissymmetrically. A further interesting point in this connection is that Pasteur quoted an irregular tetrahedron as one example of a dissymmetric structure. Also, Patemo (1869) had proposed tetrahedral models for the structure of the isomeric compounds C S 4C1 2 (at that time it was thought that there were three isomers with this formula; one ethylidene chloride and two ethylene

chlorides).

3a. Evidence for the tetrahedral carbon atom. The molecule 4 constitutes a five-point system, and since the four valencies of carbon are equivalent, their disposition in space may be assumed to be symmetrical. Thus there are three symmetrical arrangements possible for the molecule pyramidal and tetrahedral. By comparing 4 , one planar and two solid the number of isomers that have been prepared for a given compound with the number predicted by the above three spatial arrangements, it is possible to decide which one is correct. Compounds of the types Ca26 2 and Ca^bd. Both of these are similar, and so we shall only discuss molecule C 2 6 2

CX

CX

kFig. 2.1.
(i) If the molecule is planar, then two forms are possible (Fig. 1). This planar configuration can be either square or rectangular; in each case there are two forms only.

Fig. 2.2.
(ii) If the molecule is pyramidal, then two forms are possible (Fig. 2). There are only two forms, whether the base is square or rectangular. (iii) If the molecule is tetrahedral, then only one form is possible (Fig. 3 the carbon atom is at the centre of the tetrahedron).

3a]

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

23

In practice, only one form is known for each of the compounds of the types Cfl 2 6 g and Ca 2 bd; this agrees with the tetrahedral configuration.

Fig. 2.3.

Compounds of a*-

forms are possible

the type Cabie. (Fig. 4).

(i)

If

the molecule

is

planar, then three

T'A
!

Fig. 2.4.

pyramidal, then six forms are possible; there are Each of the forms in Fig. 4, drawn as a pyramid, is not superimposable on its mirror image, e.g., Fig. 5 shows one pair of enantiomorphs.
(ii)

If

the molecule

is

three pairs of enantiomorphs.

ei~
i

Fig. 2.5.
(iii) If the molecule is tetrahedral, there are two forms possible, one related to the other as object and mirror image, which are not superimposable, i.e., the tetrahedral configuration gives rise to one pair of enantiomorphs

(Fig. 6).

Fig. 2.6.

In practice, compounds of the type Cabde give rise to only one pair of enantiomorphs; this agrees with the tetrahedral configuration.

When a compound contains four different groups attached to a carbon atom, that carbon atom is said to be asymmetric (actually, of course, it is the group which is asymmetric; a carbon atom cannot be asymmetric). The majority of optically active compounds (organic) contain one or more asymmetric carbon atoms. It should be remembered, however, that the essential requirement for optical activity is the asymmetry of the molecule.

24

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. II

molecule may contain two or more asymmetric carbon atoms and still not be optically active (see, e.g., 7d). A most interesting case of an optically active compound containing one asymmetric carbon atom is the resolution of s-butylmercuric bromide, EtMeCH'HgBr (Hughes, Ingold et al., 1958). This appears to be the first example of the resolution of a simple organometaUic compound where the asymmetry depends only on the carbon atom attached to the metal. Isotopic asymmetry. In the optically active compound Cabde, the groups a, b, d and e (which may or may not contain carbon) are all different, but two or more may be structural isomers, e.g., propylz'sopropylmethanol The substitution of hydrogen by deuterium has also is optically active. been investigated in recent years to ascertain whether these two atoms are sufficiently different to give rise to optical isomerism. The earlier work gave conflicting results, e.g., Clemo et al. (1936) claimed to have obtained a small rotation for a-pentadeuterophenylbenzylamine, C 6 5 *CH(C 6 H5)'NH 2 but this was disproved by Adams et al. (1938). Erlenmeyer et al. (1936) failed to resolve C 6 5 -CH(C 6 D 5 )-C0 2 H, and Ives et al. (1948) also failed to resolve a number of deutero-compounds, one of which was

C 6H 5 -CH 2 -CHD-C0 2H.

More recent work, however,
activity, e.g., Eliel (1949)
,

is definitely conclusive in favour of optical prepared optically active phenylmethyldeuteromethane, CH 3 *CHD-C 6 H 5 by reducing optically active phenylmethylmethyl chloride, CHg-CHCl-CgHg, with lithium aluminium deuteride; Ross et al. (1956) have prepared ( )-2-deuterobutane by reduction of ( )-2-chlorobutane with lithium aluminium deuteride; and Alexander et al. (1949) reduced trans-2-p-menthene with deuterium (Raney nickel catalyst) and obtained a 2 3-dideutero-tfras-^>-menthane (I) that was slightly lsevorotatory. Alexander (1950) also reduced ( )-menthyl toluene-/>-sulphonate and obtained an optically active 3-deutero-^as-j^-menthane (II).
:

CH 3
CH

,0H8

CH3

CH3

^CH
CHD CHD
CH2 CH2 CH
I

CH 2

H2

CHD CH2
CH 3
II

\)H
I

CH 3
I

Some other
e.g.,

optically active (Ill; Streitwieser, 1955)

compounds with deuterium asymmetry and (IV; Levy et al, 1957):

are,

CH 3-CH 2 -CH 2 -CHDOH

III

CH 3 -CHDOH
IV

point of interest here is that almost all optically active deuterium compounds have been prepared from optically active precursors. Exceptions are (V) and (VI), which have been resolved by Pocker (1961).

C 6H 5 -CHOH-C 6D s

V
(i)

C 6 H 6 -CDOH-C 6D 5 VI

Further evidence for the tetrahedral carbon atom

Conversion of the two forms (enantiomorphs) of the molecule Cabde

3a]

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

25

into Ca 2 bd results in the formation of one compound only (and disappearance of optical activity), e.g., both dextro- and laevorotatory lactic acid may be reduced to the same propionic acid, which is not optically active. These results are possible only with a tetrahedral arrangement (Fig. 7; see 5 for

the convention for drawing tetrahedra).

C02 H

OH
CH-,
D-lactic acid

HO
propionic acid Fig. 2.7.
3 L-lactic acid

CH

(u) If the configuration is tetrahedral, then interchanging any in the molecule Cabde will produce the enantiomorph, e.g. b Fig. 8). Fischer and Brauns (1914), starting with

two groups and e (see (+)-wopropylmalonamic

Fig. 2.8.

CONH 2

CONH
3 )2

C02 H
3 )2

H C GH(CH
C02 H
(+)-acid

MVH-C-CH(CH
C0 2 CH3

S^ H C CH(CH
C0 2 CH 3

3 )!j

C0 2 H

C0 2 H

CONHNH

CON,

CONH 2
(-)-acid

Ch. III). enant iomorph into the other is in agreement with iu the tetrahedral theory. At the same time, this series of reactions shows that optical isomers have identical structures, and so the difference must be due to the spatial arrangement.

acid earned out a series of reactions whereby the carboxyl and the carbonamide groups were interchanged; the product was (-)-wopropylmalonamic acid. It is most important to note that in this series of reactions no bond connected to the asymmetric carbon atom was ever broken (for an explanaF tion, see Walden Inversion,

iS Cl an ge fr x x i J , ?

m one

(iii) X-ray crystallography, dipole moment measurements, absorption spectra and electron diffraction studies show that the four valencies of carbon are arranged tetrahedraUy with the carbon atom inside the tetrahedron It should be noted in passing that the tetrahedra are not regular unless four identical groups are attached to the central carbon atom; only in this

26

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. II

case are the four bond lengths equal. In all other cases the bond lengths will be different, the actual values depending on the nature of the atoms joined to the carbon atom (see 15b. I).
4.
(i)

Two postulates underlie the tetrahedral theory. The principle of constancy of the valency angle.

Mathematical

calculation of the angle subtended by each side of a regular tetrahedron at the central carbon atom (Fig. 9) gives a value of 109 28'. Originally, it was postulated (van't Hoff) that the valency angle was fixed at this value. It is now known, however, that the valency angle may deviate from this value. The four valencies of carbon are formed by hybridisation of the
4^
//
/
/ i

\ \

L
i

\
c \

*\\

L/-C43J
/~^--'''
Fig. 2.9.
3 i.e., there are four sp bonds (see Vol. I, Ch. II). calculations show that the four carbon valencies in the molecule Ca 4 are equivalent and directed towards the four corners of a regular tetrahedron. Furthermore, quantum-mechanical calculations require the carbon bond angles to be close to the tetrahedral value, since change from this value is associated with loss in bond strength and consequently decrease in stability. According to Coulson et al. (1949), calculation has shown that the smallest valency angle that one can reasonably expect to find is 104. It is this value which is found in the cyc/opropane and cyc/obutane rings, these molecules being relatively unstable because of the " bent " bonds (Coulson; see Baeyer Strain Theory, Vol. I, Ch. XIX). (ii) The principle of free rotation about a single bond. Originally, it was believed that internal rotation about a single bond was completely free. When the thermodynamic properties were first calculated for ethane on the assumption that there was complete free rotation about the carboncarbon single bond, the results obtained were in poor agreement with those obtained experimentally. This led Pitzer et al. (1936) to suggest that there

2s

and 2p

orbitals,

Quantum mechanical

H
c

fR *x H-^O^H H
^v/H
II
stags ered (tra ns)
(

60

120 180 240 300 360

Angle of Rotation
(a)

eel ipsed
is)
( c)

Fig. 2.10.

restricted rotation about the single bond, and calculations on this basis gave thermodynamic properties in good agreement with the experimental ones. The potential energy curve obtained for ethane, in which one methyl group is imagined to rotate about the C C bond as axis with the other group at rest, is shown in Fig. 10 (a). Had there been complete free rotaFig. 10 (b) is tion, the graph would have been a horizontal straight line. the Newman (1952) projection formula, the carbon atom nearer to the eye

was

4]

OPTICAI, ISOMERISM

27

being designated by equally spaced radii and the carbon atom further from the eye by a circle with three equally spaced radial extensions. Fig. 10 (b) represents the trans- or staggered form in which the hydrogen atoms (on the two carbon atoms) are as far apart as possible. Fig. 10 (c) represents the cis- or eclipsed form in which the hydrogen atoms are as close together as possible. It can be seen from the graph that the eclipsed form has a higher potential energy than the staggered, and the actual difference has been found to be (by calculation) about 2-85 [Link]./mole. The value of

60

120

180

240 300 360

Angle of Rotation

CI

CI

CI

Cl^-J^/H

H \^-4-v/Cl

^O^H
CI

H^O^H
H

h-^O^h
H

staggered
(trattsoid)

gauche or skew

fully eclipsed
(cisoid)

eclipsed

Fig. 2.11

(i).

this potential

energy barrier

is

by chemical methods.

too low to permit the isolation of each form

us consider the case of ethylene chloride. According to Bernenergy of ethylene chloride undergoes the changes shown Fig. 2.11 (i) when one CH C1 group is rotated about the 2 C bond with the other CH 2 C1 at rest. There are two positions of minimum energy one corresponding to the staggered (transoid) form and the other to the gauche (skew) form, the latter possessing approximately 1-1 [Link]. more than the former. The fully eclipsed (cisoid) form possesses about 4-5 kg cal more energy than the staggered form and thus the latter is the preferred form, i.e., the molecule is largely in this form. Dipole moment studies show that this is so in practice, and also show (as do Raman spectra studies) that the ratio of the two forms varies with the temperature. Furthermore
let

Now

stem

(1949), the potential

28
infra-red,

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. II

Raman spectra and electron diffraction studies have shown that the gauche form is also present. According to Mizushima et al. (1938), only the staggered form is present at low temperatures. The problem of internal rotation about the central C C bond in w-butane is interesting, since the values of the potential energies of the various forms have been used in the study of cyclic compounds (see cyc/ohexane, 11. IV). The various forms are shown in Fig. 2.11 (ii), and if the energy content of the staggered form is taken as zero, then the other forms have the energy contents shown (Pitzer, 1951). From the foregoing account it can be seen that, in theory, there is no free

[Link].

V
t
E

[Link].

w
180

--V/
1

[Link].

r
300 360

60

120

240

Angle of Rotation

Fig. 2.11

(ii).

Me

Me

tt^^/Me
H
2

Me^-^H
H
2'

rotation about a single bond. In practice, however, it may occur if the potential barriers of the various forms do not differ by more than about 10 [Link]./mole. Free rotation about a single bond is generally accepted Restricted rotation, however, may occur when the in simple molecules. molecule contains groups large enough to impede free rotation, e.g., in orthosubstituted diphenyls (see Ch. V). In some cases resonance can give rise to restricted rotation about a " single " bond.
4a. Conformational analysis. Molecules which can form isomers by rotation about single bonds are called flexible molecules, and the different forms taken up are known as different conformations. The terms rotational isomers and constellations have also been used in the same sense as conformations. Various definitions have been given to the term conformation (which was

4a]
originally introduced

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

29

1929). In its widest sense, conformation has been used to describe different spatial arrangements of a molecule which are not superimposable. This means, in effect, that the terms conformation and configuration are equivalent. There is, however, an important difference in meaning between these terms. The definition of configuration, in the classical sense (1), does not include the problem of the internal forces acting on the molecule. The term conformation, however, is the spatial arrangement of the molecule when all the internal' forces acting on the molecule are taken into account. In this more restricted sense, the term conformation is used to designate different spatial arrange-

by W. N. Haworth,

ments arising by twisting or rotation of bonds of a given configuration

(used in the classical sense). The existence of potential energy barriers between the various conformations shows that there are internal forces acting on the molecule The nature of these interactions that prevent free rotation about single bonds
is

and'Z are CI, Br I, 3 , etc.), and usually the staggered forrn is more stable than the gauche. In a molecule such as ethylene chlorohydrin however, it is the gauche form which is more stable than the staggered and this is due to the fact that intramolecular hydrogen bonding is possible in the former but not in the latter. In addition to the factors already mentioned, there appear to be other factors that cause the absence of complete free rotation about a single bond, e.g., the energy barrier in ethane is too great to be accounted for by steric repulsion only. Several explanations have been offered" es Pauling (1958) has proposed that the energy barrier in ethane (and in" similar molecules) results from repulsions between adjacent bonding pairs of electrons, i.e. the bonding pairs of the bonds on one carbon atom repel those on the other carbon atom. Thus the preferred conformation will be the staggered one {cf. 1. VI). It is still possible, however that steric repulsion is also present, and this raises the barrier height

not completely clear. According to one theory, the hindering due to dipole-dipole forces. Calculation of the dipole moment of ethylene chloride on the assumption of free rotation gave a value not in agreement with the experimental value. Thus free rotation cannot be assumed, but on the assumption that there is interaction between the two groups through dipole-dipole attractive or repulsive forces there will be preferred conformations, i.e., the internal rotation is not completely free. This restricted rotation is shown by the fact that the dipole moment of ethylene chloride increases with temperature; in the staggered form the dipole moment is zero, but as energy is absorbed by the molecule rotation occurs to produce finally the eclipsed form in which the dipole moment is a maximum. Further work, however, has shown that factors other than djpole-dipole interactions must also be operating in opposing the rotation One of these factors is steric repulsion, i.e., repulsion between the nonbonded atoms (of the rotating groups) when they are brought into close proximity (cf. the van der Waals forces, 2. I). The existence of steric repulsion may be illustrated by the fact that although the bond moment of CI is greater than that of Br, the energy difference between the eclipsed and staggered conformations of ethylene chloride is less than that of ethylene bromide. Furthermore, if steric repulsion does affect internal rotation, then in the ethylene halides, steric repulsion between the hydrogen and halogen atoms, if sufficiently large, will give rise to two other potential energy minima (these correspond to the two gauche forms, and these have been shown to be present; see Fig. 2.11 (i), 4). Other factors also affect stability of the various conformations. Staggered and gauche forms always exist in molecules of the type CH.Y-CH.Z (where
of internal rotation is

however,

CH

CH

30

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. II

the stability of a molecule is decreased by internal forces produced interaction between constituent parts, that molecule is said to be under steric strain. There are three sources of steric strain, i.e., the internal forces may arise from three different causes, viz., (i) repulsion between nonbonded atoms, (ii) dipole interactions and (iii) distortion of bond-angles. Which of these plays the predominant part depends on the nature of the molecule in question. This study of the existence of preferred conformations in molecules, and the relating of physical and chemical properties of a molecule to its preferred conformation, is known as conformational analysis. The energy differences between the various conformations determine which one is the most stable, and the ease of transformation depends on the potential energy barriers that exist between these conformations. It should be noted that the molecule, in its unexcited state, will exist largely If, however, the energy in the conformation of lowest energy content. differences between the various conformations are small, then when excited,

When

by

the molecule can take up a less favoured conformation, e.g., during the course of reaction with other molecules (see 11. IV). Because of the different environments a reactive centre may have in different conformations, conformation will therefore affect the course and rate of reactions involving this centre (see 11. IV). Many methods are now used to investigate the conformation of molecules, e.g., thermodynamic calculations, dipole moments, electron and X-ray and diffraction, infra-red and Raman spectra, rotatory dispersion,

NMR

chemical methods.

The original method of 5. Conventions used in stereochemistry. indicating enantiomorphs was to prefix each one by d or I according as it was dextrorotatory or lsevorotatory. van't Hoff (1874) introduced a notation for designating the configuration of an asymmetric carbon and and atom. He used mechanical models (built of tetrahedra), and the signs were given by observing the tetrahedra of the mechanical model from the centre of the model. Thus a molecule of the type Cabd-Cabd may E. Fischer (1891) pointed out that and H +, be designated notation can lead to wrong interpretations when applied to and this molecules containing more than two asymmetric carbon atoms (the signs given to each asymmetric carbon atom depend on the point of observation Fischer therefore proposed the use of plane projection in the molecule).

and system. diagrams of the mechanical models instead of the Fischer, working on the configurations of the sugars (see 1. VII), obtained the plane formulae I and II for the enantiomorphs of saccharic acid, and

C0 2H

C0 2H

CHO

H COH HO C
1
1

HOC

HCOH
HOC

HCOH
HOC HOC
C0 2H
II

HCOH HCOH
C0 2H
I

HCOH HCOH
CH 2OH
III

arbitrarily chose I for dextrorotatory saccharic acid, and called it dsaccharic acid. He then, from this, deduced formula III for rf-glucose. Furthermore, Fischer thought it was more important to indicate stereo-

31 chemical relationships than merely to indicate the actual direction of rotation. He therefore proposed that the prefixes d and / should refer to stereochemical relationships and not to the direction of rotation of the compound. For this scheme to be self-consistent (among the sugars) it is necessary to choose one sugar as standard and then refer all the others to it. Fischer apparently intended to use the scheme whereby the compounds derived from a given aldehyde sugar should be designated according to the direction of rotation of the parent aldose. Natural mannose is dextrorotatory. Hence natural mannose will be rf-mannose, and all derivatives of rf-mannose, e.g., mannonic acid, mannitol mannose phenylhydrazone, etc., will thus belong to the ^-series. Natural glucose is dextrorotatory. Hence natural glucose will be rf-glucose and all its derivatives will belong to the rf-series. Furthermore, Fischer (1890) converted natural mannose into natural glucose as follows:

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

i-mannose > rf-mannonic acid

>.

i-mannolactone

> rf-glucose

Since natural glucose is rf-glucose (according to Fischer's scheme) the prefix d for natural glucose happens to agree with its dextrorotation (with rf-mannose as standard) Natural fructose can also be prepared from natural mannose (or natural glucose), and so will be i-fructose. Natural fructose however, is laevorotatory, and so is written as d{~) -fructose, the symbol d indicating its stereochemical relationship to the parent aldose glucose and the symbol placed in parentheses before the name indicating the actual direction of rotation. More recently the symbols d and / have been replaced by d and l for configurational relationships, e.g., L(+)-lactic acid. Also, when dealing with compounds that cannot be referred to an arbitrarily chosen standard (+)- and ( )- are used to indicate the sign of the rotation. The prefixes dextro and laevo (without hyphens) are also used. Fischer's proposal to use each aldose as the arbitrary standard for its derivatives leads to some difficulties, e.g., natural arabinose is dextrorotatory and so is to be designated D-arabinose. Now natural arabinose (D-arabinosej can be converted into mannonic acid which, if D-arabinose is taken as the parent aldose, will therefore be D-mannonic acid. This same acid however can also be obtained from L-mannose, and so should be designated as L-mannonic acid. Thus in cases such as this the use of the symbol d or l will depend on the historical order in which the stereochemical relationships were established. This, obviously, is an unsatisfactory position, which was realised by Rosanoff (1906), who showed that if the enantiomorphs of glyceraldehyde (a molecule which contains only one asymmetric carbon atom) are chosen as the (arbitrary) standard, then a satisfactory system for correlating stereochemical relationships can be developed. He also proposed that the formula of dextrorotatory glyceraldehyde should be written as in Fig. 12 (c), in order that the arrangement of its asymmetric carbon atom should agree with the arrangement of C in Fischer's projection s formula for natural glucose (see formula III above). It is of great interest to note in this connection that in 1906 the active forms of glyceraldehyde had not been isolated, but in 1914 Wohl and Momber separated DL-glyceraldehyde into its enantiomorphs, and in 1917 they showed that dextrorotatory glyceraldehyde was stereochemically related to natural glucose, i.e., with d(+) -glyceraldehyde as arbitrary standard, natural glucose 6 is d(+ )-glucose
.

(see 1. VII).

The accepted convention for drawing D(+)-glyceraldehydethe agreed {arbitrary) standardis shown in Fig. 12 The tetrahedron is drawn so (). that three corners are imagined to be above the plane of the paper, and the
fourth below the plane of the paper.

Furthermore, the spatial arrangement

32

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH.

II

of the four groups joined to the central carbon atom must be placed as shown in Fig. 12 (a), i.e., the accepted convention for drawing d(+)glyceraldehyde places the hydrogen atom at the left and the hydroxyl group at the right, with the aldehyde group at the top corner. Now imagine the tetrahedron to rotate about the horizontal line joining H and

until it takes up the position shown in Fig. 12 (b). This is the conventional position for a tetrahedron, groups joined to full horizontal lines

OH

CHO

CHO

CHO
OH HO-

CHO

CH 2 OH
(d)

being above the plane of the paper, and those joined to broken vertical lines being below the plane of the paper. The conventional plane-diagram is obtained by drawing the full horizontal and broken vertical lines of Fig. 12 (b) as full lines, placing the groups as they appear in Fig. 12 (b), and taking the asymmetric carbon atom to be at the point where the lines cross. Although Fig. 12 (c) is a plane-diagram, it is most important to remember that horizontal lines represent groups above the plane, and vertical lines groups below the plane of the paper. Many authors prefer to draw Fig. 12 (c) [and Fig. 12 (d)] with a broken vertical line. Fig. 12 {d) represents the plane-diagram formula of l( )-glyceraldehyde here the hydrogen atom is Thus any compound that can to the right and the hydroxyl group to the left. be prepared from, or converted into, D(+)-glyceraldehyde will belong to the D-series. Similarly, any compound that can be prepared from, or converted into, l( )-glyceraldehyde will belong to the L-series. When representing relative configurational relationship of molecules containing more than one asymmetric carbon atom, the asymmetric carbon atom of glyceraldehyde is always drawn at the bottom, the rest of the molecule being built
;

up from

this unit.

D-senes

L-senes

Thus we have a scheme of classification of relative configurations based on D(+)-glyceraldehyde as arbitrary standard. Even on this basis confusion is still possible in relating configurations to the standard (see later). Until recently there was no way of determining, with certainty, the
Arbitrary choice makes the configuraabsolute configuration of molecules. tion of D(+)-glyceraldehyde have the hydrogen to the left and the hydroxyl to the right. Bijvoet et al. (1951), however, have shown by X-ray analysis of sodium rubidium tartrate that it is possible to differentiate between the two optically active forms, i.e., it is possible to determine the absolute configuration of these two enantiomorphs. These authors showed that natural dextrorotatory tartaric acid has the configuration assigned to it by Fischer (who correlated its configuration with that of the saccharic acids). The
configurations of the tartaric acids are a troublesome problem.

Fischer

CC

33 wrote the configuration of natural dextrorotatory tartaric acid as IV. If we use the convention of writing the glyceraldehyde unit at the bottom,
COjjH

5]

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

C0 2 H

HC OH HO C
I

HO O

HC OH
I

C02 H IV
then IV
is

C02 H

V
V

L(+)-tartaric acid and D(-)-tartaric acid. This relationship (to glyceraldehyde) is confirmed by the conversion of d(+) -glyceraldehyde

CHO

CN
HcN

CN

H-O-OH
I

H-C*- OH
>-

HO-C -H
+
2

CH2 OH
D(+) -glyceraldehyde

H -_ C _ 0H
|

H_c
I I

0H

CH OH
2

CH 2 OH
C02 H

C02 H
(0 hydrolysis
(ii)

H Cr-OH
"*"

HO
I

oxidation

HC! OH
C02H
mesotartaric acid
I

H C. OH
f

G02 H
(-)-tartaric

acid into tevorotatory tartaric acid via the Kiliani reaction (see Vol. I) Thus (-)-tartanc acid is D(-)-tartaric acid (V). On the other hand, (+)-tartaric .^[Link] into D(-)-glyceric acid, and so (+)-tartaric acid is D(+)-tartaric acid (IV). In this reduction of (+)-tartaric acid to (+)-malic

C02H

O02 H

COiH.

H OH HO-C-H
2
I

H OH
2
I

H OH
2

>|

CH2
C0 2H
(+)-maIic acid

CH2
CONH2
(+)-p-malamic
acid

IV

COaH

C0 2 H
5-

CHO
-*

H-C OH
I

H -C-OH
CH 2 OH
D(-) -glyceric
acid
I

H-G OH
I

CH2 -NH2
(+)-KO'serine

CH 2 OH
D(+) -glyceraldehyde

34

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. II

acid (by hydriodic acid), it has been assumed that it is C x which has been reduced, i.e., in this case the configuration of C 2 has been correlated with glyceraldehyde and not that of Cj as in the previous set of reactions. Had, however, C 2 been reduced, then the final result would have been (+)-tartaric acid still through the intermediate, {-\-)-malic acid (two exchanges of groups give the same malic acid as before). Since (+)-malic acid has been correlated

COJE

C0 2H
I

H OH
I

-I H HO -C ty
x

~>

CH 2

">

CH 2OH

HOCH
I

HOC!
I

C0 2H
IV
with (-f)-glyceraldehyde

Co 2H CC
(-f)-malic -me acid

C0 2H
d( )-glyceric
acid

(see 9a), (+)-tartaric acid should be designated D(+)-tartaric acid. The designation L(+)-tartaric acid is used by those chemists who regard this acid as a carbohydrate derivative (see also 5a).

5a. Correlation of configurations. As we have seen (5), since the relative configurations of (+)-tartaric acid and (-f)-glycer aldehyde have been established, it is now possible to assign absolute configurations to many compounds whose relative configurations to (+)-glyceraldehyde are known,

since the configurations assigned to them are actually the absolute configurations. The methods used for correlating configurations are: (i) Chemical reactions without displacement at the asymmetric centre

concerned (see 5b). (ii) Chemical reactions with displacement at the asymmetric centre concerned (see the Walden inversion, 3, 4. III).
(iii)

(iv)

(see, e.g., carbohydrates, 6. VII; steroids, 4b. XI). (6) Rotatory dispersion (see steroids, 4b. XI). (vi) The study of quasi-racemic compounds (see 9a).

(v)

X-ray analysis (see 5). Asymmetric inductive correlation (see asymmetric Optical rotations: (a) Monochromatic rotations

synthesis, 7. III).

(vii)

Enzyme

studies.

5b. Correlation of configurations

without displacement at the

asymmetric centre concerned. Since no bond joined to the asymmetric centre is ever broken, this method is an extremely valuable method of
Before discussing examples, the following point is worth noting. CH 2OH'CH(NH 2)-C0 2H, was chosen as the arbitrary standard. Thus correlation with glyceraldehyde was indicated by D, or l, and with serine by d, or l,. These two standards have ls i.e., natural now been correlated, and it has been shown that l ( )-serine belongs to the L-series (with glyceraldehyde as absolute standard; see also 4. XIII).
correlation.

For amino-acids, natural ( )-serine,

The
(i)

following examples illustrate this

method

of correlation.

CHO
HOl(
)

-h
CH 2 OH

C02 H _ H J! hoae*. ho-

C02 H
_

^ H0

C0 2 H
-

-H

CH 2 OH
l(+) -glyceric acid

CH 2 NH 2
l( )-soserine

CH2 Br
L-

-glyceraldehyde

6c]

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

35

002 H
Na/Hg
'

>

HO

CH -H
I

f-

L(+)-lactic acid
It can be seen from this example that change in the sign of rotation does not necessarily indicate a change in configuration.
()

Me

Me
(i)

HO-

EtOH/HCl

co2 "h

(u)Na/ EtOH

HO-

-j

Me
HBr

HO-

CH2 OH
D-

-J

r>() -lactic acid

CH2 Br

Me
(i)
(ii)

KCN
hydrolysis

HO-

-H

OH2 -002 H
r>{ )--hydroxybatyric acid
(iii)

Me
H-

Me
(i)
(ii)

Me
HT

-OH CH2 C02 H

EtOH/HCl Na/EtOH

*"

OH CH2 CH2 OH
Me

H-

*-(+)--hydroxybutyric acid

-OH CH2 CH2l

H
Another example

OH CH 2 *CH3

L(+)-butan-2-ol
(iv)

is

that in the terpene series (see 23e. VIII).

one asymmetric carbon atom. (i) The four groups are first ordered according to the sequence rule. According to this rule, the groups are arranged in decreasing atomic number pt the atoms by which they are bound to the asymmetric carbon atom 11 two or more of these atoms have the same atomic number, then the relative priority of the groups is determined by a similar comparison of the atomic numbers of the next atoms in the groups (i.e., the atoms joined to the atom joined to the asymmetric carbon atom). If this fails then the next atoms of the groups are considered. Thus one works outwards from the asymmetric carbon atom until a selection can be made for the sequence ^ of the groups.
(ii) Next is determined whether the sequence describes a right- or lefthanded pattern on the molecular model as viewed according to the conversion rule. When the four groups in the molecule Cubed have been

C 51 *1011 f as ymmetric configurations. , Cahn, Ingold and u ? ' (1956) have produced Frelog a scheme for the specification of absolute configurations. Let us consider the procedure for a molecule containing

mE!^

ordered in the priority a, b, c, d, the conversion rule states that their spatial pattern shall be described as right- or left-handed according as sequence a>b-c is clockwise or anticlockwise when viewed from the an external point on the side remote from d (the group with the lowest priority) e g (I) Fig. 13 shows a right-handed (i.e., clockwise) arrangement

36

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. II

The asymmetry (iii) Absolute configuration labels are then assigned. leading under the sequence and conversion rules to a right- and left-handed

/ > -Cr-~
c
(I)

Fig. 2.13.

pattern
left).

is

indicated

by

and S respectively (R;

rectus, right:

S;

sinister,

Let us first consider bromochloroacetic acid (II). The priority of the (c) and {d). groups according to the sequence rule is Br (a), CI (b), C0 2

CI

Br-

-C02 H

H
(II)

Hence by the conversion

Now

let

III (this is

the (R)-form {a > b c is clockwise). us consider D(+)-glycer aldehyde. By convention it is drawn as Oxygen has the highest priority also the absolute configuration).
rule, (II) is

CHO
H-

CHO

CHO

b
a-

-OH

CH 2 OH-

-OH

HO

-CH 2OH

CH2 OH
III

H
IV

H
V

d
VI

Since both the CHO and is d. is a and the lowest. Thus groups are attached to the asymmetric carbon by carbon, it is necessary to determine the priorities of these two groups by working outwards. The C of the CHO is bound to (H, 0=) and that of the CH 2 to (H, H, OH). When a double or triple bond is present in the group, the atom at the remote end of the multiple bond is regarded as duplicated or triplicated, respectively. Thus the double-bonded oxygen atom gives higher priority to the CHO group (=H, O, O). Hence CHO is- b and is c. Since the interchanging of two groups inverts the configuraCH 2 > (IV) > (V) gives the original configuration. tion, the sequence (III) Since (V) corresponds to (VI), it thus follows that D(+)-glyceraldehyde is (2?) -glyceraldehyde.

and

OH

CH 2 OH

OH

OH

C02 H
H- r- OH

CHOH-C0 2H

C02 H -OH HH HOC02 H

CH0H-C0 2 H
HO-H

C02 H

(2 interchanges)

(2 interchanges)

C0 2 H
HO- -y-CHOHC0 2 H HO-

CO-H

-CHOHCO.H

6]

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

37

a molecule contains two or more asymmetric carbon atoms, each asymmetric carbon atom is assigned a configuration according to the sequence and conversion rules and is then specified with R or 5, e.g., (+) -tartaric acid. Thus the absolute configuration of (+) -tartaric acid is (RR) -tartaric acid [this clearly indicates the relationship between (+) -tartaric acid and
D(+)-glyceraldehyde]. In a similar way it can be demonstrated that D(+)-glucose has the absolute configuration shown.

When

H-

CHO -OH
-H

(R)
(S)

HOH-

H-

-OH -OH

(R)
(.R)

CH2 OH
D(+)-glucose

The system has also been extended to include asymmetric molecules which have no asymmetric carbon atoms, e.g., spirans, diphenyls, etc. The test of superimposing a formula (tetramirror image definitely indicates whether the molecule is symmetrical or not it is asymmetric if the two forms are not superimposable. The most satisfactory way in which superimposability may be ascertained is to build up models of the molecule and its mirror image. Usually this is not convenient, and so, in practice, one determines whether the molecule possesses (i) a plane of symmetry, (ii) a centre of symmetry or (iii) an alternating axis of symmetry. If the molecule contains at least one of these elements of symmetry, the molecule is symmetrical; if none of these elements of symmetry is present, the molecule is asymmetric. It should be remembered that it is the Fischer projection formula that is normally used for inspection. As pointed out in 2, it is necessary, when dealing with conformations, to ascertain whether at least one of them has one or more elements of symmetry. If such a conformation can be drawn, then the compound is not optically active. (i) A plane of symmetry divides a molecule in such a way that points (atoms or groups of atoms) on the one side of the plane form mirror images of those on the other side. This test may be applied to both solid (tetrahedral) and plane-diagram formulae, e.g., the plane-formula of the mesoform of Cabd'Cabd possesses a plane of symmetry; the other two, (+) and ( ), do not
6.

Elements of symmetry.
on
its
;

hedral)

ad-

-d
-a

d-

-a
-d
b

a-

plane of

a~

a-

symmetry

b (+)-form

(-)-form

b meso form

(u) A centre of symmetry is a point from which lines, when drawn on one side and produced an equal distance on the other side, will meet exactly similar points in the molecule. This test can be satisfactorily applied only

38

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. II
:

to three-dimensional formulae, particularly those of ring systems, e.g., 2 4dimethylcycfobutane-1 : 3-dicarboxylic acid (Fig. 14). The form shown possesses a centre of symmetry which is the centre of the ring. This form is therefore optically inactive. Another example we shall consider here is that of dimethyldiketopiperazine; this molecule can exist in two geometrical isomeric forms, cis and

H3

-02 H

/ H_Z

\~7
\ \

/
:o2h
\

CH3
Fig. 2.14.

trans (see also 11. IV). The cw-isomer has no elements of symmetry and can therefore exist in two enantiomorphous forms; both are known. The fraws-isomer has a centre of symmetry and is therefore optically inactive.

CH3
I

CO
N

CH3 NH|

<?H ?H3
I

B
NHI NHl

,CO XX>

NH

ccy
|

< N NH CO>
|

H
cts

H
trans

CH3

It is important to note that only even-membered rings can possibly possess a centre of symmetry. molecule possesses an -fold (iii) Alternating axis of symmetry. alternating axis of symmetry if, when rotated through an angle of 360/ about this axis and then followed by reflection in a plane perpendicular to the axis, the molecule is the same as it was in the starting position. Let us consider the molecule shown in Fig. 15 (a) [1 2 3 : 4-tetramethylcyc/obutane]. This contains a four-fold alternating axis of symmetry. Rota-

H SC A

H
CH3/ CH 3 H3C
(a)

2;+

I1

1i
1

z
*/

/i

h/i
A
z~

y
Z +//z4

r+ / 2

H // H
3

(0
I1

A
I1 Fig. 2.15.

id)
2

6]

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

39

(+)CH(CH3 )-C a 8 and (_)_CH(CH3 )-C2 B) represented by Z+ and irrespectively, the resulting molecule (Fig. 15c) now has no planes of symmetry. Nevertheless, this molecule is not optically active since it does possess a four-fold alternating axis of symmetry [reflection of Id) (which is produced by rotation of (c) through 90 about the vertical axis) in the plane of the ring gives (c); it should be remembered that the reflection of a (+)-form is the ( )-form].

turn of (a) through 90 about axis which passes through the centre of the ring perpendicular to its plane gives {b), and reflection of (6) in the plane of the ring gives (a). It also happens that this molecule possesses two vertical planes of symmetry (through each diagonal of the ring), but if the methyl groups are replaced alternately by the asymmetric groups

AB

The cyc/obutane derivative (c) given above to illustrate the meaning of an alternating axis of symmetry is an imaginary molecule. No compound was known in which the optical inactivity was due to the existence of only

H
<JH,"1

^CH 3

\+hT
^ CH 3

CH^

*S

-vH^CH ^H
I
:

W
v\
II

CHf

an alternating axis until McCasland and Proskow (1956) prepared such a molecule for the first time. This is a spiro-type of molecule (7. V), viz.

[Link]':

4'-tetramethylspiro-(l

l')-dipyrrolidinium ^-toluenesulphonate, I

it does contain a four-fold alternating axis of symmetry presence of this axis, if I rotated through 90 about the coaxis of both rings, II is obtained. Reflection of II through the central plane (i.e., through the atom) perpendicular to this axis gives a molecule identical and coincident with I.

symmetry, but

(the ^-toluenesulphonate ion has been omitted). This molecule is discussed in some detail in 2a. VI, but here we shall examine it for its alternating axis of symmetry. Molecule I is superimposable on its mirror image and hence is not optically active. It does not contain a plane or centre of

To show the

thritol ester,
16. VIII):

et al. (1959) have now prepared a second compound, a pentaerywhose optical inactivity can be attributed only to the presence a ?L Tr?^"fold alternating axis of symmetry (R = menthyl radical; see

McCasland

(-)-ROCH2 COOCH,
(+)-RO- CH2 COO- Cft/

^CHa-OCOCHijOR (-)
^CRVO- CO

City OR

(+)

In practice one decides whether a molecule is symmetrical or not by looking only for a plane or centre of symmetry, since no natural compound has yet been found to have an alternating axis of symmetry. The presence of two or more asymmetric carbon atoms will definitely give rise to optical isomerism, but nevertheless some isomers may not be optically active because these molecules as a whole are not asymmetric (see 7d).

40
7.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. II

of isomers in optically active compounds. The number of optical isomers that can theoretically be derived from a molecule containing one or more asymmetric carbon atoms is of fundamental importance in stereochemistry.
7a.

The number

Compounds

containing one asymmetric carbon atom.

With

the molecule Cabde only two optical isomers are possible, and these are related as object and mirror image, i.e., there is one pair of enantiomorphs, e.g., d- and L-lactic acid. If we examine an equimolecular mixture of dextrorotatory and laevorotatory lactic acids, we shall find that the mixture is optically inactive. This is to be expected, since enantiomorphs have equal but opposite rotatory power. Such a mixture (of equimolecular amounts) is said to be optically inactive by external compensation, and is known as a racemic modification (see also 9). A compound which is optically inactive by external compensation is known as the racemic compound and is designated as r-, ()- or dl-, e.g., r-tartaric acid, (ij-limonene,
DL-lactic acid.
three forms: (+)-.

Thus a compound containing one asymmetric carbon atom can exist in ( ) and (). Conversion of molecule Ca 2 bd into Cabde. Let us consider as an example

the bromination of propionic acid to give oc-bromopropionic acid.

CH 3 -CH 2 -C0 2H ^*> CH 3 -CHBr-C0 2H

III (Fig. 16) are enantiomorphs, and since molecule I is symmetrical about its vertical axis, it can be anticipated from the theory of probability
II

and

CO z H

C0 2 H

CQ 2 H

that either hydrogen

atom should be replaced equally

well to give ()-a-

bromopropionic acid.
7b.

This actually does occur in practice.

atoms.

Compounds containing two different asymmetric carbon When we examine the molecule Cabd'Cabe, e.g., a /?-dibromobutyric acid, CH 3 *CHBrCHBr*C0 2 H, we find that there are four possible
:

spatial arrangements for this type of molecule (Fig. 17). I and II are enantiomorphs (the configurations of both asymmetric carbon are reversed),

b
I

b
II
Fig. 2.17.

b
III

IV

and an equimolecular mixture of them forms a racemic modification; simiand IV. Thus there are six forms in all for a compound of the type Cabd-Cabe: two pairs of enantiomorphs and two racemic modificalarly for III
tions.

and

III are not identical in configuration

and are not mirror images

7b]

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

41

two asymmetric carbon atoms is reversed) they are known as diastereoisomers, i.e., they are optical isomers but
not enantiomorphs (mirror images). Diastereoisomers differ in physical properties such as melting point, density, solubility, dielectric constant and specific rotation. Chemically they are similar, but their rates of reaction with other optically active compounds are different Icf. the properties of enantiomorphs, 2). The plane-diagrams of molecules I-IV (Fig. 17) will be V-VIII, respectively, as shown. It should be remembered that groups joined to horizontal lines lie above the plane of the paper, and those joined to vertical lines lie below the plane of the paper (5).
b
a-

(the configuration of one of the

-d
-e

de-

-a
-a

ae-

-d
-a

d-

-a
-e

a-

ab

VI

VII

VIII

Instead of writing down all the possible configurations, the number of optical isomers for a compound of the type Cabd-Cabe may be obtained by indicating the configuration of each asymmetric carbon atom by the symbol or or by d or l; thus: ,

or

Li

DL
Conversion of molecule Ca b-Cabe into Cabd-Cabe. Let us z consider the brommation of /?-methylvaleric acid to give a-bromo-0-methylvaleric acid.

CH3 .CH2 -CH(CH3)-CHa .C0 2H

CH 3 -CH 2-CH(CH3).CHBr-C0 2H

/?-Methylvaleric acid contains one asymmetric carbon atom, but the bromine derivative contains two. Let us first consider the case where the configuration of the asymmetric carbon atom in the starting material is d, (IX) Brommation of this will produce molecules and XI; these are diastereoisomers and are produced in unequal amounts. This is to be anticipatedthe two a-hydrogen atoms are not symmetrically placed with respect to the lower half of the molecule, and consequently different rates of substitution can be expected. In the same way, brommation of the starting material in which the configuration of the asymmetric carbon atom is L, (XII) leads to the formation of a mixture of diastereoisomers (XIII and XIV) in unequal amounts. One can expect, however, that the amount of XIII produced from XII would be the same as that of from IX since

C02 H
HHC 2 H5
D

COjjH

C02 H
Br-

-Br

3-

-H

CH,

H-

D4 -CHj
C2H5

-CH,

C2H5

IX

XI

42
in

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH.

II

both cases, the positions of the bromine atoms with respect to the methyl group are the same. Similarly, the amount of XIV from XII will be the same as that of XI from IX. Thus bromination of ()-/?-methylvaleric

C02 H
Br-

C02 H
HCHoLx

COj-H

-H
L,

-H -H

HCH,Lx

-Br

CHr

-H

-H

C 2 HS
XIII

C 2 H5

C 2 H5

derivatives which will consist acid will result in a mixture of of two racemic modifications in unequal amounts, and the mixture will be optically inactive.
7c. Compounds containing three different asymmetric carbon atoms. A molecule of this type is Cabd'Cab-Cabe, e.g., the pentoses, and the number of optical isomers possible is eight (four pairs of enantiomorphs)

XII four bromo

XIV

r> 3

1.3

DL

DL

DL
compounds which

All the cases discussed so far are examples of a series of contain n structurally distinct carbon atoms, i.e., they belong to the series Cabd'(Cab) n -2'Cabe. In general, if there are n asymmetric carbon atoms in the molecule (of this series), then there will be 2* optically active forms and 2**-1 resolvable forms (i.e., 2 n_1 pairs of enantiomorphs). These formulae also apply to monocyclic compounds containing n different asymmetric carbon atoms; they may or may not apply to fused ring systems since spatial factors may play a part in the possible existence of various configurations (see, e.g., camphor, 23a. VIII).

7d.

Compounds

of the type

Cabd^CaVj^Cabd.

In compounds of

this type the two terminal asymmetric carbon atoms are similar, and the number of optically active forms possible depends on whether x is odd or even.

(i)

EVEN SERIES

In a compound of this type the rota(a) tory power of each asymmetric carbon atom is the same. Now let us consider the number of optical isomers possible.
Cabd'Cabd,
e.g.,

tartaric acid.

D D
I

L L
II

D
L
III

D IV

In molecules I and II, the upper and lower halves reinforce each other; hence I, as a whole, has the dextro- and II, the lsevo-configuration, i.e., I and On the other hand, in III II are optically active, and enantiomorphous. the two halves are in opposition, and so the molecule, as a whole, will not show optical activity. It is also obvious that III and IV are identical, Molecule III i.e., there is only one optically inactive form of Cabd'Cabd. Molecule III is said to be optically inactive by internal compensation.

7d]
is

OPTICAL ISOMERISM
as the meso-form,

43

a diastereoisomer of the pair of enantiomorphs I and II. The meso-iorm is also known as the inactive form and is represented as the t'-form; the meso-torm cannot be resolved (see also Thus there are four forms possible for the molecule Cabd'Cabd: one 10). pair of enantiomorphs, one racemic modification and one tneso- (*-) form. These forms for tartaric acid are:
is

known

and

COjH

C02 H
H-

C0 2 H
H-

HO-

-H

-OH
-H

-OH
_

plane of

H-

-OH
CQjH
L-

HO-

H-

jj

symmetry

COs H

COgH
meso~(i-)

DLInspection of these formula; shows that the d- and l- forms do not possess any elements of symmetry; the meso-form, however, possesses a plane of symmetry.
(6)

Cabd'Cab'Cab-Cabd,

e.g.,

saccharic acid,

C0 2H-CHOH-CHOH-CHOH-CHOH-CO aH.
The rotatory powers of the two terminal asymmetric carbon atoms are the same, and so are those of the middle two (the rotatory powers of the
would be
latter are almost certainly different from those of the former; equality fortuitous). The possible optical isomers are as follows (V-XIV)

Li
*>a

D,

Li La

1
La Li

"1
La

d2
VII
VIII

La
l

D2
Li

IX
DL

XI XII
DL

XIII

XIV

DL

meso-iorms

Molecules and VI are optically active (enantiomorphous) and are not "internally compensated"; VII and VIII are optically active (enantiomorphous) and are not " internally compensated "; IX and are optically active (enantiomorphous) but are " internally compensated at the ends "; XI and XII are optically active (enantiomorphous) but are " internally compensated in the middle "; XIII and XIV are meso-iorms and are optically inactive by (complete) internal compensation. Thus there are eight optically active forms (four pairs of enantiomorphs), and two meso-forms. In general, in the series of the type Cabd'{Cab) n - 2 -Cabd, if n is the number of asymmetric carbon atoms and is even, then there will be 2 n ~ 1 optically

active forms,

and

2~

weso-forms.

(H)
(a)

ODD SERIES

trihydroxyglutaric acid. If the two terminal asymmetric carbon atoms have the same configuration, then the central carbon atom has two identical groups joined to it and hence cannot be asymmetric. If the two terminal configurations are opposite, then the central carbon atom has apparently four different groups attached to it
e.g.,

Cabd-Cab-Cabd,

44

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. II

Thus the central (the two ends are mirror images and not superimposable). carbon atom becomes asymmetric, but at the same time the two terminal atoms "compensate internally" to make the molecule as a whole symmetrical (there is now a plane of symmetry), and consequently the compound is not optically active. In this molecule the central carbon atom
Cabd
1

d
-^t>"-

d
..I'.jj.'

Cab
1

plane of symmetry

Cabd

D
DL

XV XVI
is

XVII
meso

XVIII
meso

and is designated " d " and " L " (or convention is used; 7b). There will, however, be and the two meso-ioims since the pseudo-asymmetric carbon atom can have two Thus there are five forms in all: different configurations (see XV-XVIII). two optically active forms (enantiomorphs), one racemic modification, and two meso-ioxms. The following are the corresponding trihydroxyglutaric
said to be pseudo-asymmetric,
if

and

acids, all of

which are known.

C02H

CO ?H H-

C0 2 H
HHH-

CO,H

HO
HH-

-H

-OH

-OH -OH

HHOH-

-OH
-H

-OH HO-OH
C02H D

-H
-H C02H
L

HO-

-OH
C02H
meso

-OH
C02 H
meso

Cabd-Cab'Cab-Cab-Cabd. In this molecule the central carbon atom is pseudo-asymmetric when the left-hand side of the molecule has the opposite configuration to that of the right-hand side; the central carbon atom is symmetrical when both sides have the same configuration. In all other cases the central carbon atom is asymmetric, the molecule now containing five asymmetric carbon atoms. The following table shows that there are sixteen optical isomers possible, of which twelve are optically active (six pairs of enantiomorphs), and four are meso-forms.
(b)

Ends with

opposite configurations

"d'
D,

meso

meso

Ends with

the

same configurations

DL

DL

 83

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

46

Molecule with five asymmetric carbon atoms

of

In general, in the series of the type Cabd'(Cab) - -Cabd, if n is the n s number asymmetric " carbon atoms and n is odd, then there will be 2"- 1 optical

isomers, of which 2"T~ are meso-iorms forms.

and the remainder

optically active

8. The racemic modification. The racemic modification is an equimolecular mixture of a pair of enantiomorphs, and it may be prepared in several ways. (i) Mixing of equimolecular proportions of enantiomorphs produces the racemic modification. (ii) Synthesis of asymmetric compounds from symmetrical compounds always results in the formation of the racemic modification. This statement is true only if the reaction is carried out in the absence of other optically active compounds or circularly polarised light (see asymmetric

synthesis, 7. III).
(iii)

The process of converting an optically active compound into the racemic modification is known as racemisation. The {+)and ( )-forms of most compounds are capable of racemisation under the influence of heat, light, or chemical reagents. Which agent is used depends on the nature of the compound, and at the same time the ease of racemisation also depends on the nature of the compound, e.g., {a) Some compounds racemise so easily that they cannot be isolated in
the optically active forms.
(b) number of compounds racemise spontaneously when isolated in optically active forms. (c) The majority of compounds racemise with various degrees of ease under the influence of different reagents. (d)A relatively small number of compounds cannot be racemised at all

Racemisation.

When a molecule contains two or more asymmetric carbon atoms and the configuration of only one of these is inverted by some reaction the process is then called epimerisation. Many theories have been proposed to explain racemisation, but owing to the diverse nature of the structures of the various optically active compounds, one cannot expect to find one theory which would explain the racemisation of all types of optically active compounds. Thus we find that a number of mechanisms have been suggested, each one explaining the racemisation of a particular type of compound. A number of compounds which are easily racemisable are those in which the asymmetric carbon atom is joined to a hydrogen atom and a negative group. Since this type of compound can undergo tautomeric change the mechanism proposed for this racemisation is one via enolisation. When the intermediate enol-form, which is symmetrical, reverts to the keto-form it can do so equally well to produce the (+)- or (-)-forms, i.e., the compound will racemise. Let us consider the case of keto-enol tautomerisnv In the keto-form, I, the carbon joined to the hydrogen atom and the oxo group is asymmetric; in the enol-form, II, this carbon atom has lost its asymmetry. When the enol-form reverts to the keto-form, it can do so to produce the original keto molecule I, but owing to its symmetry the

46

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH.

II

enol-form can produce equally well the keto-form III in which the configuration of the asymmetric carbon atom is opposite to that in I. Thus racemisation, according to this scheme, occurs via the enol-form, e.g., ( )-lactic acid

00=0
I

^==

C=C OH
,i
II

==^r

C 0=0
I

,11
III
this

I
is

racemised in

aqueous sodium hydroxide, and

change

may

be formu-

lated:

0H O CH 3 , COf
C^s

H
3

.0

HO,
<

o-

*J CH C C' ^=* of

H
(-)

0-

X 0.0

>

/ CH X
3

C=C

\ X0-

H
H+

CH.

i-c/

AhV
(+) a great deal of evidence to support this tautomeric mechanism. When the hydrogen atom joined to the asymmetric carbon atom is replaced by some group that prevents tautomerism (enolisation) then racemisation comis also prevented (at least under the same conditions as the original pound), e.g., mandelic acid, C 6H 5 -CHOH-C0 2H, is readily racemised by wanning with aqueous sodium hydroxide. On the other hand, atrolactic acid, C 6 H 6 'C(CH 3 )(OH)'C0 2 H, is not racemised under the same conditions; in this case keto-enol tautomerism is no longer possible. Racemisation of compounds capable of exhibiting keto-enol tautomerism is catalysed by acids and bases. Since keto-enol tautomerism is also catalysed by acids and bases, then if racemisation proceeds via enolisation, the rates of racemisation and enolisation should be the same. This relationship has been established by means of kinetic studies, e.g., Bartlett et al. (1935) found that the rate of acid-catalysed iodination of 2-butyl phenyl ketone was the same as that of racemisation in acid solution. This is in keeping with both reactions involving the rate-controlling formation of the enol (see Vol. I, Ch. X)
There
is

OH
Ph-CO-CHMeEt *=* Ph-C=CMeEt ^
I

slow
fast

fast

(+)

9low
I,
I

fast

* Ph-CO-CHMeEt (-)

Ph-CO-CIMeEt

On the other hand, on the basis that the rate-determining step in basecatalysed enolisation and racemisation is the formation of the enolate ion, then the two processes will also occur at the same rate. O2

OH

B + R-CO-CHR 2 t^- BH+ + R-C=CR JSL* B + R-C=CR 2 slow

fast

8]

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

47

Hsii et al. (1936) found that the rates of bromination and racemisation (in the presence of acetate ions) of 2-o-carboxybenzyl-l-indanone were identical.

CO,H

Further support for this mechanism is the work of Ingold et al. (1938) that the rate of racemisation of (+)-2-butyl phenyl ketone in dioxan-deuterium oxide solution in the presence of NaOD is the same as the rate of deuterium exchange. This is in keeping with the formation of the enolate ion (or carbanion), which is common to both reactions.

who showed

PhC=CMeEt

(+)-Pll-CO'CHMeEt +

OIT^sHOD

PhCOCMeEt

Ph-CO-CDMeEt

(-)-Ph-CO-CHMeEt +

OD~

There are many compounds containing an asymmetric carbon atom which can be racemised under suitable conditions although there is no possibility of tautomerism. A number of different types of compounds fall into this group, and the mechanism proposed for racemisation depends on the type of compound under consideration. In the case of compounds of the type of ( )-lhnonene (13. VIII), which is racemised by strong heating, the mechanisms proposed are highly speculative (see, for example, Werner's theory, 4. V). A number of optically active secondary alcohols can be racemised by heating with a sodium alkoxide. This has been explained by a reversible dehydrogenation (Huckel, 1931) and there is some evidence to support this mechanism (Doering et al., 1947, 1949).

?
R-G-OH
H
(+)-

'

^= R-6=0
I

2H

H ^:

+o

H R-C-OH
|

i
B-

Another different type of compound which can be readily racemised is that represented by a-chloroethylbenzene. When the (+)- or ( )-form is dissolved in liquid sulphur dioxide, spontaneous racemisation occurs. This has been explained by assuming ionisation into a carbonium ion (Polanvi v
et al.,

1933).

C 6H B -CHC1-CHS
(+)"

^CH
6

-CH-CH 3

Cl~

^CH
6

-CHC1-CH3
(-)-

The carbonium

planar (the positively charged carbon atom is probably in a state of trigonal hybridisation) and consequently symmetrical; recombination with the chlorine ion can occur equally well to form the (+)- and ( )-forms, i.e., racemisation occurs. The basis of this mechanism is that alkyl halides in liquid sulphur dioxide exhibit an electrical conductivity, which has been taken as indicating ionisation. Hughes, Ingold
ion
is

48

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. II

et al. (1936), however, found that pure oc-chloroethylbenzene in pure liquid sulphur dioxide does not conduct, but when there is conduction, then styrene and hydrogen chloride are present. These authors showed that under the conditions of purity, the addition of bromine leads to a quantitative yield of styrene dibromide. Polanyi showed that the rate of racemisation of oc-chloroethylbenzene in liquid sulphur dioxide is unaffected by added chloride ions. Hughes and Ingold suggest that the rate of racemisation is accounted for by the rate of formation of hydrogen chloride; thus:

C 6H 5-CHC1-CH 3 -^> C 6H 5-CH-CH 3 C 6 H 5 -CH-CH 3

It is the

-^ C
5

+ Cl~ H -CH = CH + H+
5 2

recombination of the styrene with the hydrogen chloride that produces the racemised product; this may be written as follows

C 6H 5 -CHC1-CH3
(+)-

^CH
6

-CH

= CH + HC1 ^ C H
2
6

-CHC1-CH 3
(-)-

The racemisation of optically active hydrocarbons containing a tertiary hydrogen atom is very interesting. It has been shown that such hydrocarbons undergo hydrogen exchange when dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid (Ingold et al., 1936), and the mechanism is believed to occur
via

a carbonium ion (Burwell

3
2

et al.,
3
3

1948).
a 2

R CH + 2H S0 R C+ + HSO,- + SO + 2H R C+ + R CH > R CH + R C+, etc.

4
3 3

This reaction is very useful for racemising optically active hydrocarbons, e.g., Burwell et al. (1948) racemised optically active 3-methylheptane in concentrated sulphuric acid (the carbonium ion is flat):

CH 3
C 2H 6 CH
-

CH S
4

H, + C 2H 5

C+ H
4

(+)-

CH a
C 2H 6

C+ H
4

+ C 2H 5CH 4H 9
()is

The racemisation
later (see diphenyl

of other types of optically active

compounds

described

compounds, 4. V; nitrogen compounds, 2a. VI; phosphorus compounds, 3b. VI; arsenic compounds, 4a. VI).
tion

Properties of the racemic modification. The racemic modificaexist in three different forms in the solid state. This is also known as a () -conglomerate, (i) Racemic mixture. and is a mechanical mixture of two types of crystals, the (+)- and ( )9.

may

forms; there are two phases present. The physical properties of the racemic mixture are mainly the same as those of its constituent enantiomorphs. The most important difference is the m.p. (see 9a). This consists of a pair of enantiomorphs in (ii) Racemic compound. combination as a molecular compound; only one solid phase is present. The physical properties of a racemic compound are different from those of the constituent enantiomorphs, but in solution racemic compounds dissociate into the (+)- and ( )-forms. This is also known as a. pseu do -racemic (iii) Racemic solid solution. compound, and is a solid solution (one phase system) formed by a pair of enantiomorphs crystallising together due to their being isomorphous. The

9a]

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

49

properties of the racemic solid solution are mainly the same as those of its constituent enantiomorphs ; the m.p.s may differ (see 9a).
9a. tion.

Methods for determining the nature of a racemic modificaOne simple method of examination is to estimate the amounts of

water of crystallisation in the enantiomorphs (only one need be examined) and in the racemic modification; if these are different, then the racemic modification is a racemic compound. Another simple method is to measure the densities of the enantiomorphs and the racemic modification; again, if these are different, the racemic modification is a racemic compound;
e.g.,

tartaric acids.

D-Tartaric acid

L-Tartaric acid

Racemic
Tartaric acid

Melting point

170
.

170

206

Water

of crystallisation

None
1-7598

None
1-7598

Density
Solubility in

lH sO
1-697 20-6 g./lOO ml.

H,0

(at 20)

139 g./lOO ml.

139 g./lOO ml.

There are, however, two main methods for determining the nature of a racemic modification: a study of the freezing-point curves and a study of the solubility curves (Roozeboom, 1899; Andriani, 1900). Freezing-point curves. These are obtained by measuring the melting points of mixtures containing different amounts of the racemic modification and its corresponding enantiomorphs. Various types of curves are possible according to the nature of the racemic modification. In Fig. 18 (a) the

ioo7o(+)

sol
()

ioo%<-)

100%(+) 50%
(*)

100%(-)

100%(+)

50%

100%(-)

(0

Fig. 2.18.

melting points of all mixtures are higher than that of the racemic modification alone. In this case the racemic modification is a racemic mixture (a eutectic mixture is formed at the point of 50 per cent, composition of each enantiomorph), and so addition of either enantiomorph to a racemic mixture raises the melting point of the latter; ()-pinene is an example of this type. In Fig. 18 (6) and (c) the melting points of the mixtures are lower than the melting point of the racemic modification which, therefore, is a racemic compound. The melting point of the racemic compound may be above that of each enantiomorph (Fig. 18 b) or below (Fig. 18 c) in either case the melting point is lowered when the racemic compound is mixed with an enantiomorph; an example of Fig. 18 (b) is methyl tartrate, and one of Fig. 18 (c) is mandelic acid. When the racemic modification is a racemic solid solution, three types of curves are possible (Fig. 19). In Fig. 19 (a) the freezing-point curve is a horizontal straight line, all possible compositions having the same melting point, e.g., (+)- and ( )-camphor. In Fig. 19 (b) the freezing-point curve shows a maximum, e.g., (+)- and ( )-carvoxime; and in Fig. 19 (c) the freezing-point curve shows a minimum, e.g., (+)- and ( )-w>opentyl (isoamyl) carbamate.
;

50

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. II

In a number of cases there is a transition temperature at which one form of the racemic modification changes into another form, e.g., ()-camphoroxime crystallises as the racemic solid solution above 103, whereas below this temperature it is the racemic compound that is obtained [see also 10(i)].

ioo%(+)
()

ioo%(->

100%(+)
(b)

100%B

100%(+)
(c)

100%(-)

Fig. 2.19.

Fredga (1944) has introduced the study of quasi-racemic compounds as a

Quasi-racemic compounds are of correlating configurations (5). equimolecular compounds that are formed from two optically active com-

means

pounds which have

closely similar structures but opposite configurations, e.g.,

a
I

eC-f
j

d
I

d
II

The formation of a quasi-racemic compound is detected by studyI and II. ing the melting-point curves of the two components. The curves obtained are similar to those of the racemic modification shown in Fig. 18 [a), 18 (6) and 19 (a), but with the quasi-racemic compounds these curves are unsymmetrical (since the m.p.s of the components will be different). An unsymmetrical curve 18 (a) indicates a eutectic mixture, an unsymmetrical 19 (a) a solid solution and an unsymmetrical 18 (b) a quasi-racemic compound. Curves for quasi-racemic compounds are given only by compounds (containing one asymmetric carbon atom) which have closely similar strucOn the other hand, curves of the other tures but opposite configurations. two types are given by compounds of like configuration (but some cases are known where the configurations have been opposite). Various examples of this method of correlating configurations have now been described, e.g., Fredga (1941) showed (partly by chemical methods and partly by using the quasi-racemate method) that (-j-)-malic acid (III) and ( )-mercaptosuccinic

C0 2 H
Hoh;

C0 2 H
HS-J

CH2 -C02 H
III

C0 2 H I Me CH2 C02 H

IV

acid (IV) had opposite configurations. He then showed (1942) that ( )mercaptosuccinic acid formed a quasi-racemic compound with (+)-methylsuccinic acid (V). Therefore (IV) and (V) have opposite configurations and consequently (-f-)-malic acid and (+)-methylsuccinic acid have the same configuration (see also 10(vi) and 23e. VIII). Mislow et al. (1956) have applied the m.p. curves in a somewhat different manner. They worked with 3-mercapto-octanedioic acid (VI) and 3-methyloctanedioic acid (VII). These authors found that compounds ( )-VI and (+)-VII gave solid solutions for all mixtures (unsymmetrical 19 a), whereas
(-f-)-VI

and (+)-VII gave a diagram with a

single eutectic (unsymmetrical

10]

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

01

18

a).

These results indicate that ( )-VI and (+)-VII are of the same

CH2-C02H

CH2 -C02H

H CSH
(CH 2) 4-C0 2H

HCMe
(CH2 4-C0 2H
)

( )-form VI
absolute configuration, whereas (+)-VI
figurations.

(+)-form

VII

and (+)-VII are

of opposite con-

Solubility curves. The interpretation of solubility curves is difficult, but in practice the following simple scheme based on solubility may be used. A small amount of one of the enantiomorphs is added to a saturated solution of the racemic modification, and the resulting solution is then examined in a polarimeter. If the solution exhibits a rotation, then the racemic modification is a compound, but if the solution has a zero rotation, then the racemic modification is a mixture or a solid solution. The reasons for this behaviour are as follows. If the racemic modification is a mixture or a solid solution, then the solution (in some solvent) is saturated with respect to each enantiomorph and consequently cannot dissolve any of the added enantiomorph. If, however, the racemic modification is a compound, then the solution (in a solvent) is saturated with respect to the compound form but not with respect to either enantiomorph hence the latter will dissolve when added and thereby produce a rotation. It should be noted that this simple method does not permit a differentiation to be made between a racemic mixture and a racemic solid solution. Infra-red spectroscopy is also being used to distinguish a racemic compound from a racemic mixture or a racemic solid solution. In the latter the spectra are identical, but are different in the former. These observations are also true for X-ray powder diagrams, and so X-ray analysis in the solid state may also be used.
;

10. Resolution of racemic modifications. Resolution is the process whereby a racemic modification is separated into its two enantiomorphs. In practice the separation may be far from quantitative, and in some cases only one form may be obtained. A large variety of methods for resolution have now been developed, and the method used in a particular case depends largely on the chemical nature of the compound under consideration. (i) Mechanical separation. This method is also known as spontaneous resolution, and was introduced by Pasteur (1848). It depends on the crystallisation of the two forms separately, which are then separated by hand. The method is applicable only to a few cases, and then only for racemic mixtures where the crystal forms of the enantiomorphs are themselves enantiomorphous (2). Pasteur separated sodium ammonium racemate in this way. The transition temperature of sodium ammonium racemate is 28; above this temperature the racemic compound crystallises out, and below this temperature the racemic mixture. Now Pasteur crystallised his sodium ammonium racemate from a concentrated solution at room temperature, which must have been below 28 since had the temperature been above this he would have obtained the racemic compound, which can-

not be separated mechanically. Actually, Staedel (1878) failed to repeat Pasteur's separation since he worked at a temperature above 28. (ii) Preferential crystallisation by inoculation. A super-saturated solution of the racemic modification is treated with a crystal of one enantiomorph (or an isomorphous substance), whereupon this form is precipitated.

52

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. II

resolution of glutamic acid by inoculation has been perfected for inHarada et al. (1962) have dustrial use (Ogawa et al., 1957; Oeda, 1961). also resolved the copper complex of DL-aspartic acid by inoculation. Certain bacteria and (Pasteur, 1858). (iii) Biochemical separation moulds, when they grow in a dilute solution of a racemic modification, destroy one enantiomorph more rapidly than the other, e.g., Penicillium glaucum (a mould), when grown in a solution of ammonium racemate, attacks the D-form and leaves the L-. This biochemical method of separation has some disadvantages: (a) Dilute solutions must be used, and so the amounts obtained will be

The

small.
(b) One form is always destroyed and the other form is not always obtained in 50 per cent, yield since some of this may also be destroyed. (c) It is necessary to find a micro-organism which will attack only one of the enantiomorphs. This method, (iv) Conversion into diastereoisomers (Pasteur, 1858). which is the best of all the methods of resolution, consists in converting the enantiomorphs of a racemic modification into diastereoisomers (7b); the racemic modification is treated with an optically active substance and the diastereoisomers thereby produced are separated by fractional crystallisation. Thus racemic acids may be separated by optically active bases,

and

vice versa, e.g.,

(Dacid

Lacid)

+ 2Dba >
se

(D a ciflDbase)

(L ac idDbase)

These two diastereoisomers

may

then be separated by fractional crystallisa-

tion and the acids (enantiomorphs) regenerated by hydrolysis with inorganic In practice it is usually easy to obtain the lessacids or with alkalis. soluble isomer in a pure state, but it may be very difficult to obtain the more-soluble isomer. In a number of cases this second (more-soluble) isomer may be obtained by preparing it in the form of another diastereoisomer which is less soluble than that of its enantiomorph. Resolution by means- of diastereoisomer formation may be used for a variety of compounds, e.g., The optically active bases used are mainly alkaloids: brucine, (a) Acids.

quinine, strychnine, cinchonine, cinchonidine and morphine. Recently, optically active benzimidazoles (3a. XII) have been used (Hudson et al.,
1939).

Many optically active acids have been used, e.g., tartaric acid, (6) Bases. camphor-/3-sulphonic acid and particularly a-bromocamphor-Tr-sulphonic acid (see 23a. VIII). These are converted into the acid ester derivative using (c) Alcohols. either succinic or phthalic anhydride (Pickard and Kenyon, 1912). The acid ester, consisting of equimolecular amounts of the (+)- and ( )-forms,

may now
by

be resolved as for acids. Racemic alcohols may also be resolved diastereoisomer formation with optically active acyl chlorides (to form esters) or with optically active wocyanates (to form urethans):

ROCH
In these equations

+ R'OH ROCH -C0 R' + HC1 R-NCO + R'OH -> R-NH-COsjR'

2

-COC1

is

the

( )-menthyl

radical (16. VIII); recently

10]

OPTICAL ISOMERISM
chloride,
I,

53

N-( )-menthyl-^-sulphamylbenzoyl
1950).

has been used

(Mills et al.,

C10H19 NHSO2-^^^~COCl
I

These have been resolved by means of optiSugars have been resolved with (+)-Mopentanethiol (cf. 1. VII). Nerdel et al. (1952) have resolved oxo compounds with D-tartramide acid hydrazide,
(d)

Aldehydes and Ketones.

e.g.,

cally active hydrazines,

( )-menthylhydrazine.

NH a-CO-CHOH-CHOH-CO-NH-NH a
this forms diastereoisomeric tartramazones.

(e) Amino-compounds. These may be resolved by conversion into diastereoisomeric anils by means of optically active aldehydes. a-Amino-acids have been resolved by preparing the acyl derivative with an optically active acyl chloride, e.g., ( )-menthoxyacetyl chloride {cf. alcohols). Another method of resolving DL-amino-acids is asymmetric enzymic synthesis (7. III). The racemic amino-acid is converted into the acyl derivative which is then allowed to react with aniline in the presence of the enzyme papain at the proper pH. (Albertson, 1951). Under these conditions only the L-amino-acid derivative reacts to form an insoluble anilide; the D-acid does not react but remains in the solution.

''

NHCOR'
DL-acid

papain

NH-COR'
*"r-CH-CO-NH-C6 H5 +
L-acid

R-CH-C02 H+ C 6 H5 -NH*

NHCOR' R-CHC02 H
D-acid
*

Amino-acids have also been resolved by other means (see 4. XIII). Asymmetric transformation. Resolution of racemic modifications by means of salt formation (the diastereoisomers are salts; cf. acids and bases) may be complicated by the phenomenon of asymmetric transformation. This

phenomenon

is

exhibited

by compounds that

are optically unstable,

i.e.,

the

enantiomorphs are readily interconvertible

(+)-c^(-)-c
There are two types of asymmetric transformation, first order and second order. These were originally defined by Kuhn (1932), but were later redefined by Jamison and Turner (1942). Suppose we have an optically stable (+)-base (one equivalent) dissolved in some solvent, and this is then treated with one equivalent of an optically
unstable ()-acid. At the moment of mixing, the solution will contain equal amounts of [(+)-Base'(+)-Acid] and [(-f-)-Base'(- )-Acid] ; but since the acid is optically unstable, the two diastereoisomers will be present in unequal amounts when equilibrium is attained.

[(+)-Base-(+)-Acid]

^ [(+)-Base-(-)-Acid]

According to Jamison and Turner, first-order asymmetric transformation is the establishment of equilibrium in solution between the two diastereoisomers which must have a real existence. In second-order asymmetric transformation it is necessary that one salt should crystallise from solution; the two diastereoisomers need not have a real existence in solution. In second-order asymmetric transformation it is possible to get a complete conversion of the acid into the form that crystallises the form may be the (+)- or ( )-, and which one it is depends on the nature of the base and
;

the solvent.

54

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. II

Many examples of first- and second-order asymmetric transformation are known, and a large number of these compounds are those which owe their asymmetry to restricted rotation about a single bond (see Ch. V), e.g., Mills and Elliott (1928) tried to resolve iV-benzenesulphonyl-8-nitro-l-naphthylThese authors found that either glycine, II, by means of the brucine salt.
C6 H5 -SOa
NO,
CHjj-COsjH

diastereoisomer could be obtained in approximately 100 per cent, yield by crystallisation from methanol and acetone, respectively. Another example of second-order asymmetric transformation is hydrocarbostyril-3-carboxylic acid. This compound contains an asymmetric carbon atom, and Leuchs

0H-CO 2 H

O00 H
2
II

COH

(1921), attempting to resolve it with quinidine, isolated approximately 90 per cent, of the (+)-form. Optical instability in this case is due to keto-enol

tautomerism (cf. 8). A very interesting example of second-order asymmetric transformation

is

2-acetomethylamido-4'

5-dimethylphenylsulphone, III.

When this com-

CH3

CO-CH3

r"^3>cH3

m
crystallised from a supersaturated solution in ethyl (+)-tartrate, the crystals obtained had a rotation of +0-2; evaporation of the mother liquor gave crystals with a rotation of 0-15 (Buchanan et al., 1950). (v) Another method of resolution that has been tried is the conversion of the enantiomorphs into volatile diastereoisomers, which are then separated by fractional distillation. So far, the method does not appear to be very successful, only a partial resolution being the result, e.g., Bailey and Hass

pound was

(1941) converted ( = = )-pentan-2-ol into its diastereoisomers with L(+)-lactic and then partially separated them by fractional distillation. (vi) Selective adsorption. Optically active substances may be selectively adsorbed by some optically active adsorbent, e.g., Henderson and Rule (1939) partially resolved ^-phenylenebisiminocamphor on lactose as adsorbent; Bradley and Easty (1951) have found that wool and casein selectively adsorb (+)-mandelic acid from an aqueous solution of ()-manj

acid,

10]
delic acid.

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

55

A particularly important case of resolution by chromatography that of Troger's base (see 2c. VI). Jamison and Turner (1942) have carried out a chromatographic separation without using an optically active adsorbent; they partially resolved the diastereoisomers of ( )-menthyl ()-mandelate by preferential adsorption on alumina. It is also interesting to note that the resolution of a racemic acid by salt formation with an optically active base is made more effective by the application of chromatography. Resolution has also been carried out by vapour-phase chromatography, e.g., s-butanol and s-butyl bromide have been separated into two overlapping fractions using a column of starch or ethyl tartrate as the stationary phase (Karagounis et al., 1959). Casanova et al. (1961) have resolved ()-camphor by gas chromatography. Beckett et al. (1957) have introduced a novel method for correlating and determining configurations (cf. 9). These authors have prepared " stereois

selective adsorbents ". These are adsorbents prepared in the presence of a suitable reference compound of known configuration, e.g., silica gel in the presence of quinine. Such an adsorbent exhibits higher adsorptive power for isomers related to the reference compound than for their stereoisomers,

provided that their structures are not too dissimilar from that of the reference compound. Thus silica gel prepared in the presence of quinine adsorbs quinine more readily than its stereoisomer quinidine; cinchonidine (configurationally related to quinine) is adsorbed more readily than its stereoisomer cinchonine (configurationally related to quinidine). (vii) Kinetic method of resolution. Marckwald and McKenzie (1899) found that ( )-menthol reacts more slowly with ( )-mandelic acid than with the (+)-acid. Hence, if insufficient ( )-menthol is used to completely esterify ()-mandelic acid, the resulting mixture of diastereoisomers will contain more ( )-menthyl (-f-)-mandelate than ( )-menthyl ( )-mandelate. Consequently there will be more ( )-mandelic acid than (-f-)-mandelic acid in the unchanged acid, i.e., a partial resolution of ()-mandelic acid has been effected (see also 5b. VI). (viii) Ferreira (1953) has partially resolved ()-narcotine and ()-laudanosine (1-2-5 per cent, resolution) without the use of optically active reagents. He dissolved the racemic alkaloid in hydrochloric acid and then slowly added pyridine; the alkaloid was precipitated, and it was found to be optically active. The explanation offered for this partial resolution is as follows (Ferreira). When a crystalline racemic substance is precipitated from solution, a crystallisation nucleus is first developed. Since this nucleus contains a relatively small number of molecules, there is more than an even chance that it will contain an excess of one enantiomorph or other. If it be assumed that the forces acting on the growth of crystals are the same kind as those responsible for adsorption [cf. (vi)], the nucleus will grow preferentially, collecting one enantiomorph rather than the other. Crystallisation, when carried out in the usual manner, results in the formation of crystals containing more or less equivalent numbers of both enantiomorphs. Channel complex formation has also been used to resolve racemic modifications (see Vol. I). This also offers a means of carrying out a resolution without asymmetric reagents, e.g., Schlenk (1952) added ()-2-chloro-octane to a solution of urea and obtained, on fractional crystallisation, the two urea inclusion complexes urea/(+)-2-chloro-octane and urea/( )-2-chloro-octane. Baker et al. (1952) have prepared tri-o-thymotide, and found that it formed clathrates with ethanol, -hexane, etc. Powell et al. (1952) have shown that tri-o-thymotide crystallises as a racemate, but that resolution takes place when it forms clathrates with w-hexane, benzene or chloroform. By means of seeding and slow growth of a single crystal, it is possible to obtain the

56

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH.

II

(+)- or ( )-form depending on the nature of the seed. Furthermore, from a solvent which is itself a racemic modification (d'l') and which forms a clathrate, produces crystals of the
crystallisation of tri-o-thymotide (dl)

Me,CH

CHMe2

CHMe
tri-o-thymotide

types dd' and IV Thus such (solvent) racemic modifications can be resolved, e.g., sec-butyl bromide has been resolved in this way.
.

11. The cause of optical activity. Two important points that arise from the property of optical activity are: What types of structure give
rise to optical activity,

and why? Fresnel (1822) suggested the following explanation for optical activity in crystalline substances such as quartz, basing it on the principle that any simple harmonic motion along a straight line may be considered as the resultant of two opposite circular motions. Fresnel assumed that plane-polarised light, on entering a substance in a direction parallel to its optic axis, is resolved into two beams of circularly polarised light, one right-handed (dextro-) and the other left-handed (laevo-), and both having the same frequency. If these two component beams travel through the medium with the same velocity, then the issuing resultant beam suffers no rotation of its plane of polarisation (Fig. 20 a). If the velocity of the laevocircularly polarised component is, for some reason, retarded, then the resultant beam is rotated through some angle to the right Similarly, (in the direction of the faster circular component; Fig. 20 b). the resultant beam is rotated to the left if the dextrocircularly polarised component is retarded (Fig. 20 c). Fresnel tested this theory by passing

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 2.20.

a beam of plane-polarised light through a series of prisms composed alternately of dextro- and lsevorotatory quartz (Fig. 21). Two separate beams emerged, each circularly polarised in opposite senses; this is an agreement with Fresnel's explanation. Fresnel suggested that when plane-polarised light passed through an optically active crystalline substance, the plane of polarisation was rotated because of the retardation of one of the circular components. Stated in another way, Fresnel's theory requires that the refractive indices for dextro- and laevocircularly polarised light should be It has been shown mathematically different for optically active substances. that only a very small difference between these refractive indices gives rise

11]

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

57

to fairly large rotations, and that if the refractive index for the laevocircularly polarised light is greater than that for the dextro component, the substance will be dextrorotatory. The difficulty of Fresnel's theory is that it does not explain why the two circular components should travel with different velocities. It is interesting to note, however, that Fresnel (1824) suggested that the optical activity of quartz is due to the structure being built up in right- and left-handed spirals (cf. 2).

Fig. 2.21.

us consider the problem of optical activity of substances in solution. In this case the optical activity is due to the molecules themselves, and not to crystalline structure (see also 2). Any crystal which has a plane of symmetry but not a centre of symmetry (6) rotates the plane of polarisation, the rotation varying with the direction in which the light travels through the crystal. No rotation occurs if the direction of the light is perpendicular or parallel to the plane of symmetry. If we assume that molecules in a solution (or in a pure liquid) behave as individual crystals, then any molecule having a plane but not a centre of symmetry will also rotate the plane of polarisation, provided that the light travels through the molecule in any direction other than perpendicular (or parallel) to the plane of symmetry. Let us consider the molecule Ca 2 bd (Fig. 22). This has a plane of symmetry, and so molecule I and its mirror image II are superimposable. Now let us suppose that the direction of plane-polarised
let

Now

Fig. 2.22.

through molecule I makes an angle 8 with the plane of symmetry, and that the resultant rotation is +a. Then if the direction of the light through molecule II also makes an angle 8 with the plane of a. symmetry, the resultant rotation will be Thus the total rotation produced by molecules I and II is zero. In a solution of compound Ca 2 bd, there will be an infinite number of molecules in random orientation. Statistically one can expect to find that whatever the angle 8 is for molecule I, there will always be molecule II also being traversed by light entering at angle 8. Thus, although each individual molecule rotates the plane of polarisation by an amount depending on the value of 8, the statistical sum of the contributions of the individual molecules will be zero. When a molecule is not superimposable on its mirror image, then if only one enantiomorph is present in the solution, the rotation produced by each individual molecule will (presumably) depend on the angle of incidence (with respect to any face), but there will be no compensating molecules (i.e., mirror image molecules) present. Hence, in this case, there will be a net
light passing

58

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH.

II

rotation that is not zero, the actual value being the statistical sum of the individual contributions (which are all in the same direction). Thus, if we consider the behaviour of a compound in a solution (or as a pure liquid) as a whole, then the observed experimental results are always in accord with the statement that if the molecular structure of the compound Any is asymmetric, that compound will be optically active (2). compound composed of molecules possessing a plane but not a centre of symmetry is, considered as a whole, optically inactive, the net zero rotation being the result of " external compensation " (cf. 7a). This point is of great interest in connection with flexible molecules (4). Let us consider wesotartaric acid, a compound that is optically inactive by internal compensation (7b). X-ray studies (Stern et al., 1950) have shown that the staggered form of the molecule is the favoured one (Fig. 23 a). This has a centre of symmetry, and so molecules in this configuration are individually

C0 2 H
OH

CQ 2 H
-OH

C0 2 H

HO CO z H C0 2 H

-OH

HO CO z H

W
Fig. 2.23.

On the other hand, wesotartaric acid is usually represented by the plane-diagram formula in Fig. 23 (b). This corresponds to the eclipsed form, and has a plane of symmetry. In this conformation the individual molecules are optically active except when the direction of the light is perpendicular (or parallel) to the plane of symmetry; the net rotation is zero by " external compensation ". It is possible, however, for the molecule to assume, at least theoretically, many conformations which have no elements of symmetry, e.g., Fig. 23 (c). All molecules in this conformation will contribute in the same direction to the net rotation. If the total number of molecules present were in this conformation, then mesotartaric acid would have some definite rotation. On the theory of probability, however, for every molecule taking up the conformation in Fig. 23 (c), there will also be present its mirror image molecule, thereby giving a net zero rotation due to " external compensation ". As we have seen, raesotartaric acid is optically inactive (as shown experimentally), and by common usage the inactivity is said to be due to internal compensation (7b).
optically inactive.

READING REFERENCES
Gilman, Advanced Organic Chemistry, Wiley (1943, 2nd
isomerism.
ed.).

Vol.

I.

Ch.

4.

Stereo-

Wheland, Advanced Organic Chemistry, Wiley (1960, 3rd ed.). Partington, An Advanced Treatise on Physical Chemistry, Longmans, Green.
(1953), p.

Vol.

IV

290

et seq.

Optical Activity.

of Carbon Compounds, McGraw-Hill (1962). Frankland, Pasteur Memorial Lecture, J.C.S., 1897, 71, 683. Walker, van't Hofi Memorial Lecture, J.C.S., 1913, 103, 1127. Pope, Obituary Notice of Le Bel, J.C.S., 1930, 2789. Pasteur, Researches on the Molecular Asymmetry of Natural Organic Products, Alembic Club Reprints No. 14.
Eliel, Stereochemistry

OPTICAL ISOMERISM

59

Mann and

Pope, Dissymmetry and Asymmetry of Molecular Configuration, Chem. and

Ind., 1925, 833.

Barker and Marsh, Optical Activity and Enantiomorphism of Molecular and Crystal
Structure, J.C.S., 1913, 103, 837.

van't Hoff, Chemistry in Space, Oxford Press (1891; translated by Marsh). Bijvoet, Structure of Optically Active Compounds in the Solid State, Nature, 1954,
173, 888. Rosanoff, On Fischer's Classification of Stereoisomers, /. Amer. Chem. Soc, 1906, 28,
114.

Cahn, Ingold and Prelog, The Specification of Asymmetric Configuration in Organic Chemistry, Experientia, 1956, 12, 81. Turner and Harris, Asymmetric Transformation and Asymmetric Induction, Quart. Reviews (Chem. Soc.), 1948, 1, 299. Fredga, Steric Correlations by Quasi-Racemate Method, Tetrahedron, 1960, 8, 126. Bent, Aspects of Isomerism and Mesomerism, /. Chem. Educ, 1953, 30, 220, 284, 328. Kauzmann, Walter and Eyring, Theories of Optical Rotatory Power, Chem. Reviews,
1940, 26, 339.

Jones and Eyring, A Model for Optical Rotation, /. Chem. Educ., 1961, 38, 601. Hargreaves, Optical Rotatory Dispersion: Its Nature and Origin, Nature, 1962, 195,
560.

Hudson, Emil Fischer's Stereo-Formulas, Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry, Academic

Press.

Vol. 3 (1948).

Ch.

1.

Barton and Cookson, The Principles of Conformational Analysis, Quart. Reviews (Chem.
Soc), 1956, 10, 44.

Newman
Newman,
Eliel,

(Ed.), Steric Effects in Organic Chemistry,

Wiley

(1956).

Ch.

I.

Conforma-

tional Analysis.

A Notation for the Study of Certain Stereochemical Problems, /.

Chem. Educ,

1955, 32, 344.

Conformational Analysis in Mobile Systems, /. Chem. Educ, 1960, 37, 126. Mizushima, Structure of Molecules and Internal Rotation, Academic Press (1954). Klyne (Ed.), Progress in Stereochemistry, Butterworth. Vol. I (1954) Vol. II (1958). Cram, Recent Advances in Stereochemistry, /. Chem. Educ, 1960, 37, 317. Brewster, A Useful Model of Optical Activity, /. Amer. Chem. Soc, 1959, 81, 5475.
;

CHAPTER

III

NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION AT A SATURATED

CARBON ATOM
1. The most extensively studied type of heterolytic substitution in saturated compounds is the nucleophilic type, i.e., the SN 1 and S N 2 mechan-

isms.
One-stage process.
is

When two

molecules simultaneously undergo covalency

change in the rate-determining step, the mechanism

labelled

is called bimolecular and (substitution, nucleophilic, bimolecular). Two-stage process. In this case the first step is the slow heterolysis of the compound to form a carbonium ion, and this is then followed by the second step of rapid combination of the carbonium ion with the nucleophilic reagent. The rate-determining step is the first, and since in this step only one molecule is undergoing covalency change, the mechanism is called unimolecular and is labelled SnI (substitution, nucleophilic, unimolecular). The symbols SnI and Sn2 were introduced by Ingold (1928), the number in the symbol referring to the molecularity of the reaction and not to the kinetic

Sn2

Any complex reaction may be designated by the molecularity of its rate-determining stage, the molecularity of the rate-determining stage being defined as the number of molecules necessarily undergoing covalency change
order.

(Ingold, 1933). The main difference between the two mechanisms is the kinetic order of the reaction. Sn2 reactions would be expected to be second order (first order with respect to each reactant), whereas SnI reactions would be expected to be first These orders are only true under certain circumstances. In a biorder. molecular reaction, if both reactants are present in small and controllable conIf, however, one of the centrations, the reaction will be of the second order. reactants is in constant excess (e.g., one reactant is the solvent), then the mechanism is still bimolecular but the reaction is now of the first order. Unimolecular mechanisms often lead to first-order kinetics but may, under certain circumSince, however, it is possible stances, follow a complicated kinetic expression. to derive such an equation theoretically, it may be still decided whether the mechanism is SnI by ascertaining whether the data fit this kinetic expression.

Another important difference between the Sn2 and the Sn 1 mechanism is that in the former the configuration of the molecule is always inverted, whereas in the latter there may be inversion and/or retention, the amount of each depending on various factors (see later).

The nucleophilic reagent may be negatively charged or neutral; the primary requirement is that it must possess an unshared pair of electrons which it can donate to a nucleus capable of sharing this pair. One widely studied example of nucleophilic aliphatic substitution is that of the hydrolysis
of alkyl halides (T.S.

= transition
T.S.

state ; see also Vol. I)

S N2 SN 1

Y-

+ R-X-^Y-"R-X-^Y-R + Xslow
<*

RX-^>R---X-^!>R+ + XT.S.

^~

fast

R+
Of

+ Y--^>RY
A

fundamental particular interest is the evidence for the SnI mechanism. part of this mechanism is the postulate of carbonium ions as transient intermediates; but there appears to be no direct physical evidence for the presence Symons et al. (1959) have shown that monoarylof aliphatic carbonium ions. 6o

2a]

NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION

61

carbonium ions axe stable in dilute solutions of sulphuric acid. They have also found that the spectroscopic examination of solutions of 2-butanol and tsobutene in sulphuric acid shows a single measurable ultraviolet band in both solutions. This band appears slowly according to the first-order rate law for *-butanol, but very rapidly for the olefin; the solutions are stable (and reproducible). The authors conclude that there are trimethylcarbonium ions, CMe 3 +, in solution, and that it is probable that this ion is planar. Symons et al. (1961) have also obtained evidence, from ultraviolet studies, for the existence of the allyl carbonium ion in sulphuric acid; they examined solutions of allyl alcohol, chloride, bromide, etc., in sulphuric acid. On the other hand, triarylcarbonium ions have been obtained as salts, e.g., triphenylmethyl perchlorate, Ph sC+C10 4 - , and fluoroborate, Ph s C+BF 1 _ (Dauben jun. et al., 1960).
2. Any factor that affects the energy of activation (E) of a given type Attempts have been of reaction will affect the rate and/or the mechanism. made to calculate in terms of bond strengths, the steric factor, heats of solutions of ions, etc., but apparently the results are conflicting. The following discussion is therefore largely qualitative, and because of this, one cannot be sure which are the predominant factors in deciding the energy of activation. shall discuss, for the hydrolysis of alkyl halides, the influence of the following factors The nature of (polar and steric effects) the nature of and Y; and the nature of the solvent.

We

2a. The nature of R. {a) Polar effects. Let us consider the series EtX, s'-PrX, and tf-BuX. Since the methyl group as a +1 effect, the larger the number of methyl groups on the carbon atom of the C X group, the greater will be the electron density on this carbon atom. This may be

represented qualitatively as follows:

Me-^CH2 -^-X

8-

Me^>V
Me'

OS-

^;cH-*>-:

Me

This increasing negative charge on the central carbon atom increasingly opposes attack at this carbon by a negatively charged nucleophilic reagent it also opposes, to a lesser extent, attack by a neutral nucleophilic reagent since this still donates an electron pair. Thus the formation of the transition state for the Sn2 mechanism is opposed more and more as the charge on the central carbon atom increases. (There is also an increasing steric effect operating; this is dealt with in 2b.) The anticipated result, therefore, is that as the number of methyl groups increases on the central carbon atom, the Su2 mechanism is made more difficult in passing from EtX to 2-BuX. On the other hand, since the S^l mechanism involves ionisation of (in the rate-determining step), any factor that makes easier the ionisation of the molecule wiE therefore facilitate the S N 1 mechanism. The anticipated result, therefore, is that the greater the negative charge on the central carbon atom, the easier will be the ionisation of since is displaced with its covalent electron pair; thus the tendency for the Sifl mechanism should increase from EtX to tf-BuX. These predicted results have been verified experimentally. Hughes, Ingold et al. (1935-1940) examined the rates of hydrolysis of alkyl bromides in alkaline aqueous ethanol at 55:

RX

RX

MeBr
2nd-order rate const, x 10 5
lst-order rate const,

EtBr
170

t-PrBr
4-7

f-BuBr

2140

x 10 5

0-24

1010

62
It

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
can be seen from these results that
*'-PrBr

[CH. Ill

MeBr and EtBr undergo hydrolysis SN2 and S N 1, and tf-BuBr by SN 1 only. Thus, as the polar effects in the alkyl group produce an increasing electron density on the central carbon atom, the rate of the Su2 mechanism decreases and a point is reached where the mechanism changes over to Sjjl. With j'-PrBr both Sn2 and S^l mechanisms operate, and the rate of the Sn2 mechanism is much less than that of the Su2 mechanism for EtBr. With i-BuBr the electron density on the central carbon atom is so great that the Sn2 mechanism is completely inhibited; a very rapid hydrolysis occurs by the Sil mechanism only. Since the mechanism is S^l, it therefore means
by the S N 2 mechanism,

by

both

that the hydroxide ion does not enter into the rate-determining step of the hydrolysis (1). This has been proved as follows. The hydrolysis of <-BuBr was carried out in an alkaline solution containing less than the equivalent amount of hydroxide ion (compared with the alkyl bromide). Thus, although the solution was originally alkaline, as the hydrolysis proceeds, the solution becomes neutral and finally acid; nevertheless, the rate constant of the hydrolysis remained unchanged. As pointed out above, there are reactions which occur under intermediate conditions, i.e., at the border-line between the extreme S^l and Sn2 mechanisms. Some authors believe that in this border-line region there is only one mechanism operating, e.g., Prevost (1958) has postulated, on theoretical grounds, the existence of a more universal " mesomechanism ".
is, however, much experimental work in favour of concurrent Si*l and SN 2 mechanisms operating. Gold (1956) has described evidence for this view, and more recently Swart et al. (1961) have shown that the exchange reaction between diphenylmethyl chloride and radiochlorine (as LiCl*) in dimethylformamide occurs by a simultaneous Sn1-Sn2 mechanism. The actual position where the mechanism changes over from Sn2 to SnI

There

in a

graded series, e.g., in the one already described, is not fixed but depends on other factors such as the concentration and nature of the nucleophilic reagent, and on the nature of the solvent (see below). Experimental work has shown that higher -alkyl groups behave similarly to ethyl. For a given set of conditions, the kinetic order is the same, but the rates tend to decrease as the number of carbon atoms increases, e.g., Hughes, Ingold et al. (1946, 1948) showed that the reactions between primary alkyl bromides and ethoxide ion in dry ethanol are all S N 2, and their relative rates (at 55) are Me, 17-6; Et, 1-00; -Pr, 0-31; -Bu, 0-23; w-pentyl, 0-21. Similar results were obtained for secondary alkyl groups. In these cases the mechanisms were both S N 2 and SN 1, but the rates for one or other order were reasonably close, e.g., for the second-order reactions of secondary bromides with ethoxide ion in dry ethanol at 25, Hughes, Ingold et al. (1936- ) found that the relative rates were: *-Pr, 1-00; 2--Bu, 1-29; 2-w-pentyl, 1-16; 3--pentyl, 0-93. These authors also showed that higher tertiary alkyl groups behaved similarly to t-Bu, all showing a strong tendency to react by the S^l mechanism. When hydrogen atoms in methyl chloride are replaced by phenyl groups, the mechanism of the hydrolysis may be changed (from S N 2). The presence of a phenyl group produces a carbonium ion which can be stabilised by
resonance; this acts as the driving force to produce ionisation;
e.g.,

<3-cH
Thus one can

2C

,^cr +

^3-6h

~ <^3=
:

CH2 *-^
(

stability of the

anticipate that as the number of phenyl groups increases, the carbonium ion produced will increase, i.e., the carbonium ion will be formed more readily and consequently the Sjjl mechanism will

2b]

NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION

63

be increasingly favoured. Thus in the series MeCl, PhCH 2Cl, Ph 2CHCl, Ph 3CCl, it has been found that in alkaline solution the hydrolysis of methyl chloride proceeds by the S N 2 mechanism, that of phenylmethyl chloride by both SN2 and S N 1, and that of diphenylmethyl chloride by S^l; the hydrolysis of triphenylmethyl chloride is too fast to be measured, but this high rate is very strong evidence for an S N 1 mechanism. Various groups in the ^ara-position of the phenyl nucleus either assist or oppose ionisation. It has been found that alkyl groups enhance ionisation t'-Pr t-Bu. Since this order is the reverse of Et in the order Me that expected from the general inductive effects of these groups, it has been explained by the hyperconjugative effects of these groups (which are in this order; see Vol. I). On the other hand, a nitro-group retards the ionisation, and this attributed to the electron-withdrawing effect of this group.

>

>

>

Me^ a^>WJ y-GH^Cl

fa

/N*<

V-CH -K>1
2

Another group of interest

(through resonance):
I

is

the carbonyl group; this a+l

is

electron-attracting

-c1

t=o -> Ci-*c+oI

I

Thus the covalent electron-pair of a halogen atom attached to Ct is drawn closer to Cj and consequently it is more difficult for this halogen atom to ionise. Thus the S^l mechanism is opposed, and at the same time, the small positive charge on C x encourages the Sn2 mechanism. It can therefore be anticipated that any electron-attracting (or withdrawing) group will tend to inhibit the S^l mechanism for a compound with an a-halogen atom. Such groups are C0 2R, N0 2 CN, etc.; e.g., both ethyl a-bromopropionate and diethyl bromomalonate undergo hydrolysis by the Sn2 mechanism. On the other hand, the carboxylate ion has a +1 effect due to its negative charge and hence its presence should enhance the ionisation of an a-halogen atom. At the same time, the a-carbon atom tends to acquire a small negative charge, and this will tend to oppose the approach of a hydroxide ion. Thus there are two influences acting, one increasing the tendency for the Sjjl mechanism and the other decreasing the tendency for the Sn2; both therefore oppose the Sn2 mechanism. Some experimental results that
,

illustrate these

arguments are the alkaline hydrolyses of the following

compounds:

COi
s-

C0

Br-t-CH2---a

t26-

Br-w-CH
co2

Br-**-C -t-Me
col
SnI

t 35 -

Sn2

SnI

2b. The nature of R. (b) Steric effects. In the transition state for the Sjf2 mechanism, there are five atoms or groups bonded or partly bonded to the reaction carbon atom (see 4). Thus the larger the bulk of these groups, the greater will be the compression energy (i.e., greater steric strain) in the transition state and consequently the reaction will be stericaUy hindered. The problem is different for the S N 1 mechanism. Here, the transition state does not contain more than four groups attached to the reaction carbon atom and hence one would expect that steric hindrance should be less important. On the other hand, if the molecule undergoing

"

64

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. Ill

the SN 1 mechanism contains particularly large groups, then the first step of ionisation may relieve the steric strain (4a. II) and so assist the formation of the carbonium ion, i.e., the reaction may be sterically accelerated. Let us now examine some examples involving steric effects. (i) The following series of alkyl halides, MeX, EtX, '-PrX and tf-BuX, may be made to undergo the SN2 mechanism under suitable conditions the transition state contains three o-bonds (sp 2 hybridisation) in (cf. 2a) one plane and two partial bonds which are collinear and perpendicular to this plane. Thus we have:
;

-i

T--C--X

-i

Y--C--X

_t

Y--C--X

f*

.,

.t

Y--C--X

-1

"4.

Inspection of these transition states shows that steric hindrance increases as the hydrogen atoms are progressively replaced by methyl groups. This increasing steric effect has been demonstrated by Hughes et al. (1946), who showed that the relative reactivities of the alkyl bromides towards iodide ions in acetone (by the S K 2 mechanism) are: Me, 10,000; Et, 65;
j-Pr, 0-50; t-Bu, 0-039.

Now let us consider w-propyl, /sobutyl and weopentyl halides tion states will be (for the S N 2 mechanism):
Me

their transi-

H\l/H
i

Kj/H
1

Me

Me

Me\ I^Me
1

Y C -X

-i

4
At
first

Y C
1

-x

-i

Y CX
1

-i
s

would not expect w-PrX to show an added steric effect when compared with EtX since the added methyl group can occupy a
sight one

position close to the plane of the transition state (i.e., the plane containing the three <r-bonds), and so would not offer any appreciable steric hindrance. In practice, however, w-propyl halides are less reactive than the corresponding ethyl halides (cf. 2a). The reason for this relatively large decreased reactivity is not certain. Magat et al. (1950) have offered the following explanation. The smaller the number of conformations available in the activated as compared with the initial state produces a decrease in the frequency factor (A in the Arrhenius equation k A<?- E / BT ). In w-propyl halides (2 and 1 Me) there is only one conformation for the transition state whereas for ethyl halides (3 H) there are three equivalent conformations. Thus the frequency factor for w-propyl halides is 1/3 that for the ethyl halides, and so the reaction rate (k) of the former will be 1/3 that of the latter (on the assumption that of both reactions is the same). In wobutyl halides the methyl groups will produce a large steric effect since at least one methyl group will be fairly close to or Y. It has been shown experimentally that wobutyl halides are less reactive than -propyl halides. Finally, in weopentyl halides, the presence of three methyl groups produces a very large steric effect. In the " normal " transition state, the entering and displaced groups are collinear. This is readily possible with all the halides except possibly wobutyl halides but it is not possible with weopentyl halides because of the presence of the three methyl groups (in the 2-butyl group). Thus in the transition state involving the weopentyl radical, the bonds are believed not to be collinear but " bent away " from the J-butyl group. Such a " bent " transition state has a large compression energy and so is far more difficult to form than a " normal

Y C X

2c]

NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION

65

transition state.
e.g.,

Hughes

et al.

Experimental data are in agreement with these ideas, (1946) showed the following relative (S N 2) reaction rates

towards the ethoxide ion at 95:

Et i-Bu Me3 OCH 2

: :

::

0-04

10~ s

These very slow SN 2 reactions of eopentyl halides occur with the neopentyl radical remaining intact. By changing the solvent conditions so that the mechanism becomes SN 1, the products are no longer weopentyl derivatives but rearranged products formed by a 1,2-shift (see 23d. VIII). (ii) A very interesting example of steric hindrance is the case of 1-chloroapocamphane (I). Bartlett et al. (1938) found that this compound does not react with reagents that normally react with alkyl halides, e.g., it is unaffected when refluxed with aqueous ethanolic potassium hydroxide or
ci

III

IV

As we have seen, the hydrolysis of 2-butyl chloride takes place by the S N 1 mechanism. 1-Chloroapocamphane is a tertiary chloride, but since it does not ionise, the S N 1 mechanism is not possible. This failure to ionise is believed to be due to the fact that the carbonium ion is flat (sp 2 hybridisation). Removal of the chloride ion from (I) would produce a positive carbon atom which cannot become planar because of the steric requirements of the bridged-ring structure. Furthermore, since the rear of the carbon atom of the CI group is " protected " by the bridge, the SN2 mechanism is not possible (since the nucleophilic reagent must attack from the rear; see 4). The failure to replace bromine in 1-bromotriptycene (II) is explained similarly (Bartlett et al., 1939). On the other hand, Doering et al. (1953) showed that (III) gave the corresponding alcohol when heated with aqueous silver nitrate at 150 for two days, and (IV) gave the corresponding alcohol after four hours at room temperature. The reason for this behaviour (as compared with the other bridged com-

with ethanolic silver nitrate.

pounds) is not certain, but it has been suggested that the extra bonds in the larger bridge in (IV) help to relieve the strain in the formation of the carbonium ion which tries to assume a planar configuration. (iji) Brown et al. (1949) showed that the solvolysis of tertiary halides is subject to steric acceleration. {Solvolysis is the nucleophilic reaction in which the solvent is the nucleophilic reagent.)

R3C-^X -^- R 3 C +
tetrahedral
(large strain)

X"

planar; trigonal
(small strain)

increases in size, the rate of solvolysis increases. However, the larger is, the more slowly will the carbonium ion be expected to react with the solvent molecules, and so a factor is introduced which opposes steric acceleration. Carbonium ions can undergo elimination reactions to form olefins (see also Vol. I), and Brown et al. (1950) have shown that this elimination reaction increases as the groups become larger.

It

was shown that as

of the halogen atom. Experimental work has shown that the nature of the halogen atom has very little effect, if any, on mechanism, but it does affect the rate of reaction for a given mechanism; e.g., it has been found that in S N 1 reactions, the rate follows the order
2c.

The nature

66

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. Ill

RI RBr RC1. It has been suggested that a contributing factor to this order is steric strain, since the volume order of these halogen atoms is I Br CI. Another contributing factor is the increase in energy of activation in the order RC1 RBr RI, since the bond to be broken increases in strength in this order; the bond energies are: C CI, 77 [Link]. C Br, 65 [Link].; C I, 57 [Link]. These energy differences also explain the order of reactivity RI RBr RC1 in SN2 reactions.

>

>

>

>

>

>

>

>

2d. The nature of the nucleophilic reagent. The more pronounced the nucleophilic activity of the reagent, i.e., the greater its electron availability, the more the Sn2 mechanism will be favoured as compared with the SnI mechanism, since in the latter the nucleophilic reagent does not enter into the rate-determining step. It can be anticipated that as nucleophilic activity decreases, the rate of an Sn2 reaction will decrease for a given series of substitutions (under similar conditions), and when the nucleophilic activity is sufficiently low, the mechanism may change from Sn2 to S^l. Hughes, Ingold et al. (1935) examined the rates of decomposition of various trimethylsulphonium salts in ethanol (Me 3 S + X~ Me a S MeX) and obtained the following results

(see also 4):

Anion
2nd-order rate const,
lst-order rate const,

OHx 10 5 x 10 6
74,300

OPh1340

HCO,-

Br-

ci-

7-38

7-85

7-32

can be seen from these results that the strong nucleophiles OH- and react rapidly by the Sn2 mechanism and the other, and weaker, nucleophiles react at about the same slow speed by the S N 1 mechanism. Although many kinetic investigations of displacement reactions with alkyl halides have been carried out, relatively little information is available for determining nucleophilicity. One set of data that may be cited is that obtained from the reaction between methyl iodide and various bases in benzene at 25 (Hinshelwood el al., 1935):
It

OPh~

Pyridine
Relative rate

Me,N
1730

Et sN
144

Quinoline
0-26

A point of interest in connection with the nature of the nucleophile is that when it affects the rate of substitution, the reaction is usually proceeding by the Su2 mechanism. When the nature of the nucleophile has very Another point little effect on the rate, then the reaction is probably S^l. to note is that steric effects in the nucleophile will also affect the rate of reaction, and this is probably a contributing factor to the different rates observed with reagents with similar nucleophilicity. In general, it has been found that within a given periodic group, the nucleophilic activity increases with the atomic number of the atom, e.g.,
I-

> Br- > CI- >

F-;

RS~

> RO~.

This order

opposite to that anticipated on the basis of basicities (and This lack of some sort of steric effects) of the different nucleophiles. parallelism between nucleophilic reactivity and basicity is unexpected, since both of these properties depend on the donating power of the donor atom. However, as a result of experimental work, it is now well established that
is

2e]

NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION

67

nucleophilic reactivity does not follow the order of increasing basicity towards protons, but varies with the nature of the reaction and with the reaction conditions.
2e.

The

effect of the solvent

it

Experimentally,

on mechanisms and reaction rates. has been found that the ionising power of a solvent

depends on at least two factors, dielectric constant and solvation. Dielectric constant. A very rough generalisation is that ionisation of the solute increases both in amount and speed the higher the dielectric constant
of the solvent. Solvation. This factor appears to be more important than the dielectric constant. Solvation is the interaction between solvent molecules and solute molecules, and is partly accounted for by the attraction of a charge for a dipole. If the solute has polarity, then solvent molecules will be attracted to the solute molecules. The greater the polarity of the solvent, the greater the attraction and consequently the more closely the solvent molecules will be drawn to the solute molecules. Thus more electrostatic work is done and so more energy is lost by the system, which therefore becomes more stable. Thus increasing the dielectric constant of the solvent increases the ionising potentiality of the solute molecules, and the higher the polarity of the solvent the more stable becomes the system due to increased solvation. Solvation, however, may also be partly due to certain chemical properties, e.g., sulphur dioxide has an electrophilic centre (the sulphur atom carries a positive charge); hydroxylic solvents can form hydrogen bonds. There is also another problem that may arise. This is that although the solute molecules have ionised, the oppositely charged pair are enclosed in a " cage " of surrounding solvent molecules and may therefore recombine before they can escape from the cage. Such a complex is known as an ion-pair, and their recombination is known as internal return. It has now been shown that many organic reactions proceed via ion-pairs rather than dissociated ions. According to some authors there are two types of ionpairs: (i) Intimate or internal ion-pairs. These are enclosed in a solvent cage and the ions of the pair are not separated by solvent molecules. (ii) Loose or external ion-pairs. The ions of these pairs are separated by solvent molecules but still behave as a pair. External ion-pairs may also give rise to ion-pair return {external return), but they are more susceptible to attack by other reagents than are intimate ion-pairs. Many workers believe it unnecessary to postulate the existence of this type of ion-pair. Thus, when ionisation takes place, the following steps are possible:
Ionisation
Dissociation

*-i* R+ + xRX -*=^R+X^R+||X-3 -2 " -l

intimate
ion-pair

external lon-pair

dissociated ions

is internal return, and it appears uncertain whether this type a transition state or an intermediate; (ii) 2 is external return; (iii) only equilibrium 3 is sensitive to a common ion effect; this is because an ion-pair behaves as a single particle, as has been shown by the effect on the depression of the freezing point (i 1). A number of equations have been proposed correlating rates and the nature of the solvent, but none is completely general. Hughes and Ingold (1935, 1948) proposed the following qualitative theory of solvent effects: (i) Ions and polar molecules, when dissolved in polar solvents, tend to become solvated. (ii) For a given solvent, solvation tends to increase with
(i)

N.B.

of ion-pair

is

68

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. Ill

increasing magnitude of charge on the solute molecules or ions, (iii) For a given solute, solvation tends to increase with the increasing dipole moment of the solvent, (iv) For a given magnitude of charge, solvation decreases as the charge is spread over a larger volume, (v) The decrease in solvation due to the dispersal of charge will be less than that due to its destruction. Since the rate-determining step in the S^l mechanism is ionisation, any factor assisting this ionisation will therefore facilitate S^l reactions. Solvents with high dipole moments are usually good ionising media and, in general, it has been found that the more polar the solvent the greater is the rate of S^l reactions. have, however, also to consider the problem of solvation.

We

R_X -^ it-X -^> R+ + X- ^> ROH

fast

Increasing the polarity of the solvent will greatly increase the reaction rate, and since the transition state has a larger charge than the initial reactant molecule, the former is more solvated than the latter (rule ii). Thus the transition state is more stabilised than the reactant molecule. Thus solvation lowers the energy of activation and so the reaction is assisted. The rates of SN2 reactions are also affected by the polarity of the solvent.

HO^R-41
A

^V HO R X

-^HO-R +
=

X~

solvent with high dipole moment will solvate both the reactant ion and the transition state, but more so the former than the latter, since in the 1/2), is more latter the charge, although unchanged in magnitude (d dispersed than in the former (rule iv). Thus solvation tends to stabilise the reactants more than the transition state, i.e., the activation energy is increased and so the reaction is retarded. Now let us consider the Menschutkin reaction:

A R3 N+
The charge on the

R-Lx

> R 3 N R X

s+

s-

>-

R4 N + X

transition state is greater than that on the reactant molecules ; hence the former is more solvated than the latter. Thus the energy of activation is lowered and the rate of reaction thereby increased. Also, the greater the polarity of the solvent, the greater should be the solvation. The foregoing predictions have been observed experimentally. In the following S N 2 reaction, charges decrease in the transition state,

HO"'RNR 3

**

HO-~R

NR ~HOR +
3

R3N

and hence increasing the polarity of the solvent will retard the reaction; and retardation will be greater than that in the SN2 hydrolysis of alkyl
halides (see above; only the hydroxide ion is charged in this case). The polarity of the solvent not only affects rates of reactions, but may also change the mechanism of a reaction, e.g., Olivier (1934) showed that the alkaline hydrolysis of benzyl chloride in 50 per cent, aqueous acetone proceeds by both the Su2 and S^l mechanisms. In water as solvent, the mechanism was changed to mainly SN 1. The dipole moment of water is greater than that of aqueous acetone, and consequently the ionisation of

benzyl chloride

is facilitated.

Another example we shall consider is the hydrolysis of the alkyl bromides, MeBr, EtBr, *-PrBr and <-BuBr. As we have seen (2a), Hughes, Ingold et al. showed that in aqueous alkaline ethanol the mechanism changed from S N 2 for MeBr and EtBr to both SN2 and S N 1 for i-PrBr, and to S N 1

3]

NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION

69

groups, effects of the for i-BuBr. These results were explained by the but it also follows that the greater the ionising power of the solvent, the less will be the +1 effect of an group necessary to change the mechanism

+1

Formic acid has been found to be an extremely powerful ionising solvent for alkyl halides, and the relative rates of hydrolysis, at 100, for the above series of bromides with the very weak nucleophilic reagent water, dissolved in formic acid, was found to be (Hughes et al., 1937, This con1940): MeBr, 1-00; EtBr, 1-71; *-PrBr, 44-7; t-BuBr, ca. 10 8 tinuous increase in reaction rate shows that the mechanism is mainly S N 1 Thus (the rate increasing with the increasing +1 effect of the R group). both MeBr and EtBr are also hydrolysed by the S^l mechanism under these
from
Sjj2 to S^l.
.

favourable conditions of high solvent-ionising power. Solvents may also affect the proportions of the products in competitive reactions, i.e., the attack on the same substrate by two substituting reagents in the same solution:

RY -^ RX %- RZ
In the Sn2 mechanism there is only one reaction step, and so the overall rate and product ratio will be determined by that stage. In the S^l mechanism, however, the rate is determined by the rate of ionisation of RX, and the product ratio is thus determined by the competition of the fast second steps. It therefore follows that for solvent changes, in the Sn2 mechanism the rate and product ratio will proceed in a parallel fashion, whereas in the S N 1 mechanism the rate and product ratio will be independent of each other. A simple example that illustrates this problem is the solvolysis of benzhydryl chloride (diphenylmethyl chloride). Hammett et al. (1937, 1938) showed that the solvolysis of benzhydryl chloride in initially neutral aqueous ethanol gave benzhydryl ethyl ether and benzhydrol. Hughes, Ingold et al. (1938) showed that if ethanol is first used as solvent and then water is progressively added, the overall rate increases, but there is very little increase in benzhydrol formation the main effect is an increased rate of formation of benzhydryl ethyl ether. Thus the rate of the reaction and the ratio of the products are determined independently; this is consistent with the S N 1 mechanism but not with the Sjj2. It can be seen from this example that kinetic solvent effects may be used to differentiate between Su2 and S^l mechanisms.
;

3.

The Walden inversion

(Optical inversion).

By a series of replace-

ment reactions, Walden (1893, 1895) transformed an optically active compound into its enantiomorph. In some cases the product is 100 per cent,
is

optically pure, i.e., the inversion is quantitative; in other cases the product a mixture of the (+)- and ( )-forms in unequal amounts, i.e., inversion and retention (racemisation) have taken place. The phenomenon was first discovered by Walden with the following reactions

CHOH-CO.H

pci.

CHCl-CO aH
>
I

"AgOH"

CHOH-C0 2H
j

CH2 -C0 2H
( )-malic
acid
I

koh

CH a -C02H

^CHg-CCyi
(+)-malic acid
III

(+)-chlorosuccinic acid
II

This conversion of the

inversion.

into the (+)-form constitutes a Walden inversion was " defined " by Fischer (1906) as the conversion of the (+)-form into the ( )-form, or vice versa, without recourse to resolution. In one, and only one, of the two reactions, must there be an

( )-form

The Walden

70

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. Ill

interchange of position between the two groups, e.g., if the configuration of (I) corresponds with that of (II), the inversion of configuration must have taken place between (II) and (III). Now that the mechanism of substitution at a saturated carbon has been well worked out, the term Walden inversion is applied to any single reaction in which inversion of configuration
occurs.

As the above experiment stands, there is no way of telling which stage is accompanied by inversion. As we have seen (5b. II), change in sign of rotation does not necessarily mean that inversion configuration has occurred. Various methods of correlating configuration have already been described (5a. II), but here we shall describe the method where bonds attached to the asymmetric carbon atom are broken during the course of the reactions. This method was established by Kenyon et al. (1925), who carried out a Now it has series of reactions on optically active hydroxy compounds. been established that in the esterification of a monocarboxylic acid by an alcohol under ordinary conditions, the reaction proceeds by the acyl-oxygen
fission

mechanism

(see also Vol. I); thus:

J-OH H-^OR' )-L(M* R-CO H-^5

,(

>-

RCOOR'

H2

intact

Kenyon assumed that in all reactions of this type the R' O bond remained and consequently no inversion of the alcohol is possible. The follow-

ing chart shows a series of reactions carried out on ethyl (+)-lactate; tosyl group Ts />-toluenesulphonyl group, /-Me'CgH^SOj-; the symbol o>- is used to represent inversion of configuration in that step. (IV) and

Me

C0 2Et

Me
TsC1
>

C0 8Et

f/
x
(+);

\r

OH

W
(+)-;
l

OTs

iv
Ac.O

J AcO"K+

Me
c

C0 8Et

Me
C

OAc
x

W/\OAc
(-) -; vi

CO aEt

(+)-; vii

(VI) have the same relative configurations even though the sign of rotation has changed. Similarly, (IV) and (V) have the same relative configurations. Reaction of (V) with potassium acetate, however, produces (VII), the enantiomorph of (VI). Therefore inversion must have occurred in the formation of (VII); (V) and (VI) are produced without inversion since in these cases the C O bond in (IV) is never broken. It should be noted here that if inversion is going to take place at all, the complete group attached to the asymmetric carbon atom must be removed (in a displacement reaction) (cf. Fischer's work on (+)-*sopropylmalonamic acid, 3a. II). The converse, however, is not true, i.e., removal of a complete group does not

invariably result in inversion (see The above series of reactions has analogous reactions are assumed to of lithium chloride on the tosylate

later, particularly 4).

been used as a standard, and all closely behave in a similar way, e.g., the action (V) is assumed to be analogous to that

4]

NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION

7l

of potassium acetate, configuration:

and the chloride produced thus has an inverted

Me

C0 2Et
OTs

Me

CI

W
and

C02Et

(1929, 1930) showed that (+)-octan-2-ol (+)-2-chloro-, 2-bromo- and 2-iodo-octane have the same relative configurations; and also that (+)-a-hydroxyethylbenzene (Ph'CHOH-Me), (+)-a-chloro- and (+)--bromoethylbenzene have the same relative configurations (see also the S N 2 mechanism, 4).

By similar procedures, Kenyon etal.

of the Walden Inversion. As the result of a large of work on the Walden inversion, it has been found that at least three factors play a part in deciding whether inversion or retention (racemisation) will occur: (i) the nature of the reagent; (ii) the nature of the substrate; (iii) the nature of the solvent. Hence it is necessary to explain these factors when dealing with the mechanism of the Walden inversion. Many theories have been proposed, but we shall discuss only the HughesIngold theory, since this is the one now accepted. According to this theory, aliphatic nucleophilic substitution reactions may take place by either the SN2 or SN 1 mechanism (see also 5).
4.

Mechanism

amount

HO

R-^X

>

HO RX

*-

HO R

(1)

Hughes et al. (1935) studied (a) the interchange reaction of (+)-2-iodooctane with radioactive iodine (as Nal*) in acetone solution, and (b) the racemisation of (+) -2-iodo-octane by ordinary sodium iodide under the same conditions. These reactions were shown to take place by the Su2 mechanism, and the rate of racemisation was shown to be twice the rate of radioactive exchange, i.e., every iodideiodide* displacement is always accompanied by inversion. (Suppose there are n molecules of optically active iodo-octane. When w/2 molecules have exchange with I* and in doing so have been inverted, racemisation is now complete although the exchange has taken place with only half of the total number of molecules.) Thus this experiment leads to the assumption that inversion always occurs in the Sjf2 mechanism. This is fully supported by other experimental work, e.g., Hughes et al. (1936, 1938) studied the reaction of optically active oc-bromoethylbenzene and a-bromopropionic acid with radioactive bromide ions, and again found that the rates of exchange (of bromide ions) and inversion were the same. Thus the Walden inversion affords a means of studying the mechanism of substitution reactions. If complete inversion occurs, the mechanism is S N2, or conversely, if the mechanism is known to be S N 2 (by, e.g., kinetic data), complete inversion will result. This is the stereokinetic rule for Sjj2 reactions, and its use thus offers a means of correlating configurations. The essential problem that now arises is the consideration of the forces that determine the direction of attack, since the S N2 mechanism might conceivably have taken place with retention as follows:

,x

8-

RX

+ OH"

*-

RC'

**

ROH

X"

(2)

\>H-

72

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH.

HI

Polanyi et al. (1932) suggested that the polarity of the the negative ion (such as OH~) to approach the molecule side remote from X; this is end-on attack:

CX bond causes RX from the

R
+ X"

HO~ +

R\

CX > HO CX
,.
.

,.

*-

HO C^
R

R
Hughes and Ingold
(1937),

KR

however, suggested from quantum-mechanical arguments that, independently of the above electrostatic repulsions, the minimum energy of activation results when the attacking ion approaches from a direction that would lead to inversion. Furthermore, these authors believe that the quantum-mechanical forces are more powerful than the electrostatic forces. There is much evidence to support this, e.g., if electrostatic forces were the only or the predominating factor, then attack by a negatively charged nucleophilic reagent on a compound in which the displaced group has a positive charge would be expected to occur with retention (equation 2). In practice, however, inversion is still obtained, e.g., the acetoxyl ion attacks the (-f-)-trimethyl-a-phenylethylammonium ion to give inversion (Snyder et al., 1949):

AcO

*\ >CNMe
Hy
Me

AcO O.
is

^
Me

^H

+ Me.N 3

point of interest about the S N 2 reaction statically distinct types:

that there are four electroSubstrate

Reagent
1.

2.

3.
4.

+ RX ->YR +X+ RX+ YR + X Y + RX -> YR+ + XY + RX+ -> YR+ + X

YY-

negative negative neutral neutral

neutral positive

neutral positive

The

stereokinetic rule for Sn2 reactions is well established for only reactions of type 1. Hughes, Ingold et al. (1960) have also shown that the rule applies to type 2, e.g., the reaction between a sulphonium iodide and sodium azide (cf. Snyder's work):

CHMePh-SMe2+

+ N,8

- CHMePh-N
Me3NMe+

+ Me S
2

These authors have also demonstrated that type 4 proceeds by the Sn2 mechanism, e.g., with a sulphonium nitrate:

Me3N

+ MeSMe +
R---X

Me^S

Now
When

let

us consider the SN 1 mechanism.

>-

R-^X

> R+ +X"

-^V ROH

X"

the reaction proceeds by this mechanism, then jnversion and retention (racemisation) will occur, the amount of each depending on various factors. The carbonium ion is flat (trigonal hybridisation), and hence attack by the nucleophilic reagent can take place equally well on either side, i.e., equal amounts of the (+)- and ( )-forms will be produced; this is racemisation. One can expect complete racemisation only if the carbonium ion has a sufficiently long life; this is favoured by low reactivity of the carbonium ion and low concentration of the nucleophilic reagent. However, during the actual ionisation step, the retiring group will " protect " the carbonium ion from attack on that side, i.e., there is a shielding effect, and this encourages an end-on attack on the other side, thereby leading to

5]

NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION

73

inversion.

of this type is the following. Bunton et al. (1955) 0-enriched water on optically active s-butanol in aqueous perchloric acid, and found that the overall rate of racemisation is twice that of the oxygen exchange. Thus every oxygen exchange causes complete inversion of configuration {cf. the iodide-iodide* exchange described

An example

studied the reaction of

18

above)

Bunton proposed the following mechanism to explain these

results
(3) v
'

EtMeCHOH

+ H+

HCIO
.

fast

EtMeCHOH 2 +
i=

EtMeCHOH 2 + =^

slow

EtMeCH OH a
2

^+

0+

(4)

H 0* + EtMeCH OH
2

=<

=*H 0* EtMeCH OH
fast

+ has completely separated in (4), and so this occurs before the 2 0* is forced to attack on the other side as shown side is shielded and the 2 the result is thus inversion. The above reaction proceeds by the S N 1 mechanism since (4) is the rate-determining step (only one molecule is undergoing covalency change in this step). Had the reaction been S N 2, complete inversion would still have been obtained. It was shown, however, that the reaction rate was independent of the concentration of 0*. The mech2 anism is therefore S N 1, since had it been S N2, the kinetic expression would require the concentration of the 0*: 2
(5)
;

H 20* CHMeEt OH H

fast
..

H 0*CHMeEt + H 2 HO*CHMeEt + H+
2

(5)

(6)

H 0* + EtMeCHOH 2 + H 2Q* EtMeCH OH H 20* CHMeEt + H 2

,

slow

8+

6+

fnai 2
>,

The stereochemical course of S^l reactions may also be affected by neighbouring group participation (see, e.g., 6a).
5. The S n j mechanism. Another important S N reaction is the S N i type (substitution, nucleophilic, internal). The reaction between thionyl chloride and alcohols has been studied extensively. A well-examined example is the alcohol a-phenylethanol, PhCHOHMe; this is an arylmethanol, and according to Hughes, Ingold et al. (1937), the first step is the formation of a chlorosulphinate. No inversion occurs at this stage (which is a fourcentre reaction) in the following equations, R PhMeCH;

R O

S=0
CI

>~

R O S=0
CI

HC1

This chlorosulphinate could then form a-chloroethylbenzene by one or more

of the following mechanisms: (i) S N 2. This occurs with inversion.
<rCl

R-O- S=0
S N 1.

-***-+

Cf +
**>.

R-0-S=0

-J

CI -R- OSO
(ii)

CIR + S02
CI

This occurs with inversion and retention (racemisation).

CI

R-^ S=0

-i!*^R + o"S=0

-^^

RC1 + S02

74

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
possibly be:

[CH. III

The second stage may

0 8=0
(iii)

-&|L>- S0 2 + Cf

*,

*-

RC1
is

SNt.

This occurs with retention (the reaction

effectively

a four-

centre type).

R-^-0^

S=0

s=o

-> RCl

+ S02

In practice, the a-chloroethylbenzene obtained has almost complete retention of configuration, and consequently the mechanism must be Sn*. point of interest here is that it is apparently difficult to postulate the nature of the transition state in this mechanism. When a-phenylethanol and thionyl chloride react in the presence of pyridine, the a-chloroethylbenzene obtained now has the inverted configuraThe explanation offered is that the SN2 tion (Hughes, Ingold et al., 1937).

mechanism

is

operating, the substrate

now being a
5 8

pyridine complex:

R0S0C1

C 5H 6N -*

CI-

+ ROSONC H

Cl R OSONC 6H 6 -> CIR + S02 + C 5H 5N

Optically active a-phenylethanol reacts with phosphorus trichloride, phosphorus pentachloride, and phosphoryl chloride, in the presence or absence of pyridine, and with hydrochloric acid, to give the inverted chloride. Thus It is reasonable to assume that all these proceed by the Sn2 mechanism. the chloride ion attacks some intermediate other than a pyridinium ion, since inversion occurs whether pyridine is present or absent.

Participation of neighbouring groups in nucleophilic substituSo far, we have discussed polar effects (inductive and resonance) and steric effects on the rates and mechanisms of reactions. In recent years it has been found that another factor may also operate in various This factor is known as neighbouring group participation. Here reactions. we have a group attached to the carbon atom adjacent to the carbon atom where nucleophilic substitution occurs and, during the course of the reaction,
6.

tions.

becomes bonded or partially bonded to the reaction centre. Thus the rate and/or the stereochemistry of a reaction may be affected by this factor. When a reaction is accelerated by neighbouring group participation, that reaction is said to be anchimerically assisted (Winstein et al., 1953). For anchimeric assistance to occur, the neighbouring group, which behaves as a nucleophilic reagent, must be suitably placed stereochemically with respect to the group that is ejected. This is the ^raws-configuration, and in this
configuration the

Neighbouring group participation

conditions for intramolecular displacement are best. is also of great importance in the 1,2-shifts (see Vol. I; see also 2h. VI).
al.

6a. Neighbouring carboxylate anion. Hughes, Ingold et studied the following reaction of methyl D-a-bromopropionate

(1937)

Me-CHBr-C0 2Me ->- Me-CH(OMe)-C0 2Me With concentrated methanolic sodium methoxide, the reaction was shown to be S N 2, and the product was L-methoxy ester (100 per cent, inversion). Under these conditions, the nucleophilic reagent is the methoxide ion, and the reaction is first order with respect to both methoxide ion and ester.

6a]

NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION

75

When the ester was subjected to methanolysis, i.e., methanol was the solvent (no methoxide ion now present), the product was again L-methoxy ester (100 per cent, inversion). The reaction was now first order [i.e., pseudo first order), but still Sn2, the nucleophilic reagent being the solvent molecules of methanol. When the sodium salt of D-a-bromopropionic acid was hydrolysed in dilute sodium hydroxide solution, the mechanism was shown
and the product was now D-a-hydroxypropionate anion (100 per In concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, however, the mechanism was S^2 (due to the high concentration of the hydroxide ion), and the product was L-oc-hydroxypropionate anion (100 per cent, inversion). Hughes and Ingold have proposed the following explanation for the retention experiment. The first step is ionisation to a carbonium ion in which the negatively charged oxygen atom forms a " weak electrostatic bond " with the positively charged carbon atom on the side remote from that where the bromide ion is expelled. Thus this remote side is " protected " from attack by the hydroxide ion, which is consequently forced to attack from the same side as that of the expelled bromide ion, thereby
to be SnI,
cent, retention).

leading to retention of configuration.

/Me

Ox

7>

^^ \h

XBr
t,

r/

stow

>

Br-

+O

/Me +/
C

oh-

Nx>/ \h
protection

Me

Ox

XXX

XOI OH

\H

retention

Hughes, Ingold et al. (1950) showed that the deamination of optically active alanine by nitrous acid gave an optically active lactic acid with retention of configuration. This is also explained by neighbouring group participation of the a-carboxylate anion:

COi

H
Me

Nh2

-^6^I

J
+

Y
Me

-^ H
*2

C02 H

OH
Me

d(-) -alanine

d(-) -lactic acid

This effect of neighbouring group participation is supported by the fact that in the absence of the a-carboxylate ion, Hughes, Ingold et al. observed that there was an overall inversion of configuration (with much racemisation) in the deamination of simple optically active amines, and explained this as being due to asymmetrical shielding of the carbonium ion by the expelled
nitrogen.

As we have seen above, neighbouring group participation involves a group on the adjacent carbon atom. Austin et al. (1961) have offered an example where the " neighbouring group " is on the y-carbon atom. These authors have shown that there is 80 per cent, retention of configuration in the deamination of y-aminovaleric acid; the product is a lactone. Thus a " free " carbonium jon is not involved in tbe formation of the lactone,

76

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
shown:

[CH. Ill

The authors suggest the following mechanism, neighbouring group

tion occurring as

participa-

Me

Me
I

N2 (^
. +
N
I

CH2

.CHNj
O

*-CH2

/\} f
N CH C^O-^H

CH

CH2

CH
? /CO
originally

CH COH.
2

cHa
site,

Thus the oxygen atom occupied by the amino-group, by an Su mechanism.

6b.

of the y-carboxyl group enters the

were

Neighbouring halogen atoms. Brominium (bromonium) ions proposed by Roberts and Kimball (1937) as intermediates in the addition of bromine to olefins (see 5. IV). The existence of this cyclic brominium ion has been demonstrated by Winstein and Lucas (1939), who found that the action of fuming hydrobromic acid on ( )-^ra>-3-bromofirst

butan-2-ol gave ()-2,3-dibromobutane.

TT

OH/Me
(

H
H+
,

0H 2..Me
-H 2
inversion
at
-

H.
y

H-Y Br
a ( )-form

Ci

Y
,.c 2
.

,-Me

>Br

ii--

-Me

H'

~-Me

Br

H-.

B,

YMe
+

H-.

-^>
H''

f
Br

Y
.c 2

B VMe

"Me

HX Br^Me
(+)-form

(--)-form

no neighbouring group participation of bromine occurred in the above reactions, then if the reaction were S N 2, complete inversion would have
If

Br

S N2

C Ci
2

^-
-H s

C (V- + H
2

Br

+OH 2
I

Br
Br

SnI

Cj
2

>

^i\
2

Br-

^2

*^i

^2

^1

Br+OH, *2
occurred only at

Br

Br Br

Br

If the reaction were the ordinary S N 1, the C x would carbonium ion (flat), and so inversion and retention (racemisation) would have occurred only at C v Since either retention of inversion occurs at both C x and C 2 the results are explained by neighbouring group participation of the bromine atom. The above mechanism also explains the formation of weso-2,3-dibromobutane by the action of fuming hydrobromic acid on optically active erythro-

Cv

have been a

classical

6c]

NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION
(I)
;

77

3-bromobutan-2-ol meso-form.

(II)

and

(III)

are identical and correspond to the

OH
.Me
1

OH 2

Me
-H 2 o
inversion
at

H-.

.-Me
1

^>Br

-'C2-.

Vie'

Br
I

PH
Br
1
I

Ci

Me

H
Br
H-..
I

Me

."< H

Br

H\T/-Me
Br^

..-Me

+
"H

Me'

Me";
Br
III

^H

Br
II

evidence that all the halogen atoms can form cyclic ions and offer anchimeric assistance, e.g., Winstein et al. (1948, 1951) studied the acetolysis of cis- and ft-s-2-halogeno-cycZohexyl brosylates (i.e., />-bromobenzenesulphonates; this group is often written as OBs):

There

is

-X
-OBs"

trans

^
:

X
AcOH

OAc

X
BsO.
:OBs~

as In the absence of neighbouring group participation, the rates would be expected to be about the same. If participation occurs, then this is readfly possible in the trans-isomer (la 2a) by attack of at the rear of the ejected OBs- ion, but this is not so for the cw-isomer (le 2a; see 11. IV). The rate ratios observed were:

trans /cis:

X=

I,

2-7

10 6 /1;

X = Br,

800/1;

X = CI,

3-8/1.

Thus

iodine affords the greatest anchimeric assistance

and chlorine the

least (see also 6c).

6c. Neighbouring hydroxyl group. Bartlett (1935) showed that alkali converts <raMs-2-chlorocycZohexanol into cycMiexene oxide, and proposed a mechanism in which an alkoxide ion is formed first and this then

ring-closes with ejection of the chloride ion:

oh:

H2

-cr

78

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. Ill

Bergvist (1948) showed that this reaction proceeds more than 100 times as fast as that when the cts-compound is used. Here again, the trans-iorm permits ready attack at the rear of the chloride ion whereas the cw-isomer does not (cf. 6b). The fact that the cw-form does react may be explained by assuming that the reaction proceeds via the trans-torm, i.e., the former is first converted into the latter. This requires energy of activation and consequently the reaction for the a's-form is slowed down (cf. 6d). Another example of neighbouring hydroxyl participation is the conversion of sugars into epoxy-sugars (see 9. VII).
6d. Neighbouring acetoxyl group. Winstein et al. (1942, 1943) showed that a neighbouring acetoxyl group leads to the formation of an acetoxonium ion. foms-2-Acetoxycyc/ohexyl brosylate (I) forms trans-1,2diacetoxycyc/ohexane (II) when treated with silver acetate, and the same

product (II) is obtained when the starting material is trans-2-acetoxycyclohexyl bromide (III). The authors believe that the course of the reaction, based on the stereochemical evidence, proceeds through the same acetoxonium ion (IV). This mechanism is supported by the fact that in each case, when the reaction was carried out in the presence of a small amount of water, the product was now the monoacetate of c*'s-cycMiexane-l,2-diol(V)

some diacetate

of this a's-diol

was

also obtained.

Me
,0
A.c

<$
-OBs
(I)

-BsO"

AcO"

OAc
(II)

Me

HO^JU-0
/ o
HO.

OAc

>Br
for the formation of (IV) is afforded by the fact that the M's-isomers of (I) and (III) undergo the same reactions but at much slower rates; anchimeric assistance can readily operate in the trans-iorm. It is possible that for the ws-forms, the reactions proceed via the transThis requires forms, i.e., the cw-form is first converted into the trans. energy of activation and consequently the reactions with the as-forms are slowed down. The formation of the intermediate (Va) is supported by the

(in) Further support

(v)

(V)

EtO

7]

NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION

79
is

fact that

when the
et al.,

solvolysis of

(I) is

carried out in ethanol, (VI)

obtained

(Winstein

1943).

ASYMMETRIC SYNTHESIS
Partial asymmetric synthesis may 7. Partial asymmetric synthesis. be defined as a method for preparing optically active compounds from symmetrical compounds by the intermediate use of optically active compounds, but without the necessity of resolution (Marckwald, 1904). In ordinary laboratory syntheses, a symmetrical compound always produces the racemic modification (7a. II). The first asymmetric synthesis was carried out by Marckwald (1904), who prepared an active ( )-valeric acid (laevorotatory to the extent of about 10 per cent, of the pure compound) by heating the half-brucine salt of ethylmethylmalonic acid at 170.
I

and

II are diastereoisomers; so are III

and IV.

V and VI

are enantio-

morphs, and since the mixture is optically active, they must be present in unequal amounts. Marckwald believed this was due to the different rates of decomposition of diastereoisomers I and II, but according to Eisenlohr and Meier (1938), the half-brucine salts I and II are not present in equal amounts in the solid form (as thought by Marckwald). These authors suggested that as the less soluble diastereoisomer crystallised out (during

CH3\

/C0 H
2

w brudne
.

CgH^ ^C02 H
CH,

C02 H[B-brucine]

CH3
G2 Bf
II

G02 H

<\Kf
I

^C02 H
2

NX> H [(-)-brucine]
2

, y

OIK /C0 H[(-)-brucine]

CjsHf'

CH3 ^
C 2 H.f

^H
^C0
H
2 H[(-)-brucine]

^H
/C0 H
2

III
hc.

IV
CH.

CI
2

Hf ^H V

C2 Hf^ VI

^0O H
2

evaporation of the solution), some of the more soluble diastereoisomer spontaneously changed into the less soluble diastereoisomer to restore the equilibrium between the two; thus the final result was a mixture of the half-brucine salt containing a larger proportion of the less soluble diastereoisomer. If this be the explanation, then we are dealing with an example of asymmetric transformation and not of asymmetric synthesis (see 10. II). Further work, however, has shown that Marckwald had indeed carried out an asymmetric synthesis. Kenyon and Ross (1951) decarboxylated optically active ethyl hydrogen ethylmethylmalonate, VII, and obtained an optically inactive product, ethyl (^J-a-methylbutyrate, VIII.

CHS

/C0 H
2

-^ ^C0 C H C2 H 5 2 2 5 VII
active

co2 +

C 2 Hr

X
VIII

^C0

C2 H5

inactive

80

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. Ill
salt of VII,

still

These authors (1952) then decarboxylated the cinchonidine obtained the optically inactive product VIII.

and

CH^ ^C0 H(cinchonidine) ^C C Hf \C0 C H

2 2 2 2 5

CH^
>-

^H
\C0
2

C2 H,<

.0 ^

+ COo + C 2 H5

cinchonidine

VIII
inactive

the following explanation to account for their those of Marckwald. Decarboxylation of diastereoisomers I and II takes place via the formation of the same carbanion la, and decarboxylation of VII and its cinchonidine salt via Vila.

Kenyon and Ross suggest own experiments and for

CHj.

C02 H[(-)-brucine]

C2 Hf^

^C0 H
2

T 1

CH3
C

C02 H
'

/
\

\ /"*"

CH3. e
2H5

^0-C0 HT(-)-brucine]
2

la

C 2Hf^

^C0
II

2 H[(-)-brucine]

CH3
C2 H 5

/ C0 H
2

\C0 VH
^C0

C2 H5

CH3
C2 Hf

> > / C0 H(cinchonidine)/

2

ch3
C 2 H5

^C-C0 C H
2 2

Vila

C 2 H5

Combination of carbanion \a with a proton will produce diastereoisomers III and IV in different amounts, since, in general, diastereoisomers are formed at different rates (76. II). On the other hand, carbanion Vila will give equimolecular amounts of the enantiomorphs of VIII. If the formation of optically active a-methylbutyric acid (V and VI) were due to different
rates of decarboxylation of III and IV (Marckwald's explanation) or to partial asymmetric transformation during crystallisation (Eisenlohr and Meier's explanation), then these effects are nullified if Kenyon 's explanation is correct, since the intermediate carbanion is the same for both diastereoisomers. Thus, if the asymmetric transformation theory were correct, then decarboxylation of the dibrucine salt of ethy methylmalonic acid to a-methylbutyric acid should give an optically inactive product, since only one type of crystal is now possible (asymmetric transformation is now impossible).

^CQjHCB-brucine] *\QT C2Hs ^COaHCH-brucine]

CH,.

CHj^G
*~

^C 0O H [(-)-brucine]
2

C2Hf
la

On

the other hand,

fact,

if

the carbanion la

tion, it is still possible to obtain

is an intermediate in this decomposian optically active product. Kenyon and

Ross did, in

obtain a Isevorotatory product.

7]

NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION

81

McKenzie

by reduction

(1904) carried out a number of partial asymmetric syntheses of the keto group in various keto-esters in which the ester

group contained an asymmetric group, e.g., benzoylformic acid was esterified with ( )-menthol, the ester reduced with aluminium amalgam, and the resulting product saponified; the mandelic acid so obtained was slightly
laevorotatory.

C 6 H 5 -COC0 2 H

(-)-C10H 19OH

CeHs-CHOH-COjAoHi,

-^ C

-+ C 6H 6 -COC0 2C10H 19
6 5 2

+ H ^% H -CHOH-C0 H + (-)-C H 19OH

2

10

() -rotation
Similarly, the pyruvates of ( )-menthol, ( )-pentyl alcohol and ( )-borneol gave an optically active lactic acid (slightly laevorotatory) on reduction.

CH3 -CO-C02R(-) J5i> CH 3-CHOH-C0 2R(-) -^> CH 3-CHOH-C0 2H + (-)-ROH

() -rotation

McKenzie

(1904) also obtained similar results with Grignard reagents, e.g., the ( )-menthyl ester of benzoylformic acid and methylmagnesium iodide gave a slightly laevorotatory atrolactic acid.

C 6 Hs-CO-CO2 C10HM +

/OMgl
CH3-MgI
+
>-

CeHs-C^-COjAoHjg

CH3

^*Turner
et al.

OH
C 6 H5

C^C0 H
2
3

(-)-C10

19

OIi

^CH

(-)-rotation

Reformatsky reaction (see Vol. I) using acetophenone, ( )-menthyl bromoacetate and zinc, and obtained a dextrorotatory /Miydroxy-/3-phenylbutyric acid.
(1949) carried out a

0=0
OH/

Zn+ CHaBr-COadoHj,

CsH^
OHs^
Reid

^.OZnBr

C6 H5
>

c
^CHa-COgCioHjg

CHj^

\ c ^,OH

\CH -C0 H
2 2

(+) -rotation
et al. (1962) have also used aldehydes in the Reformatsky reaction, benzaldehyde gave a laevorotatory /3-hydroxy-/3-phenylpropionic acid. Jackman et al. (1950) reduced tert. -butyl w-hexyl ketone with aluminium (+)-l 2 2-trimethylpropoxide at 200, and obtained a slightly laavorotae.g.,
:
:

tory alcohol.

(CH3 3OCO.C 6H13

)

WWTOM
:

>

(CH3 [Link].C 6H 13 ( )-rotation

)

Another example of asymmetric synthesis involving the use of a Grignard reagent is the reduction of 3 3-dimethylbutan-2-one into a dextrorotatory

(CH 3) 3OCOCH 3

'^-ch.^.ch^.ch.m.c^

(CH3)sC . CHOH , CH3

(-(-)-rotation


82
:

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. Ill

3 3-dimethylbutan-2-ol by means of (+)-2-methylbutylmagnesium chloride (Mosher et al., 1950; see also Vol. I for abnormal Grignard reactions). Bothner-By (1951) reduced butanone with lithium aluminium hydride in the presence of (+)-camphor, and thereby obtained (-f )-z'soborneol (from the camphor) and a small amount of a dextrorotatory butan-2-ol. The reducing agent in this case is a complex aluminohydride ion formed from lithium aluminium hydride and camphor, e.g., Al(OR)H 3
.

CH3 -COCa 2H s

^^
(+)-camphor

>

CH B 3 -CHOH-Cz 2H s 5
(+)-rotation

It has already been pointed out that a molecule containing one asymmetric carbon atom gives rise to a pair of diastereoisomers in unequal amounts when a second asymmetric carbon atom is introduced into the molecule (7b. II). In general, if a new asymmetric centre is introduced into a molecule which is already asymmetric, the asymmetric part of the molecule influences the configuration formed from the symmetrical part of the molecule, the two diastereoisomers being formed in unequal amounts, e.g., the Kiliani reaction (see also Vol. I).

CN

CN
+

CHO
I

hcn
*-

H C OH
I

HO C
I

CHOH
I

CHOH
i

CHOH
'

have studied, by means of conformational analysis, the the addition of Grignard reagents to benzoylformic (phenyland L refer reIf the letters S, glyoxylic) esters of asymmetric alcohols. spectively to small, medium and large groups attached to the carbinol carbon atom of the asymmetric alcohol, then the general reaction may be written
Prelog
et al.

(1953)

steric course of

C 6H B -CO-CO aCSML ^5- C,H B -CR(OH)-C0 2CSML

^% C H -CR(OH)CO H
6
6

Prelog et al. found that the configuration of the asymmetric carbon atom in the stereoisomer that predominated in this reaction could be correlated with that of the carbinol carbon of the alcohol. The basis of this correlation was the assumption that the Grignard reagent attacks the carbon atom (of the ketone group) preferentially from the less hindered side. This necessitates a consideration of the possible conformations of the ester molecule. The authors considered that the most stable conformation of the ester was the one in which the two carbonyl groups are planar and trans to each other, with the smallest group lying in this plane and the other two groups skew. Furthermore, with the groups on the carbinol atom of the alcohol arranged in the staggered conformation with respect to the rest of the will be the conformations of the esters with the molecule, then IX and a respectively (thick lines enantiomorphous alcohol residues IX a and represent groups in front of the plane, broken lines groups behind, and ordinary lines groups in the plane). Thus, with L behind, methylmagnesium halide attacks preferentially from the front (IX); and with L in The a-hydroxyacid obtained from front, the attack is from behind (X). IX is IX b, and that from is b. IX b and b are enantiomorphs and hence the configuration of the new asymmetric centre is related to that of the adjacent asymmetric centre in the original molecule. Thus for the same keto-acid and the same Grignard reagent, and using different optically active alcohols belonging to the same configurational series, the product should contain excess of a-hydroxyacids with the same sign of rotation. This has been shown to be so in practice, e.g., ( )-menthol and ( )-borneol

7]

NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION

83

are both configurationally related to l( )-glyceraldehyde, and both lead to a predominance of the ( )-hydroxyacid. On the other hand, if the ketoacid is pyruvic acid and the Grignard reagent phenylmagnesium bromide, the (+)-hydroxyacid should predominate in the product (this method of preparation produces an interchange of the positions of the phenyl and methyl groups, thereby leading to the formation of the enantiomorph). This can

M
HO
C
i
i i

M
S

-c -OH
I

I I

L IX a
I

Xa
I

Q
Ph

O
II

-M
x

N^N)'
II

.,0^

Ph.

,Cb
O'

-L

\
MeMgX
IX
I

MeMgX

X
J

o
Ph.
I

O
A,

.OH

a
Me
C02 H
i

||

Plu
I

.Me
^O'

/0^-m
OH
C02 H

Me- -C- -OH

HO

C
i

Me

Ph IX b
:

Ph

Xb

be seen from the following equation starting with the pyruvic ester XI in which the configuration of the alcohol is IX a, the product would be b.

O
II

,L

Me.
-XT

XL
ll\

NK
XI

-M

Me^
>-

O
.OH
Ph
||

Au

^CT-

CL

JOg-M

PhMgBr
C09 H
i

-HO- -0- -Me Ph

Xb

84

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
results

[CH. Ill

have been obtained in practice. Thus, when the configuration is known, it is possible to deduce the configuration of the a-hydroxyacid obtained in excess. This method has been used to determine the configuration of hydroxyl groups in steroids. Cram et al. (1952) have also dealt with asymmetric syntheses in which the molecule contains an asymmetric centre that belongs to the molecule, i.e., remains in the molecule (cf. the Kiliani reaction mentioned above). As a result of their work, these authors have formulated the rule of " steric control of asymmetric induction ". This is: "In non-catalytic reactions of the type shown, that diastereoisomer will predominate which would be formed by the approach of the entering group from the least hindered side
These
of the active alcohol
of the double bond when the rotational conformation of the C C bond is such that the double bond is flanked by the two least bulky groups attached to the adjacent asymmetric centre." Thus
:

R'MgX

M^C C^-OH
IT
or,

H-

..R'

^R

using the

Newman

projection formulae:

:A
An example

HO
R'MgX^

R
L

of this type of reaction is the reaction between phenylpropionMe) Ph) and methylmagnesium bromide (R' Me, L aldehyde (M two products can be formed, viz., XII the [erythro-compound) and XIII (the ^ra>-compound)

Me

Me
HOv.

Me

Xy^

MeMgBr

^H

Mes
+

/H

H^

?NPh
Me XII

IK

i? OH
X][II

^Ph

According to the above rule, XII should predominate; this has been found to be so in practice. Cram's rule does not give the correct stereochemical prediction when one of the groups (e.g., hydroxyl) attached to the carbon atom alpha to the carbonyl group is capable of chelating with a metal atom in the reagent, unless this chelating group is " medium " in effective bulk. The influence of enzymes on the steric course of reactions has also been investigated, e.g., Rosenthaler (1908) found that emulsin converted benzaldehyde and hydrogen cyanide into dextrorotatory mandelonitrile which was almost optically pure. It has been found that in most enzymic reactions the product is almost 100 per cent, of one or other enantiomorph. Enzymes are proteins and optically active (see also 12. XIII), but since they are so " one-sided " in their action, it appears likely that the mechanism of the reactions in which they are involved differs from that of partial asymmetric

8]

NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION

85

syntheses where enzymes are not vised. It has been suggested that enzymes are the cause of the formation of optically active compounds in plants. Although this is largely true, the real problem is: How were the optically Ferreira's work [10(viii). II], howactive enzymes themselves produced? ever, shows that optically active compounds may possibly be produced in living matter by activation of a racemic modification. This theory appears to be superior to that of the formation of optically active compounds by the action of naturally polarised light (see following section).

Cotton (1896) found that dextro8. Absolute asymmetric synthesis. and laevocircularly polarised light was unequally absorbed by enantiomorphs,
provided the light has a wavelength in the neighbourhood of the characterabsorption bands of the compound. This phenomenon is known as the Cotton effect or circular dichroism (cf. 2. II). It has been suggested that circularly polarised light produced the first natural active compounds, and to support this theory, racemic modifications have been irradiated with circularly polarised light and attempts made to isolate one enantiomorph. There was very little success in this direction until W. Kuhn and Braun (1929) claimed to have obtained a small rotation in the case of ethyl a-bromopropionate. The racemic modification of this compound was irradiated with right- and left-circularly polarised light (of wavelength 2800 A), and the product was found to have a rotation of -f or 0-05, respectively. Thus we have the possibility of preparing optically active products from inactive substances without the intermediate use of optically active reagents (cf. Ferreira's work). This type of synthesis is known as an absolute asymmetric synthesis; it is also known as an absolute asymmetric decomposition. The term asymmetric decomposition is also applied to reactions such as the formation of the (-(-)- and ( )-forms of ay-di-1-naphthyl-ay-diphenylallene (see 6. V) by the action of (+J- and ( )-camphorsulphonic acid on the symmetrical alcohol. Front -1930 onward, more conclusive evidence for absolute asymmetric syntheses has been obtained, e.g., W. Kuhn and Knopf (1930) irradiated ()-<x-azidopropionic dimethylamide, CH 3 'CHN 3 *CON(CH 3) 8 with rightcircularly polarised light and obtained an undecomposed product with a rotation of +0'78; with left-circularly polarised light, the undecomposed 1-04. product had a rotation of Thus the ( )- or (-f-)-form is decomposed (photochemically) by right- or left-circularly polarised light, respectively. Similarly, Mitchell (1930) irradiated humulene nitrosite with rightand left-circularly polarised red light, and obtained slightly optically active
istic

products.
trinitrostilbene in

Davis and Heggie (1935) found that the addition of bromine to 2 4 6a beam of right-circularly polarised light gave a dextro: :

rotatory product.

N02

N0^2V-CH=CH-h^>
N02

N0 2

NOy^^-CHBr-CHBr-^^
N0
2

(+) -rotation

Small (-f-)-rotations were also observed when a mixture of ethyl fumarate and anhydrous hydrogen peroxide in ethereal solution was irradiated with
right-circalarly polarised light (Davis et
al.,

1945).

86

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. Ill

READING REFERENCES
Hinshelwood, The Kinetics of Chemical Change, Oxford Press (1940, 4th ed.). Moelwyn-Hughes, The Kinetics of Reactions in Solutions, Oxford Press (1947, 2nd ed.). Glasstone, Laidler and Eyring, The Theory of Rate Processes, McGraw-Hill (1941). Frost and Pearson, Kinetics and Mechanism, Wiley (1961, 2nd ed.). Friess and Weissberger (Ed.), Technique of Organic Chemistry, Interscience Publishers. Vol. 8 (1953). Investigation of Rates and Mechanisms of Reactions. Ingold, Structure and Mechanism in Organic Chemistry, Bell and Sons (1953). Hine, Physical Organic Chemistry, McGraw-Hill (1962, 2nd ed.). Gould, Mechanism and Structure in Organic Chemistry, Holt and Co. (1959). Streitwieser, Solvolytic Displacement Reactions at Saturated Carbon Atoms, Chem.
Reviews, 1956, 56, 571. Bethell and Gold, The Structure of
12, 173.

Carbonium

Ions, Quart. Reviews (Chem. Soc), 1958,

Casapieri and Swart, Concomitant First- and Second-order Nucleophilic Substitution, J.C.S., 1961, 4342. Hudson et al., Nucleophilic Reactivity, J.C.S., 1962, 1055, 1062, 1068. Ritchie, Asymmetric Synthesis and Asymmetric Induction, St. Andrews University Press
(1933). Ritchie, Recent

Views on Asymmetric Synthesis and Related Processes, Advances in Enzymology, Interscience Publishers, 1947, 7, 65. Cram and Kopecky, Models for Steric Control of Asymmetric Induction, /. Amer. Chem. Soc, 1959, 81, 2748. Klyne (Ed.), Progress in Stereochemistry, Butterworth (1954). Ch. 3. Stereochemical Factors in Reaction Mechanisms and Kinetics. Vol. II (1958). Chh. 2, 3.

CHAPTER IV

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM
Maleic and fumaric acids both 1. Nature of geometrical isomerism. have the same molecular formula C4H 4 4 but differ in most of their physical and in many of their chemical properties, and neither is optically active. It was originally thought that these two acids were structural isomers; this is the reason for different names being assigned to each form (and to many other geometrical isomers). It was subsequently shown, however, that maleic and fumaric acids were not structural isomers, e.g., both (i) are catalytically reduced to succinic acid; (ii) add one molecule of hydrogen bromide to form bromosuccinic acid; (iii) add one molecule of water to form malic acid; (iv) are oxidised by alkaline potassium permanganate to tartaric acid (the stereochemical relationships in reactions (ii), (iii) and (iv) have been ignored; they are discussed later in 5a). Thus both acids have the same
,

COjH-CHtCH-COaH. van't Hoff (1874) suggested that if there is no free rotation about a double bond, two spatial arrangements are possible for the formula COgH-CHtCH'COgH, and these would account for the isomerism exhibited by maleic and fumaric acids. Using tetrahedral diagrams, van't Hoff represented a double bond by placing the tetrahedra edge to edge (Fig. 1). From a mechanical point of view, such
structure, viz.,

we assume

C0 2 H

H *-

^CQ2 H

C0 2 H

H0 2 C

Fig. 4.1.

an arrangement would be rigid, i.e., free rotation about the double bond is not to be expected. Furthermore, according to the above arrangement, the two hydrogen atoms and the two carboxyl groups are all in one plane, i.e., the molecule is flat. Since a flat molecule is superimposable on its mirror image, maleic and fumaric acids are therefore not optically active (2. II). As we shall see later, modern theory also postulates a planar structure for these two acids, but the reasons are very much different from those proposed by van't Hoff as described above (see also 3a. V). The type of isomerism exhibited by maleic and fumaric acids is known as geometrical isomerism or cis-trans isomerism. One isomer is known as the cts-compound, and the other as the trans, the as-compound being the one which (usually) has identical or similar atoms or groups, on the same side (see also 4). Thus molecule I is c*s-butenedioic acid, and II is 87

88
frans-butenedioic acid.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. IV

As will be shown later (5), I is maleic acid and II fumaric acid. Geometrical isomerism is exhibited by a wide variety of compounds, and they may be classified into three groups:
(i)

(ii)

(iii)

Compounds containing a double bond: C=C, C=N, N=N. Compounds containing a cyclic structure homocyclic, heterocyclic and fused ring systems, Compounds which may exhibit geometrical isomerism due to restricted rotation about a single bond (see 3. V for examples of this type).

have already seen that, 2. Rotation about a double bond. theoretically, there is always some opposition to rotation about a single bond and that, in many cases, the opposition may be great enough to cause
the molecule to assume some preferred conformation (4a. II). When we consider the problem of rotation about a double bond, we find that there is always considerable opposition to the rotation. Let us first consider the simple case of ethylene; Fig. 2 (a) shows the energy changes in the molecule when one methylene group is rotated about the carbon-carbon double bond with the other methylene group at rest. Thus there are two identical favoured positions (one at 0 and the other at 180), and the potential energy barrier is 40 [Link]./mole. The examination of many olefinic compounds has shown that the potential energy barrier for the C==C bond varies with the nature of the groups attached to each carbon, e.g.,

We

CH 2=CH 2

40 [Link]./mole;
,

C 6H 5 -CH=CH-C 6 H 5
,

42-8 [Link]./mole;

CH 3 -CH=CH-CH 3 18 [Link]./mole; C0 2 H-CH=CH-C0 2H, 15-8 [Link]./mole.

Let us consider the case of maleic and fumaric acids in more detail. It can be seen from the diagram (Fig. 2 b) that there are two favoured positions, with the trans-iorm more stable than the cis, the energy difference between the two being 6-7 [Link]./mole. The conversion of the trans to the cis requires 15-8 [Link]. energy, but the reverse change requires about 10 [Link]. (see also 6 for a further discussion of cis-trans isomerisation).

90

180

270'

360'

90"

180

270

360

Angle of Rotation
(a)

Angle

of Rotation

(6)

Fig. 4.2.

In the foregoing 3. Modern theory of the nature of double bonds. account of geometrical isomerism, the distribution of the carbon valencies was assumed to be tetrahedral (as postulated by van't Hoff). According to modern theory, the four valency bonds of a carbon atom are distributed tetrahedrally only in saturated compounds. In such compounds the carbon 3 bonds being referred is in a state of tetrahedral hybridisation, the four sp compounds, however, the two In olefinic Ch. II). (see Vol. I, to as ff-bonds carbon atoms exhibit the trigonal mode of hybridisation. In this condition there are three coplanar valencies (three c-bonds produced from sp 2 hybrid-

4]

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM

89

isation),

and the fourth bond (?r-bond) at right angles to the trigonal hybrids 7r-Bonds, which appear to be weaker than cr-bonds, tend to overlap as much as possible in order to make the bond as strong as possible. Maxi(Fig. 3).

mum

overlap is achieved when the molecule is planar, since in this configuration the two p orbitals are parallel. Distortion of the molecule from the planar configuration decreases the overlap of the ^-electrons, thereby weakening the zr-bond; and this distortion can only be effected by supplying energy to the molecule. It is therefore this tendency to produce overlap of the ^-electrons in the 7r-bond that gives rise to resistance

maximum

Fig. 4.3.

of rotation about a " double " bond.

For simplicity we

shall

still

represent

a " double " bond by the conventional method, e.g., C=C, but it should always be borne in mind that one of these bonds is a a-bond (sp 2 bond), and the other is a rc-bond perpendicular to the <r-bond. It is these ^-electrons {mobile electrons) which undergo the electromeric and resonance effects. They are held less firmly than the a-electrons and are more exposed to external influences; it is these 7t-electrons which are responsible for the high reactivity of unsaturated compounds. In compounds containing a triple bond, e.g., acetylene, the two carbon atoms are in a state of digonal hybridisation there are two c-bonds (sp bonds) and two w-bonds (one p y and one pz orbital), both perpendicular to the a-bonds which are collinear (see Vol. I, Ch. II). The above treatment of the double (and triple) bond is in terms of sp 2 (and sp) hybridisation and jr-bonds. It is still possible, however, to use sp 3 hybridisation to describe carbon-carbon multiple bonds this treatment gives rise to " banana-shaped " orbitals, i.e., " bent " bonds (Fig. 4 see also
;
;

Vol. I):

H\ y\ / H ) c\ ) C C
This method of approach
there
4.
is

H\ )c

^^ ( /H
c

Fig. 4.4
still produces a " rigid " molecule, and so again about the double bond.

no
is

free rotation

of geometrical isomers. When geometrical isodue to the presence of one double bond in a molecule, it is easy to name the geometrical isomers if two groups are identical, e.g., in molecules I and II, I is the a's-isomer, and II the trans; similarly III is cis, and IV is trans. When, however, all four groups are different, nomenclature is more difficult. In this case it has been suggested that the prefixes cis and trans should indicate the disposition of the first two groups named, e.g., the two stereoisomers of l-bromo-l-chloro-2-iodoethylene, V and VI; V is cis-1-

Nomenclature

merism

bromo-2-iodo-l-chloroethylene

or

fraws-l-chloro-2-iodo-l-bromo-ethylene

90

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. IV

VI

is cis-l-chloro-2-iodo-l-bromoethylene or tfrs-l-bromo-2-iodo-l-chloroethylene. On the other hand, since this method of nomenclature usually deviates from the rule of naming groups in alphabetical order, it has been

NK
II

NK
II

a.

Nj^
II

J>

^C"

/(
*

b^^a
II

^N
III
cis

^%
II

I
cis

IV

trans

trans

suggested that the groups corresponding to the prefix cis or trans should be italicised, thus V may be named cw-l-6rowo-l-chloro-2-i'o^oethylene and VI 2ras-l-&rowo-l-chloro-2-M>rfoethylene. This method, it must be admitted, would offer difficulties when the names are spoken.

Br^

^Cl

CI

JBv

VI

Some pairs of geometrical isomers have trivial names, e.g., maleic and fumaric acids, angelic and tiglic acids, etc. (c/. 1). Sometimes the prefix tso has been used to designate the less stable isomer, e.g., crotonic acid (foms-isomer) and isocrotonic acid (cis-isomer; the cis-isomer is usually the The use of iso in this connection is undesirable less stable of the two ; see 2) since it already has a specific meaning in the nomenclature of alkanes. The prefix alio has also been used to designate the less stable isomer (cis), e.g., aWocinnamic acid. When geometrical isomers contain two or more double bonds, nomenIn this case the compound is considered clature may be difficult, e.g., VII.
.

XC=C CH X CH(CH3) X H
2

vn
as a derivative of the longest chain which contains the maximum number of double bonds, the prefixes cis and trans being placed before the numbers indicating the positions of the double bonds to describe the relative positions of the carbon atoms in the main chain; thus VII is 3-isopropylhexa-cis-

cis-4-diene.

If

a compound has two double bonds,

e.g.,

CHa=CHCH=CH6,

four geo-

metrical isomers are possible:

^a
II
II

II

II

II

II

B<
this

^b
e.g.,

b' ^H
2",
:

C^ b' V H
II

The number of geometrical isomers is

ends are identical,

where n is the number of double bonds; formula applies only to molecules in which the ends are different. If the

CHa=CH CH=CHa,

then the number of stereo-

6]

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM
is

91

isomers
is

2"- 1

2P~ l where p
,

n/2 when n

is

even, and

p =

^ when n

odd (Kuhn
5.

et al.,

1928).

Determination of the configuration of geometrical isomers. is no general method for determining the configuration of geometrical isomers. In practice one uses a number of different methods, the method used depending on the nature of the compound in question. The following are methods which may be used mainly for compounds that owe their geometrical isomerism to the presence of a double bond, but several of the methods are special to geometrical isomers possessing a cyclic structure
There
(see also 7).
(i) Method of cyclisation. Wislicenus was the first to suggest the principle that intramolecular reactions are more likely to occur the closer together the reacting groups are in the molecule. This principle appears always to be true for reactions in which rings are formed, but does not hold for elimination reactions in which a double (or triple) bond is produced

[see, e.g.,
(a)

(xi)].

Of the two acids maleic and fumaric, only the former readily forms a cyclic anhydride when heated; the latter does not form an anhydride of its own, but when strongly heated, gives maleic anhydride. Thus I is maleic acid, and II is fumaric acid.

Hx

^COisH
c
II

<+

H^ ^C0 H
c
II

H^ ^C0 H
2

H0 2 C^ ^H
fumaric acid

maleic acid

H \'/ C <?
II

/> + H,0

H/^ CO
Cyclisation reactions must be performed carefully, since one isomer may be converted into the other during the cyclising process, and so lead to unreliable results. In the above reaction, somewhat vigorous conditions have been used; hence there is the possibility that intercon version of the stereoisomers has occurred. Since maleic acid cyclises readily, and fumaric acid only after prolonged heating, the former is most probably the cw-isomer, and the latter the trans which forms maleic anhydride via the formation of maleic acid (see also 6). The correctness of the conclusion for the configurations of the two acids may be tested by hydrolysing maleic anhydride in the cold; only maleic acid is obtained. Under these mild conditions it is most unlikely that interconversion occurs, and so we may accept I as the configuration of maleic acid. (6) Citraconic acid forms a cyclic anhydride readily, whereas the geometrical isomer, mesaconic acid, gives the same anhydride but much less readily. Thus these two acids are:
CHj..
II

^C0 H
2

C
II

H^ ^CO H
g

H0 C^ ^H
2

citraconic acid

mesaconic acid

92

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. IV

(c) There are two o-hydroxycinnamic acids, one of which spontaneously forms the lactone, coumarin, whereas the other does not. Thus the former is the cM-isomer, coumarinic acid, and the latter the trans-isomer, coumaric

acid.

c
II

II

H0 2 CT

^H

H-

TJO,H

coumarinic acid

coumaric acid

coumarin
(d) Two forms of hexahydroterephthalic acid are known, one of which forms a cyclic anhydride, and the other does not. Thus the former is the ct's-isomer, and the latter the trans (see also 9, 11).

HOgC

H0

C02 H

as -acid

trans -a,cid

(ii) Method of conversion into compounds of known configuration. In a number of cases it is possible to determine the configurations of pairs of geometrical isomers by converting them into compounds the configurations As an example of this type let us consider of which are already known. the two forms of crotonic acid, one of which is known as crotonic acid (m.p. 72), and the other as wocrotonic acid (m.p. 15-5). Now there are two trichlorocrotonic acids, III and IV, one of which can be hydrolysed to fumaric acid. Therefore this trichlorocrotonic acid must be the transisomer, III; consequently the other is the cis-isomer IV. Both these tri-

H
H0 2

,C0 2 H
.0.

H^
II

/CC13

^H

HO 0^ ^H
2

H^ ^C0 H
2

fumaric acid

III
|[H]

IV
|[H]

H \^/ CH 3
H0 CT
2

H^

,CH 3

^H
V

W
VI

^C0 2 H

crotonic acid

zsocrotonic acid

5]

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM

93

chlorocrotonic acids may be reduced by sodium amalgam and water, or by zinc and acetic acid, to the crotonic acids, III giving crotonic acid, V, and IV giving wocrotonic acid, VI. Thus crotonic acid is the trans-isomer, and isocrotonic the cis (von Auwers el al., 1923). of conversion into less symmetrical compounds. (iii) Method Certain pairs of geometrical isomers may be converted into less symmetrical compounds in which the number of geometrical isomers is increased, and by considering the number of products obtained from each original stereoisomer, it is possible to deduce the configurations of the latter. E.g., there are two 2 5-dimethylcyc/opentane-l 1-dicarboxylic acids, and these, on heating, are decarboxylated to 2 5-dimethylcyc/opentane-l-carboxylic acid. Consideration of the following chart shows that the cis-iorm of the original dicarboxylic acid can give rise to two stereoisomeric monocarboxylic acids, whereas the trans-iorm can produce only one product. Thus the configurations of the dicarboxylic acids are determined (see also 10).
: :

H,C

CH

HC

C0 2 H
CK-form -co 2

C02 H
trans- form

H
H,C

H
H,C
CH,

of optical activity. In many pairs of geometrical isomers possess the requirements for optical activity (2. II), whereas the other form may not. In such cases a successful resolution of one form will determine the configuration, e.g., there are two hexahydrophthalic acids; the s-form possesses a plane of symmetry and consequently is optically inactive. The trans-form, however, possesses no elements of symmetry, and so should be resolvable; this has actually been resolved
(iv)

Method

one form

may

(see also 11).

COaH C0 2 H

C02H

cii- form

trans-form.

optically inactive

resolvable

The use of dipole moments to assign (v) Method of dipole moments. configurations to geometrical isomers must be used with caution. The method is satisfactory so long as the groups attached to the olefinic carbon atoms have linear moments (see 13. I), e.g., cts-l,2-dichloroethylene has a dipole moment of 1-85 D; the value of the dipole moment of the trans isomer is zero. When, however, the groups have non-linear moments, then the vector sum in the trans-isomer will no longer be zero and the difference

94

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. IV

between the dipole moments of the cis- and trans-isomers may be too small to assign configuration with any confidence, e.g., the dipole moment of diethyl maleate is 2-54 D and that of diethyl fumarate is 2-38 D. (vi) X-ray analysis method. This method of determining the configuration of geometrical isomers is probably the best where it is readily
applicable (see also 16. I). (vii) Ultraviolet, visible, infra-red,

Raman, and

NMR

spectra

Geometrical isomers may show different spectra, e.g., the intensity of the band in the ultraviolet absorption spectrum depends on the dipole moment (see Vol. I, Ch. XXXI), and this, in turn, depends on the distance between the charges. In the trans-iorm of a conjugated molecule, the distance between the ends is greater than that in the ds-form. Consequently the intensity of absorption of the trans-iorm. is greater than that of the cis (see also 15. 1). Thus, in cases such as these, it is possible to assign configurations to pairs of geometrical isomers. spectra (19a. I) have recently been used to determine configurations of geometrical isomers, e.g., Curtin et al. (1958) have used this method to distinguish between the cis- and trans-isomers of stilbene and azobenzene Musher et al. (1958) have assigned configurations to cis- and trans-decaMn

methods.

NMR

[ll(vii)].
(viii) Method of surface films. Long-chain geometrical isomers which contain a terminal group capable of dissolving in a solvent will form surface films, but only the trans-iorm can form a close-packed film, e.g., the longchain unsaturated fatty acids.

II

II

H0
(ix)

C^ ^H
's-form

H^ \C0 H
2

trans-form

Method

of formation of solid solutions.

In compounds which

their property of geometrical isomerism to the presence of an olefinic bond, the shape of the trans-iorm. is similar to that of the corresponding saturated compound, whereas that of the cis-iorm is different, e.g., the shapes of fumaric and succinic acids are similar, but the shape of maleic acid is molecules which are approximately different from that of succinic acid.

owe

Now

H.

TT
II

X!0 2 H

.C02 H

CH

Nr
II

X02 H
2

H0 Cr
2

^H

H0 C /
2

S< ^C0 H
maleic acid

fumaric acid
of the

succinic acid

same size and shape tend to form solid solutions. Thus fumaric acid forms a solid solution with succinic acid, whereas maleic acid does not; hence the configurations of maleic and fumaric acids may be determined. (x) Methods based on generalisations of physical properties. Comparison of the physical properties of geometrical isomers of known configurations has led to the following generalisations: (a) The meltirg point and intensity of absorption of the cis-isomer are lower than those of the trans. (6) The boiling point, solubility, heat of combustion, heat of hydrogenation, density, refractive index, dipole

the

moment and dissociation constant (if acid) of the cts-isomer are greater than those of the trans. Based on certain of these generalisations is the Auwers-Skita rule (1915, 1920), viz., in a pair of cis-trans isomers (of alicyclic compounds), the cis
compound is an

5]

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM

95

has the higher density and refractive index. elucidate configurations, particularly in terpene chemistry, e.g., the menthones (see 16. VIII), but recently it has been shown that the use of this rule may give misleading results (see 11). It can be seen from the above physical properties that the trans-form is usually the stabler of the two isomers, i.e., the trans-isomer is the form with the lower internal energy (c/. 2). Thus, in general, the above physical properties may be used to determine the configurations of unknown geometrical isomers, but the results should always be accepted with reserve, since exceptions are known. Even so, determination of as many as possible of the above physical properties will lead to reliable results, since deviations from the generalisations appear to be manifested in only one or two properties. It should also be noted that where the method of dipole moments can be applied, the results are reliable
[of-

This rule has been used to

(v)].

Another method based on generalisations of physical properties is that suggested by Werner. Werner (1904) pointed out that ethylenic cis-trans isomers may be compared with the ortho- and para-isoraers in the benzene series, the assumption being made that the melting points of the cis- and ortffto-isomers are lower than those of the corresponding trans- and parasomers,
e.g.,

EU

'CH

\r

r^Kr H" ^C0 H

2

H'

^c

X!02 H

cis-crotaflic acid

0-toluic acid

m.p. 15 5
-

m.p. 105

CH;
II

rrons-crotonic acid m.p. 72

^-tohric acid

m.p. 180 9

Thus comparison

of melting points offers a means of assigning configurations to geometrical isomers. Examination of the above structures shows that, as far as the shape of the molecule is concerned, the benzene ring may be regarded as usurping the function of in the olefinic compound. By making use of this idea, it has been possible to assign configurations to difficult cases of geometrical isomerism, e.g., there are two ethyl oc-chlorocrotonates, and by comparing their physical properties with ethyl 5-chloro-oand 3-chloro^>-toluates, configurations may be assigned to the chlorocrotonates.

C=C

CI
b.p.

0020^115
b.p. 122

56/l0mm

Cl^
b.p.

^C02 C H
2

CK ^-^

"C02 C2 H6

61/I0mm.

b.p. 130

96

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. IV

(xi) Method of stereospecific addition and elimination reactions. This method for determining the configurations of geometrical isomers is based on the assumption that addition reactions to a double or triple bond always occur in a definite manner either cis or trans for a given addendum under given conditions. Similarly, elimination reactions are also assumed to take place in a definite manner. (a) Conversion of acetylenic compounds into ethylenic compounds, and vice versa. This problem was first studied by Wislicenus (1887), who suggested that when one of the acetylenic bonds is broken, the two groups of the addendum should add on in the cis-position, e.g., the addition of bromine to acetylenedicarboxylic acid should produce dibromomaleic acid.

^a 11
C

Br^

^G

C02 H C0 H

WI
is

In practice, however, a mixture of dibromofumaric and dibromomaleic acids obtained, with the former predominating. Similarly, halogen acids add on to give mainly halogenofumaric acid. Thus, in these two examples, the suggestion of Wislicenus is incorrect. On the other hand, the reduction of tolan with zinc dust and acetic acid (Rabinovitch et al., 1953) produces Mostilbene (the cw-compound)

in

+2H
H ^ ^C H

C6 H
This
is

a 's-addition, but the problem of reduction of a triple bond is comby the fact that the results depend on the nature of the compound and the conditions used, e.g., Fischer (1912) found that phenylpropiolic acid on catalytic reduction gave cw-cinnamic acid, whereas on reduction with zinc dust and acetic acid, trans-cmnamic acid was obtained.
plicated

V
TS< NX)2 H
Benkeser

-<

H 2-Pd

C
HI

Zn/CIWCOM. -

^,

0H

H^

NX) H
2

et al. (1955), on the other hand, have shown that the reduction of acetylenes with lithium in aliphatic amines of low molecular weight produces trans-oleftns. It appears that, in general, chemical reduction produces the tfraws-olefin, whereas catalytic hydrogenation produces the cw-olefin. As a result of a large amount of experimental work, it has been found that addition reactions to a triple bond where the addenda are halogens or halogen acids produce predominantly the trans-ethy\enic compound, and so, using this generalisation, one can determine the configurations of geometrical isomers when prepared from acetylenic compounds (provided, of course, the addenda are halogen or halogen acid). Wislicenus also supposed that removal of halogen, halogen acid, etc., from olefinic compounds to produce acetylenic compounds was easier in the exposition than in the trans. This again was shown to be incorrect experimentally, and thus the elimination reaction may be used to determine

5]

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM

97

configuration if the assumption is made that trans-elimination occurs more readily than cis (see also oximes, 2f. VI). derivatives, and (6) Conversion of ethylenic compounds into ethane vice versa. Just as it was assumed that the addition of halogens and halogen acids to a triple bond takes place in the a's-position, so the same assumption was made with respect to the double bond. Thus the addition of bromine to maleic acid should give meso-x a'-dibromosuccinic acid. Configurations VII (formed by attack from behind the molecule) and VIII
:

Br

Br

H^
JO.

.C0 2 H
Br4

H_

,C0 2 H

H.

,C0 2 H

ND02 H Br VIII (formed by attack in front) are identical, both being the same weso-dibromoSimilarly fumaric acid would be expected to give ()-oc a'succinic acid. dibromosuccinic acid. IX and X are mirror images, and since they will be ^0O2 H

>

C02 H

H'

Br VII

Br

Br

H.

/C0 2 H
Br 2

H^ /C0 H
XT
2

H,,

,-C0 2

HOsC^V^-H
Br

HOC

"H

HOgC

.- %
|

-H

Br

IX

formed in equal amounts (see 7a. II), the racemic modification is produced. Experimental work, however, has shown that the reverse is true, i.e., maleic acid gives mainly ()-dibromosuccinic acid (IX and X), and fumaric acid gives mainly wesodibromosuccinic acid (VII). Thus the addition of bromine must be trans. In the same way it has been shown that the addition of halogen acid is also trans. Hence, assuming foam-addition always occurs with these addenda, the nature of the products indicates the configuration of the ethylenic compound. The configuration of the product formed by hydroxylation of a double bond depends on the nature of the hydroxylating agent used and on the conditions under which the reaction is carried out. Permanganate and osmium tetroxide apparently always give cw-addition, whereas permonosulphuric acid (Caro's acid)

and perbenzoic acid give foms-addition.

Type
of

On

Reagent

addition

Maleic acid

Fumaric acid

KMn0 4
Os0 4 H a S0 6 C,H 6 -CO-O sH H aO a Os0 4 H 2 2 SeO a

cis cis

.
.

.
.

trans trans
cis

trans

mesotaxtaxic acid wesotartaric acid DL-tartaric acid DL-tartaric acid mesotartaric acid DL-tartaric acid

DL-tartaric acid DL-tartaric acid mesotartaric acid wesotartaric acid DL-tartaric acid mesotartaric acid

the other hand, hydroxylation with hydrogen peroxide catalysed by osmium tetroxide in [Link] gives 's-addition if the reaction is catalysed by selenium dioxide in tertiary-butanol or in acetone, then the addition is trans (see also below). The table above shows the products formed by hydroxylation of maleic and fumaric acids.
;

98
5a.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. IV

Stereochemistry of addition reactions. The mechanisms of the addition of halogen and halogen acids to olefinic double bonds and the hydroxylation of olefinic double bonds have been discussed in Vol. I (Ch. IV). Here we shall discuss the stereochemical aspects of these additions. As we have seen, the polar addition of halogen and halogen acid is two-stage and
electrophilic; e.g.,

CH 2 ==CH 2 ^

Br-^-Br

*-

CH2 -CH 2 Br +
CH 2 -CH 3
+

Br~

CH

2 Br-

CH 2 Br

CH 2 =tCH 2^ H-Ql
It

*-

CI"

CH

2 C1-CH 3

has already been demonstrated above (xii) that experimental results have proved that these additions are almost entirely trans. The two-stage mechanism is consistent with foms-addition. In order to account for tfraws-addition, Roberts and Kimball (1937) suggested that the first step is the formation of a cyclic halogenium ion, e.g., with bromine the brominium (bromonium) ion is formed first. If a classical carbonium ion were formed first, then one could expect free rotation about the newly-formed single bond and in this case the stereochemical addition would not be the one observed in practice. Thus for maleic acid the reaction may be formulated as follows:

Br

tt^

02 H
o
||

Br

tt.

-C0 2 H
'or

H-.

+Br2 -^

|>r*

-^
D
-

^c"
I

,C0 2 H

Nr +1
j

HL

.C0 2H

C02 H

H'

^C0 2 H

C0 2 H

H''

"C02 H

Br
(XI)

Br
(XII)

Since the bromide ion can attack " conveniently " only along the C Br+ bonding line and on the side remote from the bromine, a Walden inversion occurs at the carbon atom attacked. Since the brominium ion is symmetrical, it can be anticipated that either carbon atom will be attacked equally well, thereby resulting in the formation of (XI) and (XII) in equal amounts, i.e., maleic acid will produce ()-dibromosuccinic acid. Winstein and Lucas (1939) have demonstrated the existence of this cyclic ion (see
6b. III).

The above mechanism

explains fraws-addition, but, as

we have

seen,

although this predominates, it is not exclusive. The reason for this is not certain, but it is possible that the cyclic ion is not firmly held, i.e., the ring opens to give the classical carbonium ion, and this is followed by rotation about the single C C bond due to electrostatic repulsion between the carboxyl groups. This would explain the experiments of Michael (1892) that both the maleate ion and fumarate ion add chlorine or bromine to give mainly wteso-dihalogenosuccinic acid. The configurations of the products indicate that tfraws-addition has occurred with the fumarate ion but cisaddition with the maleate ion. Roberts and Kimball, however, have explained these results by assuming that the intermediate maleate brominium ion (cis) changes to the fumarate brominium ion (trans) due to the powerful repulsions of the negatively charged carboxylase ion groups. Additions to a triple bond may be assumed to take place by the mechanism proposed for a double bond. Now let us consider the mechanism of hydroxylation, i.e., the addition of two hydroxyl groups to a double bond. With potassium permanganate

5a]

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM

99

and osmium tetroxide the s-addition is readily explained by assuming the formation of a cyclic organo-metallic intermediate.

OH

'

OH
This cyclic intermediate is definitely known in the case of osmium tetroxide (see Vol. I) ; for potassium permanganate it may be assumed that the permanganate ion, Mn04 - (or the manganate ion, MnO^, behaves in a similar manner. This is supported by the work of Wiberg et al. (1957), who used and showed that both glycol potassium permanganate labelled with 18 oxygen atoms come from the permanganate ion. This also indicates that fission of the cyclic compound occurs between the O and Mn atoms. With per-acids the hydroxylation results in iraws-addition. The first product of oxidation is an epoxide (Prileschaiev reaction; see Vol. I). Evidence from kinetic studies on solutions of epoxides under high pressure strongly suggests that acid-catalysed hydrolysis is a bimolecular substitution of the conjugate acid (Whalley et al., 1959). This will result in transhydroxylation. Thus:

/C\

/<

/<

NK
J.

OH 2

~^

_ H+

N^
'

OH

OH

OH

The addition of hydrogen peroxide may result in cis or trans compounds. Which occurs depends on the conditions of the experiment, e.g., the catalyst (see above). Where ^raws-addition occurs, the mechanism may possibly be through the epoxide, but a free hydroxyl radical mechanism could also
result in the tfnros-glycol. Ct's-addition in the presence of certain oxides probably occurs via a cyclic intermediate. The addition of a dienophile to a diene in the Diels-Alder reaction is stereospecific; cw-addition always occurs (see Vol. I). Since it is usually possible to determine the configuration of the cyclic adduct, this offers a

means

of ascertaining the configuration of the dienophile. E.g., butadiene forms adducts with cis- and tfrans-cinnamic acids, and hence determination of the configurations of the stereoisomeric adducts will determine the configurations of the cinnamic acids (see 11); thus:

^~X

+^0=0^
Plf'
cis

X.
2

^C0 H

<H~H
N |
ph
cis

C02 H

trans

trans

C02 H

100

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. IV

5b. Stereochemistry of elimination reactions. The mechanisms of elimination in alkyl halides and 'onium salts have been discussed in Vol. I (Ch. V, XIII, XIV). Here we shall deal mainly with the stereochemical aspects of elimination reactions. In olefin-forming eliminations, two mechanisms are possible, El and E2, e.g.,

El

H-CR2 CR^-Z z ijy

H+

^^
+

z- + Z~

h^cr>cr. H^CR^-CR 2

-^*

CR 2=CR2

E2

Y^H-^CR^CRy^Z
cis, e.g.

*-

YH

CR 2=CR 2 + Z~

Many examples
readily than
as 2.

in the literature show that trans elimination occurs more (also see later): (a) Michael (1895) showed that reaction 1 was about 50 times as fast

H0 Cv /CI XX
2
||

C02H
|

Ck
NaOH
(-HC1)

NaQH
(-HC1)

/C0 2H

C
HI

X/
||

h/
(6)

x:o 2H
(1912)

CO aH
1

h/N;o h
2

Chavanne

showed that reaction

CI

was about 20 times as

fast

as 2.

Hx

.CI
|

XX
||

NaOH
(-HC1)

C
HI

NaOH
\-HCl)

Hx

/CI
||

X/

is/ \C1

H
the same conditions

CK^H

(c) Cristol (1947) showed that the /3-isomer of hexachlorocyc/ohexane underwent base-catalysed elimination with great difficulty, whereas under

all the other known isomers (four at that time; see also 11) readily underwent second-order elimination to form trichlorobenzenes; the /}-isomer is the only one in which all the 1,2-HCl pairs are cis. Thus in the E2 reaction, the trans requirement is necessary (see also

below).

According to Hughes and Ingold, bimolecular elimination reactions (E2) take place when the two groups (to be eliminated) are trans and the groups
Cl

H /i y' H
1

Cl

k ci /i
C1\J
Cl

H
1

/3-isomer

and the two carbon atoms

plane.

(to which the groups are attached) all lie in one In this way the planar transition state will be readily formed. As the proton is being removed from the |3-carbon atom by the base, the

5b]

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM

101

" liberated " covalent pair of electrons attacks the a-carbon atom from the rear, thereby forming the double bond with displacement of the halogen atom. This type of sequence is not possible when the /3-hydrogen atom is cis to the halogen atom. Before discussing olefin-forming eliminations, let us consider acetylenicforming eliminations. As already pointed out above, the elimination has been found to occur more readily in the tfraws-isomer than in the cis. This may be explained by assuming that the elimination occurs by the E2

mechanism
s-

XT
II

Al

.H'

+ OH"
Br'
Br'

I
:

III

H 20+Br"

us consider eliminations in ethane derivatives to form ethylene e.g., the debromination of 2 3-dibromobutane by means of potassium iodide in acetone solution. Winstein et al. (1939) showed that this reaction is bimolecular (first order in dibromide and first order in iodide ion). Thus, in the transition state, the two carbons (of the CBr groups) and the two bromine atoms will all lie in the same plane and at the same time the two bromine atoms will be in the staggered position. Now 2 3dibromobutane exists in (+)-, ( )- and meso-iorras, and it has been shown that the (:t)-form gives w's-butene, whereas the meso-iorm gives transbutene. These eliminations may therefore be written as follows (following Winstein et al., 1939; the iodine atom is probably in the same plane as the other four groups involved in the planar transition state):
let

Now

derivatives,

H
.

H
+ IBr+Br"

Me
CIS

Me

H
Me
trans

Me
+ IBr+Br"

In the ()-form, as the transition state changes into the ethylene compound, the two methyl groups become eclipsed; in the meso-form a methyl group becomes eclipsed with a hydrogen. Thus the energy of activation of the transition state of the ()-form will be greater than that of the meso-iorm. and consequently the latter should be formed more readily, i.e., the meso-iorm should undergo debromination more readily than the (reform. Winstein et al. (1939) have shown that this is so in practice, the rate of debromination being about twice as fast. These authors also showed that the rate of debromination of weso-stilbene dibromide

(Ph-CHBr-CHBr-Ph)
is

about 100 times as fast as that of the ()-form.

102

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. IV

Cram et al. (1952) have shown that the base-catalysed dehydrobrornination of the diastereoisomeric 1-bromo-l : 2-diphenylpropanes (I and II) gives olefins that can only arise by trans elimination.

"Ph-^0^ H
as

Phv

Me
II

Ph-^~"\^-Me

W
trans

Th

Cram

et al.

(1956)

examined the elimination reaction

OEt-

of the following

'onium ion with base:

PhCHMe-CHPh-NMe3 + }I~

> PhMeC=CHPh

This 'onium ion exists in two forms, threo and erythro, and the results were that the 2&ra>-compound gave the fr-ans-olefin and the ery/wo-compound

H^OEt

Ek
Ph''

r -N/
+

Ph

H^

^O^Me
NMe 3
H*0Et
threo

Ph-

Or <>
trans

^-Ph

~~Me

Phv
Ph^-

r \^ H
^O^Me
+

Ph-~

Ph

e
CIS

--H
--Me

NMe 3

eryithro

the cs-olefm this is in keeping with trans elimination. The rates of elimination, however, were very different, the threo-iorm reacting over 50 times as In the cw-product, the two phenyl groups become fast as the erythro. eclipsed and hence the energy of activation for this product is greater than that for the tows-product, and consequently the latter is formed more
;

readily (see also 12). An interesting point that

now

arises is:

What

is

the mechanism

when

6]

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM

103

the two eliminated groups cannot assume the tfros-position? An example of this type is the ^-isomer of hexachlorocyc/ohexane. Cristol (1951, 1953) and Hughes, Ingold et al. (1953) have proposed that the first step, which is the rate-determining one, is the formation of a carbanion:

CI"
It

N^ci

y-isomer

should be noted that even if the chair form of the /3-isomer given above could change to its other chair form, the " ideal " /raws-position of 1,2-HCl would still not be achieved; the conformations of all hydrogens and chlorines would be reversed. It is possible, however, when both groups to be eliminated are equatorial, that both become axial if the ring is sufficiently flexible. Thus the favourable conformation would be produced, but the elimination would be slowed down since energy must be supplied for this conversion. When the two groups cannot assume the favourable ^rows-position, the normal E2 mechanism will not operate. It appears most likely that the elimination then proceeds via the formation of carbanions. It is possible, however, that the elimination might proceed by the El mechanism (see
trans-4-t-bvLtylcyclohexyl tosylate, 12).
6.

Interconversion (stereomutation) of geometrical isomers.

The

a's-isomer, being usually the

more

labile form, is readily converted into

the trans-iona under suitable physical or chemical conditions. The usual chemical reagents used for stereomutation are halogens and nitrous acid,
e.g.,
Br,; I,

maleic acidHNO,
oleic acid-

>fumaric acid
>elaidic acid

Other methods such as distillation or prolonged heating above the melting point also usually convert the cw-isomer into the trans, but, in general, the result is a mixture of the two forms. The conversion of the tfrons-isomer into the cis may be effected by means of sunlight, but the best method is to use ultraviolet light in the presence of a trace of bromine. Many theories have been proposed for the interconversion of geometrical isomers, but none is certain. To effect conversion, the. double bond must be " dissociated " so as to allow rotation about the single bond (i.e., the ff-bond; see 3). Let us consider the conversion of maleic acid into fumaric acid under the influence of light and in the presence of a trace of bromine. One mechanism that has been suggested for this change is a free-radical

104

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. IV

chain reaction, since the conversion does not appear to be effected by bromine in the dark. Thus:

Br2

hv

v Br +

Br

H\ ^C0 H
2

H\
+Br.

Br
!

^C0 H
2

H\
*=
H0
2

Br'
I

/C0 H
2

H^ ^C0 H
2

/C.

>

H^'^OOgH
I

^CL

JJ^
(T
II

'^H
Br
2

Br

H.

X0 H
2

Hv^

^C0 H
2
II

>

H.
II

^C0 H H\ /C0 H
2
!

^*

II

In free radicals I and II, the upper carbon atom is in a state of tetrahedral hybridisation, and the lower one (the free radical part) in a trigonal state (and therefore flat). Owing to the repulsion between the carboxyl groups, configuration I tends to change into configuration II by rotation about the If II now reacts with a molecule of maleic acid, single bond (cf. 4. II). the latter is converted into a free radical containing the bromine atom, and II is converted into fumaric acid if " inversion " occurs on the lower carbon atom; if no " inversion " occurs, II would form maleic acid again. Similarly, various other reagents are also believed to act by a free-radical mechanism, e.g., the conversion of cw-stilbene into toms-stilbene by means In the absence of light, the of light in the presence of hydrogen bromide. conversion takes place very slowly, but in the presence of oxygen or benzoyl peroxide, the conversion is rapid. These reagents are known to generate free radicals; this supports the free-radical mechanism, the reaction being

by the formation of free radicals from the hydrogen bromide. Furthermore, if the reaction is carried out in the presence of benzoyl peroxide and quinol, the conversion of cis- into toms-stilbene is extremely slow. This is in keeping with the free-radical mechanism, since it is known that quinol removes free radicals. Boron trifluoride also catalyses the conversion of cis- into tows-stilbene. In this case the mechanism is less certain, but a reasonable one is:
initiated

BF3

BF,
6

H./CeHs
H

H^i/C H
j*v
G
\

/C

H^:/C H
6
|

H^ /C H
6

'-^v

^C H
6

iK+NyH,

CeH^+^H

Crff

^H

Kistiakowsky (1935) has let us consider thermal interconversion. mechanisms for thermal two least are at there that experimentally shown cis-trans isomerisation of ethylene compounds, and that both are first-order Experimental results have also shown that one mechanism rereactions. In the transition quires a high and the other a low energy of activation. state (in both thermal and chemical isomerisations), the two parts of the molecule are perpendicular to each other. To reach this state the double bond, as we have seen, must undergo " dissociation "; this occurs by the decoupling of the jr-electrons. The spins of these electrons may remain This type of " disanti-parallel in the perpendicular (i.e., transition) state.

Now

8]

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM

105

sociation " of a double bond requires energy of about 40 [Link]., and the transition is said to be from a singlet ground state to an upper singlet state. On the other hand, it is also possible for the spins of the jr-electrons to be parallel (this state is said to be the triplet state), and the energy required for this " dissociation " is about 25 [Link]. It has been observed that

alkylated ethylenes favour the triplet-state pathway, whereas arylated ethylenes favour the singlet-state pathway (see table in 2).

7.

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF CYCLIC COMPOUNDS

Geometrical and optical isomerism may exist in any sized ring. In the following account, the saturated rings are treated as rigid flat structures, and the groups attached to the ring-carbon atoms are regarded as being above or below the plane of the ring (see also, in particular, cyc/ohexane compounds, 11). Furthermore, the examples described deal only with those cases in which the asymmetric carbon atoms are part of the saturated ring system. In general, the pattern of optical isomerism followed by cyclic compounds is similar to that of the acyclic compounds. The main difference between the two is that, since there is no free rotation about ringcarbon atoms, geometrical isomerism may therefore be manifested as well as optical isomerism. On the other hand, geometrical isomerism may exist without optical isomerism (see 5 for methods of determination of the configuration of geometrical isomers; see also 9, 10, 11).
8. cyctoPropane types. Molecule I contains one asymmetric carbon atom (*), and is not superimposable on its mirror image molecule II. Thus I and II are enantiomorphs, i.e., a ryc/opropane derivative containing one

asymmetric carbon atom can exist in two optically active forms (and one
racemic modification; cf. 7a. II). Molecule III contains two different asymmetric carbon atoms, and since it has no elements of symmetry (6. II), it is not superimposable on its mirror image molecule. Thus III can exist in two optically active forms (and one racemic modification). Structure III,

H
aH ^2

*X Hi

V
however, is capable of exhibiting geometrical isomerism, the two geometrical isomers being III and IV. Now IV also contains two different asymmetric carbon atoms, and these are not disposed towards each other as in III. Since IV possesses no elements of symmetry, it can also exist in two optically active forms which are different from those of III. Thus V, which may be regarded as the non-committal way of writing the configurations III and IV, is similar, as far as optical isomerism is concerned, to the acyclic molecule Cabd-Cabe, i.e., there are four optically active forms in all (two pairs of enantiomorphs). In general, any monocyclic system can exist in 2"

106
optically active forms,

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
where n
7c. II).

[CH. IV

carbon atoms
(110

(c/.

is the number of different asymmetric ringMolecule VI contains two similar asymmetric

H,

aH
VI

H
VII
VIII

carbon atoms, and can exist as geometrical isomers VII and VIII. VII has a (vertical) plane of symmetry and therefore represents a meso-ioim. VIII, however, possesses no elements of symmetry and can therefore exist IX contains in two optically active forms (and one racemic modification).

XII

XIII

3 8 three different asymmetric carbon atoms and can therefore exist in 2 enantiopair of Each enantiomorphs). pairs of (four optically active forms morphs is derived from the four geometrical isomers X-XIII. Inspection of these configurations shows that all of them possess no elements of symmetry. XIV contains two similar asymmetric carbon atoms, and the third

(v)

Ha

aH

m
XIV

H
XVII

xv
is

XVI

Three geometrical iso(c/. 7d. II). and XVI each possess a (vertical) plane are possible; XVII, however, of symmetry, and therefore each represents a meso-iorm. possesses no elements of symmetry and so can exist in two optically active
carbon atom
mers,

pseudo-asymmetric

XV-XVII,

XV

a
(vi)

Ha

aH
XVIII

Ha

forms (and one racemic modification). XVIII contains three similar asymmetric carbon atoms which are all pseudo-asymmetric. Two geometrical isomers are possible, XIX and XX, both of which possess at least one (vertical) plane of symmetry, and therefore represent wieso-forms.

9]

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM

107

In the above account, the stereochemistry of the eyc/opropane ring has been dealt with from the theoretical point of view, and thus most of the ideas connected with the stereochemistry of monocyclic systems have been described. In the following sections more emphasis is laid on specific examples, and any further points that arise are dealt with in the appropriate section.

type are butane-1

:

cyc/oButane types. Two important examples of the cycMmtane truxillic and truxinic acids; truxillic acid is 2 4-diphenylcycfo3-dicarboxylic acid, and truxinic acid is 3 4-diphenylcyc/obutane1 2-dicarboxylic acid. a's-Cinnamic acid (allocinnamic acid), on irradiation with light, forms mainly /?-truxinic acid and 2ras-cinnamic acid, together with some of the dimer of the latter, a-truxillic acid (de Jong, 1929). Bern9.
: : :

stein et al. (1943) found that irradiation of commercial iraws-cinnamic acid gave only /S-truxinic acid. When toms-cinnamic acid was slowly recrystallised from aqueous ethanol, dried, and then irradiated, only a-truxillic acid

was obtained.
sources.

Truxillic

and truxinic acids have been

isolated

from natural

Truxillic acid. This acid can exist theoretically in five stereoisomeric forms, all of which are known (the acid is of the type I). All five are mesoforms, II-V having planes of symmetry, and VI a centre of symmetry. The configurations of these stereoisomers have been assigned as follows. When one of the carboxyl groups is converted into the anilido-group, CONH'C 6 6 two of the five forms give optically active compounds, each giving a pair of enantiomorphs. Now only the stereoisomers with the two

aH Ml

36

C02 H

Hb

C6 H6

Ha

H ho2c/ H q/H
5

HA
C02 H

H c/
5

C0 H

H
III
-

H0 C/"
2

HZ"

HO,c/

W
:

C0 2 H
C H

phenyl groups in the 2ras-position can produce asymmetric molecules under these conditions; the remaining forms will each have a (vertical) plane of symmetry. Thus only IV and VI satisfy the necessary conditions.
of these is known as the a-acid (m.p. 274) and the other the y-acid (m.p. 288) This then raises the problem Which is which? This is readily answered by the fact that of the anilido-derivatives of these two acids, only one can be dehydrated to a cyclic iV-phenyl imide, - N(C g 5) This reaction can be expected to take place only when the two carboxyl groups are in the cts-position (see 5. i). Therefore IV is y-truxillic acid, and VI is a-truxillic acid (since the acid with the melting point 288 has been called the y-acid). By considering the ease of formation of the cyclic anhydride, the configurations of the remaining three stereoisomers may be determined. Two form anhydrides readily, and therefore one of these acids
.

One

CO

CO

108

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. IV

The third acid does not form its own anII and the other III. hydride, but gives a mixture of the anhydrides produced by II and III. Thus the third acid, e^'-truxillic acid, is V. The final problem is to decide which of the two, II and III, is ^>m'-truxillic acid, and which is e-truxillic acid. ^>m-Truxillic acid, under the influence of aluminium chloride, undergoes an internal Friedel-Crafts reaction to form a truxonic acid, VII, and a truxone, VIII. This is only possible when the phenyl and carboxyl groups are in the cj's-position. Thus II is ^m-truxillic acid, and therefore III is
must be
e-truxillic acid.

ftH*

H
VII

H
truxonic acid

H
VIII

H
truxone

Truxinic acid. This acid can exist theoretically in six geometrical isomeric forms, four of which are resolvable thus ten forms in all are possible theoretically. Truxinic acid is of the type IX, and the six geometrical and XI are meso-iorms (each has a plane isomers possible are X-XV.
;

symmetry); XII-XV are resolvable (theoretically), since all possess no elements of symmetry. The configurations of these stereoisomers have been determined by methods similar to those used for the truxillic acids; it appears, however, that only four of these six forms are known with certainty,
of
viz.,
/?,

d,

and

neo.

C6H6

C02 H

96 H6

C6H5

C02 H

aH
IX

Kb

^-f H X to-

\H
XI
p.

C02 H

H
XII
neo-

C6 H5

C02 H

C 6 H5

HO 2S
C02H

t!02 H

10. eyc/oPentane types. A number of examples involving the stereochemistry of the five-membered ring occur in natural products, e.g., camphoric acid (23a. VIII), furanose sugars (7b. VII). In this section we shall discuss the case of 2 5-dimethylcyc/opentane-l 1-dicarboxylic acid. This acid can exist in two geometrical isomeric forms, which may be differentiated by decarboxylation, the cis-isomer giving two monocarboxylic acids, I and II, and the toms-isomer one monocarboxylic acid, III (see All three acids contain two similar asymmetric carbon atoms and 5. iii). one pseudo-asymmetric carbon atom. Both I and II possess a (vertical)
:

11]

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM
;

109

plane of symmetry, and are therefore meso-iorms III possesses no elements of symmetry, and can therefore exist in two optically active forms (and one racemic modification). All the possible forms are known, and I and II
II

II

II

H,C

CH

SfcJT^F H^<U^H
C02 H
II

^Jp^ * CH
H
III

have been differentiated as follows. The diethyl ester of the m-dicarboxylic acid, IV, can be partially hydrolysed to the monoethyl ester, which most probably has the configuration V. This is based on the assumption that the carbethoxyl group on the same side as the two methyl groups is far more resistant to attack than the other carbethoxyl group because of the steric effect (see Vol. I). Decarboxylation of V gives VI, and this, on
hydrolysis, gives
is
I.

Thus the configuration

of I (and therefore also of II)

determined.

HC
3

H,C

The above treatment of the cyrfopentane derivatives has been based on the assumption that the ring is planar. This classical treatment leads to agreement between prediction and the number of stereoisomers actually obtained (see cyc/ohexane, 11, for a further discussion of this problem). It is now known that the cyc/opentane ring is not planar; the puckering, however, is very small. The non-planarity of this ring has been shown from entropy determinations (Aston et al., 1941), spectroscopic studies (Miller et al., 1950) and from a study of the polarisabilities of aiip ha tic and C bonds (Le Fevre et al., 1956).

11. cycfoHexane types. The stereochemistry of cyc/ohexane and its derivatives presents a detailed example of the principles of conformational analysis (4a. II). On the basis of the tetrahedral theory, two forms are possible for cyc/ohexane, neither of which is planar. These two forms, known as boat and chair conformations (Fig. 5), were first proposed by Sachse (1890; see Vol. I, Ch. XIX), who also pointed out that both are strainless. Hassel et al. (1943) showed by means of electron diffraction studies that at room temperature most of the molecules existed mainly in the chair conformation. Pitzer (1945) then showed by calculation that the energy difference between the two forms is about 5-6 [Link]./mole (the

110

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. IV

boat form having the higher energy content; see also below). This value, however, is too small for stability, and consequently neither conformation retains its identity, each being readily converted into the other.

III

"boat" or C form

14

"chair

Z
Fig. 4.5.

or form

._

free from " angle strain ", forces due to repulsive forces between non-bonded atoms) are acting, and it is because of their different total effects that the two conformations simple method of calculating this energy differdiffer in energy content. ence has been introduced by Turner (1952). Fig. 6 (a) and 6 (6) represent bonds. the chair and boat conformations and the directions of the bonds on adjacent carbons are In the chair conformation, all the C

Although these two forms are

(i.e.,

steric repulsion

CH

(a)

chair form
Fig. 4.6.

(b)

boat form

in the

skew position (i.e., the arrangement is skew as in the skew form of M-butane, 4. II). On the other hand, in the boat conformation there are four skew interactions (1:2, 3:4, 4:5 and 6 1) and two eclipsed interactions (2 3 and 5:6). According to Pitzer (1940), skew interaction of the hydrogens in w-butane is 0-8 [Link]., and an eclipsed interaction is 4-8 3-6 [Link]. Thus the steric strain in the chair form is 6 x 0-8 2x3-6 10-4 [Link]. Thus [Link]., and in the boat form 4x0-8 the boat form has the greater energy content, and the amount (according
: :

to the above method of calculation) is 5-6 [Link]. There is, however, a further interaction in the boat form, viz. the interaction of the two flagpole UP) hydrogens (at positions 1 and 4). These are closer together than any other two hydrogens (see table below) and so produce an additional steric repulsion. The actual value of this interaction is not certain, but it is believed to be about the same as that of two eclipsed hydrogens. Thus 3-6 14 [Link]., and hence the energy content of the boat form is 10-4 9-2 [Link]. more than the chair form. 4-8 the boat form contains 14 Johnson et al. (I960), from measurements of heat of combustion and other measured quantities, have found that the energy difference between 0-3 [Link]./mole (at 25; the boat and chair forms of cycfohexane is 5-3

vapour phase).
;

This value has been confirmed by the work of Allinger 0-6 [Link]./mole. their value is 5-9 et al. (1960) Inspection of Fig. 6 (a) shows that the twelve hydrogen atoms in the chair conformation are not equivalent there are two sets of six. In one of these bonds are parallel to the threefold axis of symmetry of sets the six C the molecule; these are the axial (a) bonds (they have also been named bonds make an angle of In the other set the six C s- or polar bonds). 109 28' with the axis of the ring (or 19 28' with the horizontal plane of the ring) these are the equatorial (e) bonds (they have also been named

11]
*<-bonds).

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM

111

On

the other hand, in Fig. 6

of the boat

various

(fp), bowsprit( bs), boatand boat-axial (ba). Angyal and Mills (1952) have calculated the distances between the various hydrogen atoms (and carbon atoms) in both the chair and boat conforma-

H bonds have been named: flag-pole

(be),

is different

" (b) it can be seen that the " end stereochemically from the chair conformation; the

equatorial

tions.

Conformation
Chair
(Fig. 6a)

Position

HH
306
2-51

(A)

le:Ze le:2a la 2a
:

2-49 2-49

la: 3a

Boat
(Fig. 66)

2a: 3a
2e: 3e

2-27 2-27 1-83

It appears that the boat conformation occurs in relatively few cases, and so in the following account we shall only study the problem of the chair conformation. Inspection of the above table shows that a 1 2-interaction for two adjacent equatorial hydrogens or for an equatorial and adjacent axial hydrogen is about the same as for a 1 3-interaction for two meta axial hydrogens. Furthermore, a study of accurate scale models has shown that with any axial substituent (which is necessarily larger than hydrogen), the 1 3-interactions are larger than the 1 2-interactions when the same substituent is equatorial. Using these principles, we can now proceed to study the conformations of cyc/ohexane derivatives. Because of the flexibility of the chair conformation, one chair form is readily converted into the other chair form, and in doing so all a- and e-bonds in the first now become e- and a-bonds, respectively, in the second.
: : :

Both forms are identical and so cannot be distinguished. If, however, one hydrogen is replaced by some other atom or group, the two forms are no longer identical, e.g., methylcyc/ohexane. In the a-methyl conformation

Me
H.

jj
.

,H
Me-

7/

^-H
H

H
a-methy]
:

e- methyl

there are 1 3-interactions acting, whereas in the c-methyl conformation these interactions are absent; instead, the weaker 1 : 2-interactions are acting. Thus the energy content of axial conformation is greater than that of the equatorial, and consequently the latter will be the preferred form. Hassel (1947) has shown experimentally from electron-diffraction studies that the e-methyl conformation predominates in methylcycfohexane. Hassel et al. (1950) have also shown that in chlorocyclohexane the e-form also predominates and that very little of the a-form is present.

112

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. IV

of the intermediate in the transformation of one chair form into the other is not certain. According to Johnson et al. (1961), the boat form of cycfohexane is twisted, and Jensen et al. (1962) believe that the transition state (of the intermediate) is the structure approximately halfway between the chair and twisted boat forms.

The nature

Now let us discuss the conformations of disubstituted cycfohexanes.

we have a number of factors to
:

Here

(geometrical and the nature of the substituents.

(i)

consider position isomerism, stereoisomerism optical), the relative sizes of the two substituents, and

2-Compounds
Conformations

Classical formula

cis-V.2

le:2a

la:2e

It should be noted that in these 's-compounds one substituent must be axial and the other equatorial. If the substituents differ in size, the 1 3interactions will be most powerful when the larger group is axial. Thus
:

the conformation with the lower energy will be the one in which the larger group is equatorial, i.e., this is the preferred form. An example of this type is m-2-methylcyc/ohexanol; the methyl group is larger than the hydroxyl, and so the preferred form can be expected to be la-hydroxyl 2emethyl. This has been shown to be so in practice. In general, the greater the difference in size between the two substituents, the greater will be the predominance of the form with the larger group in the equatorial conforma:

tion.

identical has a plane of

formula of the as-compound when the two substituents are symmetry and is therefore not resolvable. On the other hand, the two conformations are mirror images but not superimposable and hence, in theory, are resolvable. Such compounds, however, have never yet been resolved. The reason for this is that the two forms are separated by such a low energy barrier that they are readily interconvertible.
classical
Classical formula

The

Conformations

le:2e

Whether Y1 and Y 2 are ferent, and because of the 1

:

identical or not, the two conformations are dif3-interactions the e e-form will be the preferred form. Furthermore, this form will be more stable than the 's-isomer (a e-form). An example that illustrates this is 2-methylcycMiexanol. The
: :

trans-form has been shown to be more stable than the cis; the latter is readily converted into the former when heated with sodium, and also the reduction of 2-methylcycMiexanone (with sodium and ethanol) produces the
trans-Alcohol.

Both the

classical

formula and the

e-

(and a

a)

conformation of the

11]

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM
:

113

2-compound (whether Yx and Yg are identical or not) are not superimposable on their mirror images and hence should be optically active. This has been found to be so in practice.
trans-1
(ii)

3-Compounds
Conformations

Classical formula

cis- 1:3

trans -1:3

e:a

The two tows-conformations are identical when the two Y groups are The cis-e e-form will be more stable than the cis-a a, and will identical. also be more stable than the trans-e a-conformation, e.g., the most stable conformation of 1 3-dimethylcycfohexane has been shown to be the cis: : : :

be noted that this situation is the reverse of that 2-dimethylcycMiexanes. The Auwers-Skita rule (5(x)6) has been shown to break down when applied to 1 3-disubstituted cyc/ohexanes the reverse holds good. Allinger (1954) modified the rule for cycfohexanes as follows: The isomer which has the higher boiling point, refractive index and density is the one with the less stable configuration. Thus, according to this rule, the trans-1 3disubstituted cyc/ohexanes have the higher physical constants (the transform has more axial substituents than the more stable a's-form); e.g., Macbeth et al. (1954) have shown that the physical constants of ()-trans3-methylcyc/ohexylamine are higher than those of its cis-isomer.
1
:

3-e

e-form.
:

It should

of the 1

(iii)

4-Compounds
Conformations

Classical formula

o
cis-1.4
trans - 1
:

a:a

The two

c/s-conformations are identical when the groups are identical. Also, the trans-e e-iorm will be more stable than the cis-a e-form.
: :

114

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
for the disubstituted cyc/ohexanes

[CH. IV

can also be applied to the higher substituted cyc/ohexanes. As the result of a large amount of work, the following generalisations may be made: (i) In cycfohexane systems, mono-, di-, tri- and poly-substituted derivatives always tend to take up the chair conformation whenever possible. (ii) The chair conformation with the maximum number of equatorial substituents will be the preferred conformation. This generalisation, however, is only satisfactory when the internal forces due to dipole interactions or hydrogen bonding are absent. When these are present, it is necessary to determine which forces predominate before a conformation can be assigned to the molecule. As an illustration of this problem, we shall consider 2-bromocyc/ohexanone; the two possible chair forms are:

The arguments used

-Br

H
a-Br
e-Br
the basis that a substituent preferably takes up an equatorial conformawould therefore be expected that the conformation 2e-bromocyc/ohexanone would be favoured. Infra-red studies, however, have shown that the fl-bromo conformation predominates. This has been explained as follows. The C Br and C==0 bonds are both strongly polar, and when the bromine is equatorial the dipolar repulsion is a maximum, and a miniwhen the bromine is axial. Since the axial form predominates, this equatorial dipolar repulsion must therefore be larger than the 1 3-interactions. When, however, other substituents are present, the 1 3-interactions may become so large as to outweigh the dipolar effect and the bromine would now be equatorial. Such is the case with 2-bromo-4 4dimethylcycfohexanone (see also 12).
tion, it

On

mum

*0

Me
(iii)

The energy

barriers

between the various conformations are too small

to prevent interconversion (but see 12). Up to the present time, the of geometrical (and optical) isomers obtained from a given cyclohexane derivative is in agreement with the number that can be expected

number

from a planar ring with the substituents lying above and below the plane of the ring. We shall now, therefore, discuss the stereochemistry of some cyc/ohexane derivatives from the classical point of view.
(i) Hexahydrophthalic acids (cyc/ohexane-1 2-dicarboxylic acids). Two geometrical isomers are theoretically possible, the cis, I, and the trans, II.
:

CO,H

11]

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM

115

Molecule I has a plane of symmetry, and therefore represents the mesoform; II has no elements of symmetry, and can therefore exist in two optically active forms (and one racemic modification). All of these possible forms are known, and it has been found that the m-compound, I, forms a cyclic anhydride readily, whereas the ^raws-compound, II, forms a cyclic anhydride with difficulty (cf. 5. i). 3-dicarboxylic acids). Two (ii) Hexahydroisophthalic acids (eycMiexane-1 geometrical isomers are possible; the c*s-form, III, has a plane of symmetry, and therefore represents the meso-iorm; IV has no elements of symmetry, and can therefore exist in two optically active forms (and one racemic
:

C02 H

H
ii0 *9/h

H
H0 2

Ha

H
IV
modification).

All of these forms are known; the as-isomer forms a cyclic anhydride, whereas the trans-isomer does not. acids (cycJohexane-1 4-dicarboxylic acids). (iii) Hexahydroterephthalic Two geometrical isomers are possible; the cts-form, V, has a plane of symmetry, and the trans-iorm, VI, a centre of symmetry. Hence neither is
:

H
HOjjC

H
C02 H

H
H02 C

H
C02H

V
optically active.

fact that the cisisomer forms a cyclic anhydride, whereas the trans-isomer does not. (iv) Inositol (hexahydroxycycMiexane). There are eight geometrical isomers possible theoretically, and only one of these is not superimposable on its mirror image molecule; thus there are nine forms in all (and also one racemic modification). If we imagine that we are looking down at the molecule, and insert the groups which appear above the plane of the ring, then the eight geometrical isomers may be represented as follows:

They may be

distinguished

VI by the

H H
HL H
/'H

OH

OH

OH

H
HL

HLJH
H

OH JH

H
HI

JOH

H
OH

H
tneso- inositol

OH

HO
OH OH
resolvable

OH

H
scyllitol

Examination of these configurations shows that all except one the one labelled resolvable have at least one plane of symmetry, and so are all

116
meso-ionas.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. IV

All the meso-iorms and both of the optically active forms are known; of these meso-inositol, scyllitol and (+)- and ( )-inositol occur naturally. , Here again eight geo(v) Benzene, hexachloride (hexachlorocycfohexane) known, a, are p, y, o, metrical isomers are possible theoretically; seven been have All I). Vol. (see insecticide 0* powerful a is the y-isomer e v shown to exist in the chair form, and the conformations that have been

assigned are:
a-, aaeeee;
ji-,

eeeeee;
(3-

y-, aaaeee;

d-, aeeeee;

s-,

aeeaee.

Of these forms,

it is

the

difficulty (see 5b).

hydrogen chloride with the greatest All of the other stereoisomers possess at least one

which

loses

H
CI

CI

H
CI

P-

and CI trans). having pair of chlorine atoms cis to each other (thus ()-form. the as a-isomer the identified also has Cristol (1949) stereochemistry of the cycfohexane (vi) So far we have discussed the are also exhibited by various stereoisomerism of types same The ring dimethyldiketopiperazine (6. II), furanose sized heterocyclic systems, e.g., sugars. VII) (7a. pyranose and VII) (7b. As we have seen, the boat and chair forms (vii) Decalins and decalols. and the result is that cycloof cycfohexane are readily interconvertible, Mohr (1918), however, elaborated planar. were hexane behaves as if it fusion of two cycloserine rings, Sachse's theory, and predicted that the the cis- and *ras-forms which would be e s>. as in decalin, should produce has now been stable to retain their identities. This prediction
sufficiently
, ,. ,confirmed experimentally. isomers of decalin A non-committal way of writing the two geometrical conventions several On the other hand, VIII is given by formula: VII and
.

H
cis -decalin

VIII
rrarcs-decalin

One convention uses full arid broken lines molecule, the of plane lines to represent groups above the xi); thus s-decalm will be IX plane 5. the (cf. below those to represent
have been introduced to represent these isomers.

11]

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM

117

trans-decaixn X. This convention appears to be the one most widely (see, e.g., Steroids, Ch. XI), but there is another, introduced by Linstead According to this convention, a hydro(1937), which is favoured by many. gen atom is represented as being above the plane of the ring when drawn as in XI, and below the plane when drawn as in XII; thus cw-decalin will

and

used

be XIII, and trans-decahn XIV.

T T
XI
XII
Fig. 7 shows the original diagrammatical method of representing cisdecalin by the fusion of two boat forms of [Link], and foms-decalin by the fusion of two chair forms; these are the forms suggested by Mohr.

m-decalin
Fig. 4.7.

trans -decalin

configurations of the decalins, however, are now known to be more this, the complication arising from the fact that a number of strainless modifications are possible, which differ in the type of " locking ", i.e., whether axial or equatorial bonds are used to fuse the rings. According to Hassel et al. (1946), cis- and trans-decalins are as shown in Fig. 8; the

The

complicated than

as- decalin
Fig. 4.8.

trans -decalin

a's-form

is

produced by joining one axial and one equatorial bond of each

ring, whereas the trans-form is produced by joining the two rings by equatorial bonds only; in both cases the cycJohexane rings are all chair forms (see also below).

Johnson (1953) has calculated the difference in energy content between these two forms in the following simple manner. The trans-form is arbitrarily assigned a value of zero energy, and when this form is compared with the cis, it will be found that the latter has three extra skew interactions involving the two axial bonds (this is shown in the following diagram; the cis-iorm has 3 staggered and 15 skew arrangements, and the trans-form 6 staggered and 12 skew).. Since each of these skew interactions is associated with an energy increase of 0-8 [Link]., the total energy difference between 2-4 [Link]. This value agrees well the cis- and trans-forms is 3 X 0-8 with that of Rossini et al. (1960) from measurements of heat of combustion.

118
It
1

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. IV

might be noted, in passing, that if these two decalins are regarded as 2-disubstituted eyc/ohexanes, then the trans-iorm (e e) would be expected to be more stable than the cis- (e a).
:

tram
of configuration in the decalin configurations may be ascertained by using the Auwers-Skita rule (see 5. (x)6). Hiickel (1923, 1925), however, isolated two forms of 2-decalol and determined their configurations by the following chemical methods. 2-Naphthol, on hydrogenation in the presence of nickel as catalyst, gave two 2-decalols, and XVI, each of which, on oxidation with chromic acid, gave a decal-2-one (XVII and XVIII). These two decalones each gave, on oxidation with permanganate, a cycfohexane-1 2-diacetic acid. These diacetic acids were geometrical isomers one was resolvable and therefore must be the trans-isomer, and the other, which was not resolvable, must therefore be the cw-isomer, (this is the meso-iovm). Thus the configurations of the two decalols and the two decalones are established:
series.

We shall now deal with the determination

The

XV

XX

XIX

OH

-CD
OH

nW Sh r-c JJ V^H ^y^y

^

^-^N. ,.CH 2 -C02 H

,'-CH2 -C0 2

H XV

H
XVII

cis-

XIX
,.CH2 -C02 H

OH

H
,--H

CH -C02 H
2

H
XVI
by
:

trans
:

In addition to the two cycfohexane-1 2-diacetic acids (which are formed scission of the 2 3-bond of the decalone), two other geometrical isomers
viz. cis-

were also obtained,

acids,

XXI

and XXII

(these are

and <rans-cyciohexane-l-carboxyl-2-propionic formed by scission of the 1 2-bond of

:

the decalone).

-C02 H

L'CH2 -CH2 -C02 H

*H

,-C0 H ^\><H
2
\
I

XXI

L'H ^v/^CHz-CHg-CQaH XXII

The conversion of 2-naphthol into two decalols does not prove that the two decalols are the cis- and tfraws-isomers described above. It is possible that both compounds could have been the cis- and trans-ioxvns of a given decalol; since the carbon atom of the CHOH group in the 2-decalol is asym-

11]

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM
i.e.,

119

metric,

it can exist in two configurations, can exist in two forms; XVa and XVIa.

Had

each decalol, XV and XVI, the two decalols been the

XV a

XVI

two forms of either XV or XVI, then on their oxidation, only one decalone would have been produced. Since, however, two decalones were obtained, the two decalols must be of the types XV and XVI one of each, or even a mixture of the pairs; further proof of the existence of the types XV and XVI lies in the fact that the two decalones gave geometrical isomers of

cycJohexane-1 2-diacetic acid. Consideration of formulae XVa and XVIa shows the presence of three asymmetric carbon atoms in each of the four possible forms, and since all four possess no elements of symmetry, four pairs of enantiomorphs should be possible theoretically. Actually all eight forms have been isolated, but their configurations have not yet been established with certainty. There are only two geometrical isomers possible for the decalins, and their configurations have been established by the reduction of the two decalones, XVII and XVIII, by means of the Wolff-Kishner method (Eisenlohr et al., 1924; see also Vol. I) each decalone gives the corresponding decalin. It is interesting to note in this connection that Willstatter et al. (1924) found that hydrogenation of naphthalene in the presence of platinum black as catalyst gives mainly cw-decalin, whereas in the presence of nickel as catalyst the main product is tfnms-decalin. The configurations of the decalins have also been determined by means of their spectra (see also end of this
:

NMR

section).

Various other fused ring systems have also been shown to exhibit the

Ct>
H H

oH

HOH

CK-hydrindanoI. Two forms; both meso-

trans- hydrindanol

Resolvable

NH
Decahydroquinolines

DecahydroJSdquinohnes

120

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. IV

same type

of geometrical isomerism as the decalins, e.g., the hydrindanols and trans-forms (Huckel et al., 1926), and also the decahydroquinolines and decahydrowoquinolines (Heifer et al., 1923, 1926). It has already been pointed out that in monosubstituted cye/ohexanes, the preferred conformation is the one with the substituent equatorial, but owing to the low energy barrier between this and the axial form, the two are readily interconvertible. In the case of the monosubstituted decalins, the problem is more complicated. In cw-decalin, since ring fusion involves equatorial and axial bonds, the molecule is flexible and can interchange with the other a's-form, i.e., there are two cw-forms possible (XXIII and XXIV), and these are identical and in equilibrium (cf. cyc/ohexane). This has been shown to be so by Hassel (1950); thus:
exist in cis-

XXIII

XXIV

As pointed out above, Musher et al. (1958) distinguished between cisand tfnms-decalin by means of their NMR spectra. The former gives a sharp band whereas the latter gives a broad spectrum. These differences are due to the former molecule undergoing relatively rapid interconversion between the two conformations, whilst the latter molecule has a more rigid structure and hence the axial and equatorial hydrogen atoms are distinguishable (and so give a broad spectrum). Now let us consider cw-2-decalol. Here there are four possible conformations which, in pairs, are in equilibrium. Two arise from XXIII (XXIIIa

and XXIIB), and two from XXIV (XXIVa and XXIV6). In XXIIIa and XXIV6 the hydroxyl group is equatorial, and so these two conformations contain about the same energy. In XXIVa and XXIII6 the hydroxyl group is axial, and on the basis that an equatorial conformation is more stable than an axial, then XXIIIa and XXIV6 will contribute

XXIV*

12]

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM

121

to the actual state of the molecule than will XXIVa and XXIII6, the hydroxyl group in cw-2-decalol should possess more equatorial character than axial. It is also interesting to note that the two axial forms do not contain the same energy. In XXIIIZi the a-hydroxyl group is involved in the normal 1 3-hydrogen interactions (at 4 and 9), but in XXIVa the interaction is the normal 1 3- with the hydrogen at 4 and the larger 1 3-interaction with the CH a group at 8. Thus XXIVa should be

more
i.e.,

less stable

than XXIII6.

In fowts-decalin there is only one stable conformation, since the ring fusions use equatorial bonds. If the molecular conformation were " inverted ", the two ring fusions would now have to be axial, and this type of fusion is impossible (the axial bonds on adjacent carbon atoms are pointing in opposite directions). Thus, in inms-2-decalol, there are only two conformations possible, and XXVI. Furthermore, the latter, with

XXV

XXV

XXVI

the equatorial-hydroxyl conformation, would be expected to be more stable than the former (with the axial hydroxyl).
12. Effect of conformation on the course and rate of reactions. Since the environments of axial and equatorial groups are different, it may be expected that the reactivity of a given group will depend on whether it is axial or equatorial. Now S N 2 reactions always occur with inversion Hence if the geometry of the molecule is such as to hinder the (4. III). approach of the attacking group (Z) along the bonding line remote from the group to be expelled (Y), then the S N 2 reaction will be slowed down. Examination of formulae I and II shows that the transition state for an S N2 reaction is more readily formed when is axial (I) than when it is equatorial (II). In I, the approach of Z is unhindered and the expulsion

II
:

of
is

by the normal 1 3-interactions. In II, the approach of Z hindered by the rest of the ring. Thus S N 2 reactions take place more
assisted

an axial substituent than with an equatorial. of S N 1 reactions in cyc/ohexane derivatives is made difficult because of the ease with which elimination reactions usually occur at the same time. It can be expected, however, that an S N 1 reaction will be sterically accelerated for an axial substituent, since the formation of a carbonium ion will relieve the steric strain due to 1 3-interactions. On the other hand, since these 1 3-interactions are absent for an equatorial substituent, no steric acceleration will operate in this conformation. A particularly important substituent group in cyclic compounds is hydroxyl, and two very important reactions in which this group is involved are esterification and hydrolysis (of the ester). Owing to the hindered character of an axial group due to 1 3-interactions, esterification and hydrolysis will occur more readily with the equatorial conformation. In
readily with

The study

122

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. IV

group

the same way, esterification and hydrolysis of esters in which a carboxyl is the substituent will also occur more readily when this group is equatorial. On the other hand, the relative rates of oxidation of secondary a- and e-alcohols to ketones by chromic acid (or hypobromous acid) is the reverse of the relative rates of hydrolysis of their carboxylic esters, i.e., an a-hydroxyl is more readily oxidised than an e-. The reason for this is that the rate-determining step in this oxidation is a direct attack on the bond. If the hydroxyl is axial, the hydrogen hydrogen atom of the C is equatorial, and vice versa; thus:

>Xa
As we have seen
:

>-

>3=o

-e

yxZ

Elimination reactions are also of great importance in cyclic compounds. (5b), in ionic E2 reactions the four centres involved lie in a plane. In cyc/ohexane systems this geometrical requirement is only found in trans-1 2-diaxial compounds, and these compounds thus undergo ready elimination reactions. In rigid systems, e.g., the trans-decalin type, elimination in trans-1 2-diequatorial compounds is slower than in the correspond:

ing diaxial compounds, cis-l 2-Compounds (in which one substituent must be axial and the other equatorial) undergo elimination reactions slowly. The steric course of El reactions is more difficult to study than that of E2 reactions because of the two-stage mechanism. This makes it difficult to ascertain the geometry of the intermediates involved. The formation of the carbonium ion will be sterically accelerated if the ionising group is axial and, if a second group is eliminated to form a double bond, this second stage will also be sterically accelerated if the second group is axial. Barton et al. (1951) have pointed out various examples in which El reactions are favoured by the diaxial conformation. The arguments used above are satisfactory so long as we know whether the group under discussion is axial or equatorial. Since, however, the two chair forms are readily interconvertible and in equilibrium, to study these predictions experimentally it is necessary to deal with " rigid " conformaThe tf-butyl group, because of its large size, is far more stable in tions. the e- than in the a-position (the energy difference between the two forms
:

is

about 5-6 [Link]./mole Winstein et al., 1955). Thus almost only the e-form is present and consequently this position is " locked ". Therefore 4-substituents must be axial when cis to the *-butyl group and equatorial when trans to this group (11). Working with different substituents in the 4-position with respect to the i-butyl group, various workers have confirmed the above predictions experimentally, e.g., it has been shown that cis-4-tbutylcydohexanol forms esters more slowly than the trans-isomer, and similarly cs-4-2-butylcycfohexane-l-carboxylic acid is more slowly esterified and the ester more slowly hydrolysed than the toms-isomer. Another interesting example is the case of 4-<-butylcyc/ohexyl tosylate Two forms are possible, cis and trans, but because of (Eliel et al., 1956). the large bulk of the -butyl group, this group is always equatorial. Under
;

cis-

trans

the same conditions (sodium ethoxide in ethanol at 70), the cis-iona readily undergoes bimolecular elimination (E2), but the trans- does not. The latter, however, does undergo unimolecular (El) elimination.

12]

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM

123

Some examples of neighbouring group participation in [Link] systems have been described in Ch. Ill (6b, 6c, 6d). These examples clearly show the effect of conformation on rates of reaction when anchimeric assistance
is possible.

control the rate of reactions, but it also may a reaction. An example of the latter effect is the elimination reaction undergone by 2-phenylcyc/ohexanol in the presence of phosphoric acid to form phenylcyc/ohexene. Price et ril. (1940) have shown that both the cis and trans alcohols are dehydrated, the former more readily than the latter. The product was shown to be a mixture of phenylcyc/ohex-1- and 2-ene, the former predominating when the w's-alcohol was used, and both olefins being present in about equal amounts when the transalcohol was used. The reaction has been shown to proceed by the El mechanism, but the reason for the different proportions of olefins is un-

Not only does conformation

affect the course of

certain.

Ph.

H
as

H
-*

1-ene

2-ene
(12%)

(88%)

(50%)

(50%)

trans

Another example of the effect of conformation on the course of a reaction in cyefohexane systems is the action of nitrous acid on amines. Mills (1953) has proposed the following generalisation: When the amino-group is equatorial, the product is an alcohol with an equatorial conformation but when the amino-group is axial, the main product is an olefin together with some equatorial alcohol. Just as trans elimination is favoured with the two groups axial and trans, so it has been found that addition of electrophilic reagents to a double bond in cyc/ohexenes is predominantly diaxial. As we have seen, although there is a preferred form in cycZohexane derivatives, the energy of interconversion between the preferred and less stable form is too low to permit their being distinguished by the classical methods of stereochemistry. This predominance of the preferred form holds good at room temperature (or below). At higher temperatures, or during the course of a chemical reaction, the preponderance of the preferred form may be reduced. In chemical reactions, it may be possible for the reaction to proceed more readily through the less stable conformation because it is this one which more closely approaches the geometry of the transition state. An example of this type if chlorocycfohexane. As we have seen, the preferred form is the equatorial conformation. This compound, on treatment with ethanolic potassium hydroxide, undergoes dehydrohalogenation to form cycJohexene. Since trans elimination is preferred, the reaction probably proceeds via the axial form.
;

CI

124

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. IV

Allinger et al. (1961) have examined the conformations of the 2-halocyc/ohexanones by polarographic methods. It was suggested that since these compounds are polarographically reduced (Elving et al., 1956), it seems likely that the reduction potential of such a system will depend on the conformation of the halogen atom. This prediction was shown to be the case in practice. The authors showed that for systems with relatively fixed conformation, such as the 2-halo-4--butylcycZohexanones, the epimer with the axial halogen is reduced more easily. Furthermore, it was found that a flexible molecule such as 2-chlorocyc2ohexanone, which contains comparable

amounts of the two conformations, showed the potential characteristic of the more easily reduced (axial) form. This is understandable on the basis
that the e-iorm. is very readily converted into the a-form, the rate of the conversion being rapid compared with the rate of the reduction. Now let us consider reactions involving the hydroxyl group. It has already been pointed out that equatorial hydroxyl groups are more readily esterified, and equatorial esters more readily hydrolysed, than when these groups are axial. If an axial ester group has to stay in this position during hydrolysis, then because of the steric hindrance (1 3-interactions), the rate It is possible, however, that prior will be relatively slow (reaction path A). to reaction, the molecule is forced into the equatorial conformation (c/. chlorocyc/ohexane above). If this were to happen, then the slower rate of hydrolysis would be due to the additional energy required to bring about the change in conformation (reaction path B).
:

R-COO
Experimental data has enabled one path to be distinguished from the other
(see also 16. VIII).

In fused, systems, owing to the rigidity of the structure, such interconversions (as described above) are far less likely to occur. In this chapter, the discussion of conformational analysis has been applied to cyc/ohexane and its derivatives, and this has been done in order to introduce some of the ideas connected with this problem. The generalisations applicable to cyclohexsme compounds, however, are also applicable to heterocyclic compounds containing nitrogen, oxygen or sulphur (see, e.g., tropines, They are also applicable to the poly22. XIV; carbohydrates, 7h. VII). nuclear compounds, e.g., the Steroids; in fact, much of the work leading to these generalisations has been carried out on these compounds (see 4c. XI).

READING REFERENCES
Wheland, Advanced Organic Chemistry, Wiley (1960, 3rd ed.). Ch. 7. The Stereochemistry of Additions to Carbon-Carbon Double Bonds. Ingold, Structure and Mechanism in Organic Chemistry, Bell and Sons (1953). Ch. 12. Additions and Their Retrogressions. Gilman (Ed.), Advanced Organic Chemistry, Wiley. Vol. IV (1953). Ch. 12. Oxidation Processes.

Crombie, Geometrical Isomerism about Carbon-Carbon Double Bqnds, Quart. Reviews (Chem. Soc), 1952, 6, 101.

GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM

125

Reid, The Triplet State, Quart. Reviews (Chem. Soc), 1958, 12, 205 (see especially pp. 216-219). Porter, The Triplet State in Chemistry, Proc. Chem. Soc, 1959, 291. DePuy and King, Pyrolytic Cis Eliminations, Chem. Reviews, 1960, 60, 431. Hassel, Stereochemistry of cye/oHexane, Quart. Reviews {Chem. Soc.), 1953, 7, 221. Bent, Aspects of Isomerism and Mesomerism, /. Chem. Educ., 1953, 30, 220, 284, 328. Figueras, Stereochemistry of Simple Ring Systems, /. Chem. Educ, 1951, 28, 134. Klyne (Ed.), Progress in Stereochemistry, Butterworth (1954). Ch. 2. The Conformation of Six-membered Ring Systems. Barton and Cookson, The Principles of Conformational Analysis, Quart. Reviews {Chem. Soc), 1956, 10, 44. Orloff, The Stereoisomerism of cyctoHexane Derivatives, Chem. Reviews, 1954, 54, 347. Newman (Ed.), Steric Effects in Organic Chemistry, Wiley (1956). Ch. 1. Conformational Analysis. Angyal, The Inositols, Quart. Reviews {Chem. Soc), 1957, 11, 212. Brewster, The Optical Activity of Saturated Cyclic Compounds, /. Amer. Chem. Soc, 1959, 81, 5483. Eliel, Conformational Analysis in Mobile Systems, /. Chem. Educ, 1960, 37, 126.

CHAPTER V

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF DIPHENYL COMPOUNDS

1. Configuration of the diphenyl molecule. If we assume that the benzene ring is planar, then the diphenyl molecule will consist of two planar rings; but without any further information we cannot say how these two " rings are arranged spatially. Kaufler (1907) proposed the " butterfly formula, I, in order to account for the chemical behaviour of various diphenyl derivatives, e.g., Michler and Zimmermann (1881) had condensed

NH-

O
ii
: :

o O
N02
C02H 0O2H
NO,

IV

benzidine with carbonyl chloride and obtained a product to which Kaufler assigned structure II. According to Kaufler, the co-axial structure III was impossible, since the two amino-groups are too far apart to react simultaneously with carbonyl chloride; it should be noted that this simultaneous reaction at both ends was assumed by Kaufler. Simultaneous reaction, however, is reasonable (according to Kaufler) on the folded structure, II. Now Schultz (1880) had prepared a dinitrodiphenic acid by the nitration of diphenic acid, and Schmidt et al. (1903), from their work on this acid, believed it to be 6 6'-dinitrodiphenic acid, IV; these workers, it should be noted, did not synthesise the acid. In 1921, however, Kenner et al. synthesised 6 6'-dinitrodiphenic acid by means of the UUmarin reaction (see Vol. I) on the ethyl ester of 2-chloro-3-nitrobenzoic acid, and hydrolysing the product. This acid, V (written with the two benzene rings co-axial), did not have the same melting point as Schultz's acid, and so Kenner, believing that his and Schultz's acid were both 6 6'-dinitrodiphenic acid, suggested that the two were stereoisomers. Then Christie and Kenner
:

CO.AH6

COAH; NO,

C02H

NO

N0

N02

CO2

N02

C02H

V
(1922) showed that Kenner's acid was resolvable, and pointed out that this could be explained on the Kaufler formula, IV, since this structure has no elements of symmetry. These authors, however, also pointed out that the optical activity could also be accounted for by the co-axial structure, V, provided that the two benzene rings do not lie on one plane (see also 2). Kaufler's formula, as we have seen, was based on the assumption that the two amino-groups in benzidine react simultaneously with various reagents. Re-investigation of these reactions showed that this was not the case, e.g., Turner and Le Fevre (1926) found that the compound produced from 126

2]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF DIPHENYL COMPOUNDS

127

benzidine and carbonyl chloride was not as originally formulated (see II or III), but had a free amino-group, i.e., the compound was

[NH 2-C 6H 4-C 6H [Link]] 2CO.

Kaufier's reason for his butterfly formula is incorrect, and although does not necessarily follow that the formula is incorrect, nevertheless Turner's work weakened Kaufier's claim. One of the strongest bits of chemical evidence for rejecting Kaufier's formula is that of Barber and Smiles (1928). These workers prepared the three dimercaptodiphenyls, 2'VI, VII and VIII, and oxidised each one. Only one of them, the 2

Hence
it

SH

8H

SH

SH

VI

VII
J3-S.

VIII

IX
derivative, VI, gave the intramolecular disulphide (diphenylene disulphide, IX). On the Kaufler formula, all three dithiols would be expected to give the intramolecular disulphides, since the two thiol groups are equally distant in all three

compounds.

Physico-chemical methods have also been used to determine the con4'figuration of the diphenyl molecule, e.g., the crystal structure of 4 : diphenyl derivatives shows a centre of symmetry; this is only possible for the co-axial formula. Dipole moment measurements also confirm this configuration, e.g., the dipole moment of 4 4'-dichlorodiphenyl is zero; this again is only possible if the two benzene rings are co-axial.
:

Christie and Kenner's 2. Optical activity of diphenyl compounds. work (see above) has been extended by other workers, who showed that compounds in which at least three of the four ortfAo-positions in diphenyl are occupied by certain groups could be resolved. It was then soon found that two conditions were necessary for diphenyl compounds to exhibit optical
activity:
(i)

Neither ring must have a vertical plane of symmetry.

Thus

I is

not

resolvable,

but II

is.

-o-oA B
I
:

<^^
A A

B B
B

II

(ii) The substituents in the oriAo-positions must have a large size, e.g., the following compounds were resolved: 6-nitrodiphenic acid, 6 6'-dinitrodiphenic acid, 6 6'-dichlorodiphenic acid, 2 : 2'-diamino-6 6'-dimethyldiphenyl (see also 4). The earlier work showed that three groups had to be present in the orthopositions. This gave rise to the theory that the groups in these positions impinged on one another when free rotation was attempted, i.e., the steric This theory of restricted rotation about the effect prevented free rotation. single bond joining the two benzene rings (in the co-axial formula) was suggested simultaneously in 1926 by Turner and Le Fevre, Bell and Kenyon,
: :

128

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Mills.

[CH.

and

Consider molecule III and its mirror image IV. Provided that the groups A, B and C are large enough to " interfere mechanically ", i.e., to behave as " obstacles ", then free rotation about the single bond is

A
B
III
restricted.

^~0
C

IV

Thus the two benzene rings cannot be coplanar and consequently not superimposable on III, i.e., Ill and IV are enantiomorphs. In molecule III there is no asymmetric carbon atom; it is the molecule as a whole which is asymmetric, due to the restricted rotation. In diphenyl the two benzene rings are co-axial, and in optically active diphenyl derivatives the rings are inclined to each other due to the steric and repulsive effects of the groups in the orf/k>-positions. The actual angle of inclination of the two rings depends on the nature of the substituent groups, but it appears to be usually in the vicinity of 90, i.e., the rings tend to be approximately perpendicular to each other. Thus, in order to exhibit optical activity, the substituent groups in the o^Ao-positions must

IV

is

C02H

C0 2H

COgH

VI

be large enough to prevent the two rings from becoming coplanar, in which case the molecule would possess a plane or a centre of symmetry, e.g., diphenic acid is not optically active. In configuration V the molecule has a plane of symmetry, and in configuration VI a centre of symmetry; of these two, VI is the more likely because of the repulsion between the two carboxyl groups (cf. 4. II). If restricted rotation in diphenyl compounds is due entirely to the spatial effect, then theoretically we have only to calculate the size of the group in order to ascertain whether the groups will impinge and thereby give rise to optical activity. In practice, however, it is found that groups (and atoms) behave as if they were larger than the volumes obtained from group (and atomic) radii (cf. 15b. I). This behaviour is largely due to the fact that groups also repel (or attract) one another because of the electric charges
that are usually present on these groups. Thus the actual distance that the atoms or groups (in the o^o-positions) can approach one another is greater than that obtained from the atomic and group radii. Better agreement with experiment is obtained when the van der Waals radii (2. I) are used for calculating the " size " of a group. Later work has shown that if the substituent groups are large enough, then only two in the o- and o'-positions will produce restricted rotation, e.g., Lesslie and Turner (1932) resolved diphenyl-2 2'-disulphonic acid, VII. In this molecule the sulphonic acid group is large enough to be impeded by the or<Ao-hydrogen atoms. Lesslie and Turner (1933) have also resolved
:

S03 H
S03 H

Br
+
j

A8(CHs)3

vii

viii

2]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF DIPHENYL COMPOUNDS

129

the arsonium compound VIII; here also the trimethylarsonium group is large enough to be impeded by the ortho-hydvogen atoms (the bromine atom in the meta--position gives asymmetry to this ring). This example is unique up to the present in that only one substituent in the o^Ao-position produces optical activity in diphenyl compounds. It has already been pointed out that diphenic acid is not optically active, and that its configuration is most probably VI. Now calculation shows that the effective diameter of the carboxyl group is large enough to prevent configuration V from being planar, and consequently, if the two rings could be held more or less in this configuration, the molecule would not be coplanar and hence would be resolvable. Such a compound, IX, was prepared and resolved by Adams and Kornblum (1941). The two benzene

_C02II

CQ2 H

= 8or"l0

(C02 C 2 Hs )2

(0O 2 C 2 H 5 ) 2

IX

XI

rings are not coplanar and are held fairly rigid by the large methylene ring. which Iffland et al. (1956) have also prepared the optically active diphenyl has a 2 : 2'-bridge and two amino-groups in the 6 6'-positions. On the other hand, these authors have also prepared XI in optically active forms this compound has the 2 2'-bridge but no substituents in the 6 6'-positions. Mislow (1957) has also obtained the dibenzocyc/o-octadiene acids, XII, in Similar to optically active forms; both forms were highly optically labile.

H0 2 C
XII

C0 2 H

Ph^
XIII
_C02 H

Th

OH OH

HO

HO OH

XV
XIII which has been resolved by Bell (1952). have also resolved the diphenyl derivative XIV.

XII

is

Mislow

et al.

(1961)

Cxl2

C/H2

130

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH.

point of interest in connection with optically active diphenyls is that occurs naturally in an optically et al. (1957) have shown that active form.

Schmidt

XV

2a. Absolute configurations of diphenyls. Mislow et al. (1958) have determined the absolute configuration of 6 6'-dinitro-2 2'-diphenic acid. Their method was chemical; assignment of absolute configuration has been obtained from a consideration of the transition states in the MeerweinPonndorf-Verley reduction of a dissymmetric diphenylic ketone by asymmetric alcohols of known absolute configuration (c/. 7. III). Using this diphenyl as absolute standard, Mislow et al. (1958) then correlated configurations in the diphenyl series by the quasi-racemate method (9a. II). In this way these authors determined the configurations of 6 6'-dichloroand 6 6'-dimethyl-2 2'-diphenic acid. Mislow et al. (1960) have also confirmed absolute configurations in the diphenyl series by the rotatory dis: : :
: :

persion

method

(12a. I).

In addition to the di3. Other examples of restricted rotation. phenyl compounds, there are many other examples where optical activity in the molecule is produced by restricted rotation about a single bond which may or may not be one that joins two rings. The following examples are only a few out of a very large number of compounds that have been
resolved.
(i)

Adams

et al.

(1931)

have resolved the following iV-phenylpyrrole and

iV'-dipyrryl.

H02 C

CII3

C02 H

H0

CH3
CH3

CH3
'CH3

=N,

=/
0H3

C02H

Adams

et al.

(1932)

have

also resolved the 3

3'-dipyridyl

C02H 002H
(ii)

C02H

CCfeH

cally active forms

l'-Dinaphthyl-8 8'-dicarboxylic acid has been obtained in optiby Stanley (1931).

:

COjjH

This compound gives rise to asymmetric transformation (10 iv. II) resolution with brucine gave 100 per cent, of either the (+)- or ( )-compound. Other compounds similar to the dinaphthyl which have been obtained in optically active forms are 1 : l'-dinaphthyl-5 5'-dicarboxylic acid, I (Bell et al., 1951), the dianthryl derivatives, II and III (Bell et al., 1949), and the 4 4'- and 5 5'-diquinolyls, IV and V (Crawford et al., 1952). obtained iV-benzenesulphonyl-8-nitro-l(hi) Mills and Elliott (1928) naphthylglycine, VI, in optically active forms; these were optically unstable,
; : : :

3]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF DIPHENYL COMPOUNDS

131

H02 C

C02 H

H0 2C
II

III

Mills and Kelham (1937) also resolved iV-acetyl-iV-methyl-/>-toluidine-3-sulphonic acid, VII, with brucine, and found that it racemised slowly on standing. In both

undergoing asymmetric transformation with brucine.

9^

/CH^COaH

N02

CH3

CO-CH3
^S03H

VI

VI and VII the optical activity arises from the restricted rotation about the C N bond (the C being the ring carbon to which the N is attached). Asymmetry arising from the same cause is also shown by 2-acetomethylamido-4' 5-dimethyldiphenylsulphone, VIII; this was partially resolved by Buchanan et al. (1950; see also 10 iv. II). It is also interesting to note in this connection that Adams et al. (1950) have isolated pairs of geometrical isomers of compounds of the types IX and X; here geometrical isomerism

is

possible because of the restricted rotation about the

CN

bonds.

.SCVCgHs

R
VIII

SOj'CjHs

IX

132

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[ch.

R
C6 H5 S02-N
I

R
XN^N-SO^CeHs

CH3

CH

S02 "C6 H5

(iv) Liittringhaus et al. (1940, 1947) isolated two optically active forms of 4-bromogentisic acid decamethylene ether. In this compound the methylene ring is perpendicular to the plane of the benzene ring; the two substituents, Br and C0 2 H, prevent the rotation of the benzene nucleus inside

CH
HO,C
(CH2 )
1(

CH,

CH

^=\

CH,

COoH

the large ring. Cram et al. (1955) have obtained a paracyclophane in optically active forms; there is insufficient space to allow the benzene ring carrying the carboxyl group to rotate to give the enantiomorph. In this compound the two benzene rings are parallel and perpendicular to the plane

HOC

(CH2 )10

of the ring. On the other hand, Blomquist simple paracyclophane shown.

et al.

(1961)

have resolved the

(v) Terphenyl compounds can exhibit both geometrical and optical isomerism when suitable substituents are present to prevent free rotation about single bonds, e.g., Shildneck and Adams (1931) obtained the following compound in both the cis- and trans-forms.

Br

CH3 0H 0H CH3
3

Br

^=fa

OH OH
cis

Ch3

Br CH3

0H 0H

CH3
CH3 Br

CH3

OH 0H
trans

Interference of the methyl and hydroxyl groups in the or^o-positions prevents free rotation and tends to hold the two outside rings perpendicular to the centre ring. Inspection of these formulae shows that if the centre ring does not possess a vertical plane of symmetry, then optical activity is

3a]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF DIPHENYL COMPOUNDS

CI*3

133

Br O H

^3 3

ch3

uH3 <^3~c>-^=> ^=^ OH Br

CHs

^>-^^-^^CH
OH
Br

CH

Br

OH

__.

CH3

trans

Thus Browning and Adams (1930) prepared the dibromo cis- and trans-forms, and resolved the 's-isomer; the foms-isomer is not resolvable
possible.

has a centre of symmetry. very interesting case of restricted rotation about a single bond is afforded by the compound 10-m-aminobenzylideneanthrone. This was prepared by Ingram (1950), but he failed to resolve it. He did show, however,
since
it

(vi)

NH
that
salt,
is it

was optically active by the mutarotation of its camphorsulphonate and by the preparation of an active hydriodide. Thus the molecule asymmetric, and this asymmetry can only be due to the restricted rota-

tion of the phenyl group about the C phenyl bond, the restriction being brought about by hydrogen atoms in the wtf/w-positions. The two hydrogen x overlap in space, and consequently the benzene ring atoms labelled cannot lie in the same plane as the 10-methyleneanthrone skeleton.

3a. Molecular overcrowding. All the cases discussed so far owe their asymmetry to restricted rotation about a single bond. There is, however,

another way in which steric factors may produce molecular asymmetry. It has been found that, in general, non-bonded carbon atoms cannot approach

CO,H

closer to each other than about 3-0 A. Thus, if the geometry of the molecule is such as to produce " intramolecular overcrowding ", the molecule becomes distorted. An example of this type is [Link] 8-trimethyl-l-phenanthrylacetic acid, I. The phenanthrene nucleus is planar and substituents

134
lie

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
5,

[CH.

If, however, there are fairly large groups in positions 4 then there will not be enough room to accommodate both groups in the plane of the nucleus. This leads to strain being produced by intramolecular overcrowding, and the strain may be relieved by the bending of the substituents out of the plane of the nucleus, or by the bending (buckThus the molecule will not be ling) of the aromatic rings, or by both. planar and consequently will be asymmetric and therefore (theoretically)

in this plane.

and

Newman et al. (1940, 1947) have actually partially resolved it, also partially resolved II and III (both of which also exhibit out-of-plane distortions). All of these compounds were found to have low optical stability, but Turner et al. (1955) have prepared the optically active forms of 9 10-dihydro-3 4-5 6-dibenzophenanthrene (IV), which is more
resolvable.

and have

Me Me

IV

VI

Newman et al. (1955, 1956) have preoptically stable than I, II and III. pared V and VI which, so far, are the most optically stable compounds of the intramolecular overcrowding type. It will be noticed that in IV and VI the only way in which out-of-plane distortion can occur is through buckling of the molecule. The simplest

VII

VIII

molecule exhibiting overcrowding and consequent out-of-plane buckling of the molecule is 3 4-benzophenanthrene (VII); this has been shown to be non-planar by X-ray analysis (Schmidt et al., 1954). Similarly, Robertson et al. (1954) have shown that VIII exhibits out-of-plane buckling. Another point to note in connection with out-of-plane buckling is that the buckling is distributed over all the rings in such a manner as to cause the minimum distortion in any one ring. This distortion, which enables non-bonded carbon atoms to avoid being closer together than 3-0 A (marked with dots in VII and VIII), forces some of the other carbon atoms to adopt an almost tetrahedral valency arrangement (the original hybridisation is trigonal), and this affects the physical and chemical properties of the molecule, e.g., Coulson et al. (1955) have calculated that the deformation in VIII produces a loss of resonance energy of about 18 [Link]./mole. Just as benzene rings may suffer distortion, so can a molecule which owes Such an example is diits planarity to the presence of a double bond. anthronylidene (IX). The carbon atoms marked with dots are overcrowded (the distance between each pair is 2-9 A), and the strain is relieved by a
:

4]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF DIPHENYL COMPOUNDS

135

rotation of about 40 around the olefinic double bond (Schmidt et al., 1954). Even in such simple molecules as tiglic acid (X) the two methyl groups give rise to molecular overcrowding with the result that the /S-methyl group

Me

\c/
II

Me

\c/
II

Ms/ Nx>,H

HO ac/ NMe
XI

appears to be displaced from the molecular plane, thereby relieving overcrowding which is also partly relieved by small distortions in bond angles. These results were obtained by Robertson et al. (1959) from X-ray studies, and these authors also showed similar distortions in angelic acid (XI). In polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in which the strain tends to be overcome by out-of-plane displacements of substituents and out-of-plane ring buckling, these effects cause changes in the ultraviolet spectra, but it is not yet possible to formulate any correlating rules. studies by Ried (1957) have shown a shift for the hydrogen atoms in positions 4 and 5 in phenanthrene itself. A similar phenomenon has been detected by Brownstein

NMR

is

(1958) in 2-halogenodiphenyls, and the explanation offered is that the shift due to the steric effect between the 2-halogen and the 2'-hydrogen atom.

Although molecular overcrowding is normally confined in the polynuclear type to systems containing three or more rings, nevertheless various substituted benzenes may also exhibit out-of-plane displacements of the substituents. Electron-diffraction studies of polyhalogenobenzenes suggest that such molecules are non-planar (Hassel et al., 1947), whereas X-ray studies indicate that in the solid state such molecules are very closely or even exactly planar (Tulinsky et al., 1958; Gafner et al., 1960). Ferguson et al. (1959, 1961) have examined, by X-ray analysis, polysubstituted benzenes containing not more than one halogen atom, e.g., o-chloro- and bromobenzoic acid, and 2-chloro-5-nitrobenzoic acid. In all three molecules the steric strain is relieved by small out-of-plane displacements of the exocyclic valency bonds in addition to the larger in-plane displacements of these bonds away from one another. Ferguson et al. (1962) have also shown that in 2-chloro-5-nitrobenzoic acid the carboxyl group is twisted further out of the benzene plane than in o-chlorobenzoic acid.

Racemisation of diphenyl compounds. Since the optical activity compounds arises from restricted rotation, it might be expected that racemisation of these compounds would not be possible. In practice, it has been found that many optically active diphenyl compounds can be racemised under suitable conditions, e.g., boiling in solution. The general
4.

of diphenyl

theory of these racemisations is that heating increases the amplitude of the vibrations of the substituent groups in the 2 2' 6 6'-positions, and also the amplitude of vibration of the two benzene rings with respect to each other, thereby permitting the substituent groups to slip by one another. Thus the nuclei pass through a common plane and hence the probability
:
: :

A B

136
is

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH.

that the final product will contain an equimolecular amount of the (+)and ( )-forms. Westheimer (1946-1950) has assumed, in addition to the above bond-stretchings, that the angles a, /? and y are deformed, and also
the benzene rings themselves are deformed during racemisation. The foregoing theory of racemisation is analogous to Werner's theory for the racemisation of compounds which contain an asymmetric carbon atom. According to Werner (1904), the groups in the compound Cabde are set vibrating under the influence of heat, and if the amplitude of vibration becomes large enough, all four groups will become coplanar at some instant (Fig. 1). This planar structure is symmetrical, and when the molecule emerges from this condition, there is an equal chance of its doing so

Plane when coplanar

Fig. 5.1.

in the (+)- or () -configuration, i.e., the molecule racemises. There is, however, a great deal of evidence against this mechanism in compounds of

the type Cabde, e.g., from spectroscopic data it appears that the bonds would break before the vibrations were large enough to permit a planar configuraFurthermore, Kincaid and Henriques (1940), on the tion to be reached. basis of calculations of the energy required for the inversion of molecules, were led to suggest that the molecule Cabde can only be racemised by the bonds actually breaking. Evete>lso, this theory of racemisation appears to

be the most reasonable one for the racemisation of diphenyl compounds. In this case, the amplitude of vibration does not have to be large in order to permit the ortfto-groups to slip by one another. This is supported by the fact that it has been found that diphenyl compounds with small substituent groups racemise easily, whereas when the groups are large, racemisation is difficult or even impossible. 2 2' 6 6'-Tetrasubstituted diphenyl compounds may be classified under three headings according to the nature of the substituent groups. These contain any of the following groups: hydrogen, (i) Non-resolvable. methoxyl or fluorine. The volumes (effective volumes) of these groups are
:

OCH 3

F C02H

H0 2 G F
I

OCHs
:

too small to prevent rotation about the single bond. Thus 2 2'-difluoro6 6'-dimethoxydiphenyl-3 3'-dicarboxylic acid, I, is non-resolvable. These must contain at least two (ii) Resolvable, but easily racemised. amino-groups, or two carboxyl groups, or one amino- and one carboxyl
: :

F
C02 H
II

C02 H

4]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF DIPHENYL COMPOUNDS

137

group; the remaining groups may be any of those given in (i) [but not hydrogen]. Thus 6 6'-difluorodiphenic acid, II, is resolvable, and is readily
:

racemised.
(iii) Not racemisable at all. Diphenyl compounds which fall in this group are those which contain at least two nitro-groups the other groups can be any of those given in (i) but not hydrogen and (ii). Thus 2 2'difluoro-6 6'-dinitrodiphenyl, III, is resolvable, and cannot be racemised.
;

o-o
2

N0
F

NO,

III

In addition to the size of the groups in the ortho-positions, the nature and position of other substituent groups also play a part in the rate of racemisation, e.g., the rate of racemisation of IV is much slower than that of (Adams et al., 1932, 1934). Thus the nitro-group in position 3' has a much

N02 H CO
3

NOj;

N02 H3CO
C02 H

C02H IV

N02

greater stabilising influence than in position 5'. The reason for this is uncertain, but one possible explanation is as follows. In VI, the methyl group of the methoxyl group is probably in the configuration shown. In VII, the nitro-group in the 3'-position would tend to force the methyl group away, the resulting configuration being somewhat as shown in VII;

NO,

G/

CH,

C02 H VI
would be greater interference between the methoxyl group and the two groups in the other benzene ring. Adams et al. (1954, 1957) have examined the rate of racemisation of (VIII). The rate is increased when R is an electron-attracting group such
in this condition there

PhS0 2

\N/

CH2 C02 H

PhS02 + /CH2 C02 H

PhS02v

^CH2 C02H

N02

"

or CN, and is decreased is an electron-releasing group such or OMe. These results were explained as follows. With, e.g., == (IX) contributes to the resonance hybrid as well as (VIII). 2 The resonance hybrid therefore has increased double bond character
as as

N0 2
Me

IX when

N0

C=N

138

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
it is

[CH.

and consequently
transition state.

now easier for the molecule to pass through a planar Me, the C N bond acquires far less With, e.g., double bond character than in its absence, and so it is more difficult for the molecule to pass through a planar transition state.

R=

of type

Adams et al. (1957, 1961) also examined the optical stability of compounds X; they found that the half-life was in the following order for R: Me < Et < *'-Pr > M3u. If the effect of R were due merely to the inductive
effect,

then the unexpected value for 2-Bu cannot be explained on

this basis.

The authors have proposed the following explanation.

The

2-Bu group, because of its large bulk, displaces the adjacent Me groups out of the plane of the benzene ring, thereby causing molecular overcrowding; C (ring) bond (3a). this decreases the interference to rotation about the N A molecular model of this compound showed such an interference. According to Bryan et al. (1960), it is possible that steric repulsion also operates to cause considerable angle distortion.

Evidence for the obstacle theory. Evidence for the obstacle theory, interference of groups, amounts to proving that the two benzene rings direct chemical in optically active diphenyl compounds are not coplanar. proof for the non-coplanar configuration was given by Meisenheimer et al. The method was to unite the " obstacle groups " in optically active (1927). diphenyl compounds, thereby forming five- or six-membered rings. Now such systems are known to be planar, and hence optical activity should disappear; this was found to be so in practice. Meisenheimer started with 2 2'-diamino-6 6'-dimethyldiphenyl, resolved it and then carried out the
5.
i.e.,

following reactions on one of the enantiomorphs

CH,IJ

JNH-COCH,

CH,-CO-NH

CH,

optically active

optically active
CO]

form
I

H0
.

Cl

4nh-coch 3

H s S04

CH,CONH(i

bC02 H

optically inactive

optically active

if

all the optically active compounds, the rings cannot be coplanar, since they were, the molecules would possess a centre or plane of symmetry. If the dilactam, however, is not planar, then it would possess no elements If the dilactam of symmetry, and consequently would be optically active. cannot be is planar, then it has a centre of symmetry, and consequently

In

6]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF DIPHENYL COMPOUNDS

139

optically active. This compound was, in fact, not optically active, and so must be planar. According to Dhar (1932), X-ray analysis studies have shown that in the solid state the diphenyl molecule is planar. On the other hand, according to Robertson (1961), who also examined crystalline diphenyl by X-ray This non-planarity has been analysis, the molecule is not strictly planar. attributed to steric repulsion between the o-hydrogen atoms. Gas phase electron-diffraction studies indicate that the two rings are inclined at about 45 to one another (Brockway et ak, 1944; Bastiansen, 1949). In the solid state, crystal forces presumably tend to keep the diphenyl molecule almost planar.
6.

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF THE ALLENES

I.

Allenes are

compounds which have the general structure

abC==C=Cde
I

6C=C=Ca6
II

Examination of the space formula of compounds of this type shows that the molecule and its mirror image are not superimposable. The modern way of writing I is shown in Fig. 2. The two end carbon atoms are in a state of trigonal hybridisation, and the centre carbon atom is in the digonal Thus the centre carbon atom forms two jr-bonds which are perstate. pendicular to each other; in Fig. 2 the rc^-bond is perpendicular to the

Fig. 5.2.

plane of the paper, and the 71,,-bond is in the plane of the paper. In the trigonal state, the si-bond is perpendicular to the plane containing the three (r-bonds (see Vol. I, Ch. II); consequently the groups a and b lie in the plane of the paper, and the groups d and e in the plane perpendicular to the plane of the paper. This molecule does not possess a plane or centre of symmetry; this is also true for molecule II. Thus I and II will be resolvable (see also 3. IV). The resolvability of allenes was predicted by van't Hoff in 1875, but experimental verification was not obtained until 1935, when Mills and Maitland carried out a catalytic asymmetric dehydration on <x : y-di-1naphthyl-a : y-diphenylallyl alcohol, III, to give the dinaphthyldiphenyl-

-HsO^

III

IV

the dehydration was carried out with an optically inactive dehydrating catalyst, e.g., ^-toluenesulphonic acid, the racemic modification of the allene derivative was obtained. When, however, the alcohol
allene, IV.

When

140
III

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH.

acid,

was boiled with a one per cent, benzene solution of (-(-)-camphorsulphonic a dextrorotatory allene was obtained. Similarly, ( )-camphorfirst

sulphonic acid gave a lsevorotatory allene.

The
Kohler

et al.,

successful resolution of an allene derivative was carried out by Lapworth and Wechsler (1910) prepared y-1also in 1935.

C6 H5
1-C 10

/G=C=C
V
:

C 6 H5

C 6 H5
1-C 10
7

\C0 H
2

C=C=C H^
VI

C6 H5

^CO-0-CH2 -C02 H

naphthyl-a y-diphenylallene-a-carboxylic acid, V, but failed to resolve it; they were unable to crystallise the salts with active bases. Kohler converted this acid into the glycollic acid ester, VI, and was then able to resolve

VI by means

of brucine.

Landor et al. (1959) have prepared an optically active allene by a method which correlates it stereochemically with a tetrahedrally asymmetric alcohol. An optically active acetylenic alcohol, on treatment with thionyl chloride, gave an optically active allene; the mechanism is possibly S N i'.

OH
'

(+)-CMe 3 -CMe-C=CH

son* -^^

CMe 3

CMe^C^CH

^-*- (+)-CMe 3-CMe=C=CHCl

Landor et al. (1962) have also deduced the absolute configuration of the (+)-chloride by first determining the absolute configuration of the (+)alcohol; the (R) -( ) -alcohol gave the (S)-( )-allene. Although allenes were not successfully resolved until 1935, compounds with a similar configuration were resolved as early as 1909. In this year,
CH3
-.CH 2 'CH2

JH

ST ^CHs-CH^
VII

^COssH

Pope et al. resolved l-methylcyc/ohexylidene-4-acetic acid, VII in this compound one of the double bonds of allene has been replaced by a six-membered ring, and the general shape of the allene molecule is retained.
;

It is interesting to note, in

connection with allenes, that the antibiotic

mycomycin has been shown to contain the allene grouping. Mycomycin is optically active, and is the only known natural compound which owes its Celmer and Solomons optical activity to the presence of this grouping. (1953) have shown that the structure of mycomycin is:

CH^C-(^-CH=C=CH-CH=CH-CH=CH-CH 2-CO aH
STEREOCHEMISTRY OF THE SPIRANS

7.

If both double bonds in allene are replaced by ring systems, the resulting molecules are spirans. One method of naming spirans obtains the root name from the number of carbon atoms in the nucleus; this is then prefixed by the term " spiro ", and followed by numbers placed in square brackets

7]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF DIPHENYL COMPOUNDS

141

" which indicate the number of carbon atoms Joined to the " junction carbon atom. The positions of substituents are indicated by numbers, the

CH2 .

GKf

/C^i
I

^-CH2
2

N^H

^CH CH pc ":ch *c\ x CHCr ^CH -CHr

^

CH Z \1

II

numbering beginning with the smaller ring and ending on the junction carbon atom; e.g., I is spiro-[2 2]-pentane, II is l-chlorospiro-[5 3]-nonane. Examination of these formulae shows that the two rings are perpendicular to each other, and hence suitable substitution will produce molecules with no elements of symmetry, thereby giving rise to optically active forms, e.g., Mills and Nodder (1920, 1921) resolved the dilactone of benzophenone2 2' 4 4'-tetracarboxylic acid, III. In this molecule the two shaded
: :

C02 H

C02Na

Ott^C~b
ii'li
1

ti

J-''!''

portions are perpendicular to each other, and consequently there are no elements of symmetry. When this compound is treated with sodium hydroxide, the lactone rings are opened to form IV, and the optical rotation disappears. Boeseken et al. (1928) condensed penta-erythritol with pyruvic acid and obtained the spiro-compound V, which they resolved. Some other spiro-

2CH3 -CO-C02 H+C(CH 2 OH) 4 CH3

2
2

>

^ ^O-CH^ ^CH -0^ C0 H C H0 C' ^0-CH -^ ^CH -0^ ^CH

2 2

V
compounds that have been resolved are the spiro-heptane, VI (Backer et al., 1928, 1929), the spiro-hydantoin, VII (Pope and Whitworth, 1931), and the spiroheptane, VIII (Jansen and Pope, 1932).

H0 2 C

NH--CCk.

.,NH--CO
1

>; CH^ - CH^

VI

Vv

C02 H

CO--NIT

^CO--NH
VII

NH 2

/ CH
^CH

CH

^CH S ^NH

'N,/

H
2

VIII

142

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH.

In all the cases so far discussed, the optical activity of the spiran is due to the asymmetry of the molecule as a whole; thus there is only one pair of enantiomorphs. If a spiro-compound also contains asymmetric carbon atoms, then the number of optically active forms is increased (above two), the actual number depending on the compound in question, e.g., Sutter and Wijkman (1935) prepared the spiro-compound IX, which contains two similar asymmetric carbon atoms (*). If we imagine the left-hand ring of IX to be horizontal, then the right-hand ring will be vertical; and if we represent them by bold horizontal and vertical lines, respectively, then

H
CH3-C CH^
I*

H
3

CH3
CH,

CH3

U CHa-C-CHs
^"0

CO O^

CO

CH,

||ch ||h H rTH

X
XI
XII

IX

there are three different geometrical isomers possible, X, XI and XII (this can be readily demonstrated by means of models). Each of these geometrical isomers has no elements of symmetry, and so each can exist as a pair of enantiomorphs. Three racemic modifications were actually isolated by Sutter and Wiikman, but were not resolved. Cram et al. (1954) have also prepared the following three spiro [4 4] nonanediols (as racemates):
:

OH
OH^Xf/OH

HO
as-cts
cis-trans

HO
trans-trans

Various spiro-compounds have been prepared in which the spiro-atom is nitrogen (2a. VI), phosphorus (3b. VI), or arsenic (4a. VI). A spiran compound, acorone, has now been found in nature (28c. VIII).

READING REFERENCES
Stewart and Graham, Recent Advances in Organic Chemistry, Longmans, Green. Vol. Ill Ch. 11. The Diphenyl Problem. (1948, 7th ed.). Adams and Yuan, The Stereochemistry of Diphenyls and Analogous Compounds, Chem. Reviews, 1933, 12, 261. Gilman (Ed.), Advanced Organic Chemistry, Wiley (1943, 2nd ed.). Vol. I. Ch. 4,
pp. 337-382.

Crawford and Smyth, The Effect of Groups in Non-Blocking Positions on the Rate of Racemisation of Optically Active Diphenyls, Chem. and Ind., 1954, 346. Ann. Reports (Chem. Soc), Stereochemistry of Diphenyl Compounds, 1926, 23, 119;

Klyne and de la Mare

1931, 28, 394; 1932, 29, 69; 1935, 32, 246; 1939, 36, 2S5; 19S3, 50, 154; 1955, 52, 131. (Ed.), Progress in Stereochemistry, Butterworth. Vol. II (1958).

Ch. I, p. 22. Molecular Overcrowding. Mislow et al., The Absolute Configuration of 6,6'-Dinitro-2,2'-diphenic Acid, /. Amer. Chem. Soc, 1958, 80, 465, 473, 476, 480.

CHAPTER VI

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SOME ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON

Many elements other than carbon form com1. Shapes of molecules. pounds which exhibit optical isomerism. Since the criterion for optical activity must be satisfied, viz. the molecule must not be superimposable on its mirror image, it therefore follows that the configurations of the various molecules can never be planar. In Vol. I, Ch. II, the theory of shapes of molecules has been explained on the basis that all electrons (shared and unshared) in the valency shell of the central atom arrange themselves in pairs of opposite spin which keep as far apart as possible. Furthermore, it was assumed that deviations from regular shapes arise from electrostatic repulsions between electron
pairs in the valency shell as follows:
lone-pair
It

lone-pair > lone-pairbond-pair > bond-pairbond-pair.

Shapes of molecules containing single bonds

was also assumed that a double (and triple) bond repels other bond-pairs more than does a single bond. The following two tables illustrate these
ideas.

Number
shell

of electrons in valency

Number
pairs

of

Number
of lonepairs

Hybrid
orbitals

bonding

Shape of
molecule

Examples

used

2
3

2
3

sp
sp*

4
3
1

sp* sp* sp 3

Linear Triangular plane Tetrahedron Trigonal

HgCl, BCl a

CH 4
a

NH,

5 6

2 5 6

pyramid V-shape
Trigonal

HO
PC1 6 SF,

sp*d

spH*

bipyramid Octahedron

of a-

When dealing with molecules containing multiple bonds (treated in terms and ir-bonds), the shapes may also be predicted in a similar fashion

assumed that the electron-pairs (2 in a double and 3 in a triple bond) occupy only one of the positions in the various arrangements described in the above table, i.e., a multiple bond is treated as a " single " bond. This means that the shape of the molecule is determined by the number of abonds and lone-pairs only; the jr-bonds are " fitted in " afterwards (p. 144).
if it is

2.

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF NITROGEN COMPOUNDS

According to the electronic theory of valency, nitrogen can be tercovalent or quadricovalent unielectrovalent; in both of these states nitrogen, as the " central " atom, can exhibit optical activity.
2a.

Quaternary

ammonium
salts

salts.

Originally, the valency of nitrolater,

gen in quaternary

ammonium

was believed to be quinquevalent;

143

144

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Shapes of molecules containing multiple bonds

[CH. VI

Total number
of o-bonds and lone-pairs

Number
of a-

Number
of lonepairs

Shape

of
:

bonds
2 3

molecule

Examples

2
3

Linear
Triangular plane

0=C=0;

H C=N
C1

\s^
II

\c/
II

C1

o
2
1

Triangular plane

oA<o
O
or

ci/^Vo
CI

Tetrahedron

OH

x OH

=v
X C1
Cl

Trigonal

pyramid

o^|\;i

however, it was shown that one valency was different from the other four. Thus, using the formula, [Uabcdj+X-, for quaternary ammonium salts, and assuming that the charge on the nitrogen atom has no effect on the configuration of the cation, the cation may be considered as a five-point system similar to that of carbon in compounds of the type Cabde. This similarity is based on the assumption that the four valencies in the ammonium ion are equivalent, and this assumption is well substantiated experimentally

and

also theoretically.
I,

the cation [Nabcd]+,

II

Hence there are three and III (cf. 3a. II).

possible configurations for

If

the cation

is

planar

(I),

d N b
I

II

then

it would not be resolvable; it would be resolvable, however, if the configuration is pyramidal (II) or tetrahedral (III). Le Bel (1891) claimed to have partially resolved wobutylethylmethylpropylammonium chloride, IV, by means of Penicillium glaucum (cf. 10 iii. II), but later work apparently

CH 3
I

-i

CH3 CH 2 CH2 -N CH2 CH(CH3 2 Cf

)

C 2 H5 IV
showed

was wrong. The first definite resolution of a quaternary amwas that of Pope and Peachey (1899), who resolved allylbenzylmethylphenylammonium iodide, V, by means of (+)-bromocamphorsulphonic acid. This was the first case of optical activity due to a " central "
this

monium

salt

2a]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SOME ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON -1 +

145

CH3
I

CH 2=CH- CH-r- N CH2 C 6 H 6

C6 H5

V
atom other than carbon.
of Jones (1905),

This resolution was then followed by the work

Thus the

who resolved benzylethylmethylphenylammonium iodide. ammonium ion cannot be planar, but must be either pyramidal or

tetrahedral. Bischoff (1890) had proposed a pyramidal structure, and this configuration was supported by Jones (1905) and Jones and Dunlop (1912). On the other hand, Werner (1911) had suggested the tetrahedral configurathis was supported by Neagi (1919) and Mills and Warren (1925). however, Mills and Warren who gave the most conclusive evidence that the configuration is tetrahedral. Their evidence is based on the following argument. Compounds of the type abC=C=Cab are resolvable since carbon is " tetrahedral " (see allenes, 6. V), and if nitrogen is also " tetrahedral", then the compound a&C=:N=C& should be resolvable, but will not be resolvable if the nitrogen is pyramidal. Mills and Warren prepared 4-carbethoxy-4'-phenylbispiperidinium-l l'-spiran bromide, and resolved it. If the configuration of this molecule is VI, i.e., a spiran, then it possesses no elements of symmetry, and hence will be resolvable; if the configuration is VII {i.e., pyramidal), then it will possess a vertical plane of symmetry,
tion,

and

It was,

H
C C6 Hf

CH2 CH2

CH-CH
N\
2

H
c Br
6
2

/ C CH CKf ^
2

^C ^CH CHf ^C0 C H

2

VI

C6H 6
VII

CO2C2H5

and hence will be optically inactive. Since the compound was resolved, the configuration must be tetrahedral, i.e., VI. This tetrahedral configuration has been confirmed by physico-chemical studies (see 2b). More recently, Hanby and Rydon (1945) have shown that the diquaternary salts of dimethylpiperazine exhibit geometrical isomerism, and this is readily explained on the tetrahedral configuration of the four nitrogen valencies
(cf.

cyclohexaxie, 11. IV).

R
CH3

CIL-CH,
2

++
2 Br

K. CH -CH
2

R N

ch3

++ ,CHr-CH2 ^ ( ,H 2 Br \, 'N H - CH2

3"l
j

CIS

trans

146
It

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
has already been mentioned
(6.

[CH. VI

II)

that McCasland and Proskow

(1956) prepared a spiro-nitrogen compound which contained no plane or centre of symmetry, but was nevertheless optically inactive because it contained an alternating axis of symmetry. shall now examine this compound (VIII; Y~ is the ^>-toluenesulphonate ion) in more detail. This molecule can exist in four diastereoisomeric forms, three active and one

We

E* "EH
(+)

"JP
(+)

,1=

(-)
cis-cis

(-)
cis-trans

CHVIII

IX

X
3

jpa< a-q^
(+) (-)

,py s ujp,
meso
trans-trans

trans-trans

XI
meso.

XII

All four have been prepared, and are depicted as shown in IX, X, XII. The co-axis of each spiran is assumed to be perpendicular to the plane of the paper, and the intersecting lines represent the two rings. The short appendages show whether the two substituents (methyl) are cis or trans. The ring nearer the observer's eye is indicated by the heavy line, and a uniform orientation has been adopted the front ring is always vertical, and the back horizontal ring with at least one substituent directed upwards and the cis ring placed at the back in the case of the cis/trans ring combination. Racemisation of optically active quaternary ammonium salts is far more readily effected than that of carbon compounds containing an asymmetric carbon atom, i.e., compounds of the type Cabde. The mechanism of the racemisation of the ammonium salts is believed to take place by dissociation into the amine, which then rapidly racemises (2c):

XI and

Nabcd}

+X-

^ NZ>c + dX
dX
results in the racemisation

Recombination of the racemised amine with of the quaternary compound (see 4a).

2b. Tertiary amine oxides. In tertiary amine oxides, aftcNO, the nitrogen atom is joined to four different groups, and on the basis that the configuration is tetrahedral, such compounds should be resolvable. In

CH 3
C 2 Hs-N->0

C.H. N-K>

C6 H S
I

CH3
II

2c]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SOME ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON

147

1908, Meisenheimer resolved ethylmethylphenylamine oxide, I, and this was then followed by the resolution of other amine oxides, e.g., ethylmethyl1-naphthylamine oxide, II, and kairoline oxide, III. The evidence in favour of the structure IV as opposed to that of V is based on dipole moment measurements and on the fact that such compounds can be resolved. It should be noted that the pyramidal structure would

N-0

or

IV

R N=0 V
3

also account for the optical activity of these compounds as well as the tetrahedral. Consequently these compounds cannot be used as a criterion for the pyramidal or tetrahedral configuration of the nitrogen atom. However, by analogy with the quaternary ammonium salts, the configuration of amine oxides may be accepted as tetrahedral. Further evidence for this is as follows. The electronic configuration of nitrogen is (ls 2 )(2s 2 )(2^> 3).

For nitrogen to be quinquevalent, the " valence state " will be derived from the arrangement (ls2)(2s)(2^>3)(3s). Now the amount of energy required to promote an electron from a 2s to a 3s orbital appears to be too
large for it to occur, and consequently nitrogen is (apparently) never quinquevalent. The valence state of nitrogen is thus achieved by the loss of one 2s electron and then hybridisation of the 2s and 2p 3 orbitals, i.e., nitrogen becomes quadricovalent unielectrovalent, and the four bonds (sp3 bonds) are arranged tetrahedrally. The charged nitrogen atom is isoelectronic with carbon, and so one can expect the formation of similar bonds. Furthermore, evidence obtained by an examination of the vibration frequencies of the ammonium ion indicates that the configuration of this ion is tetrahedral. Recently, Bennett and Glynn (1950) have obtained two geometrical isomers of 1 : 4-diphenylpiperazine dioxide; this is readily explained on the tetrahedral configuration of nitrogen (c/. 2a).

*^CH -CHf
2

i^-CHjs-CHf
trans

C6 H6
cis

2c.

Amines.

If the tertiary

amine molecule, Nabc,

is

planar,

it will

be superimposable on its mirror image, and therefore cannot be optically active. All attempts to obtain tertiary amines in optically active forms have failed up to the present time, e.g., Kipping and Salway (1904) treated secondary amines, R-NH-R', with ()-benzylmethylacetyl chloride; if the three valencies of the nitrogen atom are not planar, then the base will be a racemic modification, and on reaction with the acid chloride, the following four substituted amides should be formed: B + A + B_A_, B + A_, B_A+, i.e., a mixture of two pairs of enantiomorphs. Experiments carried out with, e.g., methylaniline and benzylaniline gave homogeneous products. Meisenheimer et al. (1924) attempted to resolve iV-phenyl-2V-^-tolylanthranilic acid, I, and also failed. In view of these failures, it would thus appear that
,

yCgHs

148

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. VI

the tertiary amine molecule is planar. Physico-chemical methods, e.g., dipole moment measurements, infra-red absorption spectra studies, etc., have, however, shown conclusively that the configuration of ammonia and Thus ammonia has been shown to have of tertiary amines is tetrahedral. a dipole moment of 1-5 D; had the molecule been planar, the dipole moment would have been zero. Furthermore, the nitrogen valency angles in, e.g., trimethylamine have been found to be 108, thus again showing that the amine molecule is not planar. Why, then, cannot tertiary amines be resolved? Is it a question of experimental technique, or is there something inherent in the tertiary amine molecule that makes it impossible to be Meisenheimer (1924) explained the failure to resolve as follows. resolved? In the tertiary amine molecule, the nitrogen atom oscillates rapidly at right angles above and below the plane containing the groups a, b and c II and III are the two extreme forms, and they are mirror (see Fig. 1)
;

flk-

images and not superimposable (IV is III " turned over", and it can be seen that IV is the mirror image of II). Thus this oscillation brings about very rapid optical inversion. This oscillation theory is supported by evidence obtained from the absorption spectrum of ammonia (Barker, 1929; Badger, 1930), and the frequency of the oscillation (and therefore the inver10 per second (Cleeton et al., 1934). sion) has been calculated to be 2-3 X 10 In the foregoing explanation for the racemisation of amines, it has been assumed that the nitrogen valency angles and the bond lengths change. " This inversion of amines, however, is better represented as an " umbrella switch of bonds, i.e., the bond lengths remain unaltered and only the nitrogen valency angles change. This interpretation is more in keeping with the facts, e.g., as the groups a, b and c increase in weight, the frequency of the inversion of the molecule decreases. Theoretical calculations have shown that an optically active compound will not racemise spontaneously provided that the energy of activation for the change of one enantiomorph into the other is greater than 12-15 [Link]./ mole. The two forms, II and III, have been shown to be separated by an energy barrier of about 6 [Link]./mole, and consequently the two forms are
readily interconvertible.
It has already been mentioned (2b) that the electronic configuration of 3 2 the nitrogen atom is (ls*)(2s ){2p ). According to Hund's rule, electrons orbital as far as possible (see Vol. I, Ch. II). same the being in tend to avoid Thus, in ammonia and its derivatives, bonds are formed by pairing with Since these are mutually at the three single orbitals 2p x 2p v and 2p z right angles, the configuration of the ammonia molecule will be a trigonal pyramid, i.e., a pyramid with a triangular base, with the nitrogen atom situated at one corner. Oscillation of the nitrogen atom brings about inversion in the tertiary amines, ~Nabc. This picture of the configuration of the ammonia molecule, however, requires modification. The valency angles in ammonia have been shown to be approximately 107. The deviation from the value of 90 (on the assumption that the bonds are pure 2p orbitals) is too great to be accounted for by repulsion between the hydrogen atoms. As we have seen (1), according to modern theory the orbitals in ammonia
, .

2d]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SOME ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON

3
,

149

one orbital being occupied by the lone-pair. The deviation of the valency angle of 107 from the tetrahedral value of 109 28' has been explained by the greater repulsion between a lone-pair and a bond-pair than between a bond-pair and a bond-pair. In view of what has been said above, it appears that tertiary amines of the type Na&c will never be resolved. Now, Kincaid and Henriques (1940), on the basis of calculations of the energy of activation required for the inversion of the amine molecule, arrived at the conclusion that tertiary amines are incapable of resolution because of the ease of racemisation, but if the nitrogen atom formed a part of a ring system, then the compound would be sufficiently optically stable to be isolated. This prediction was confirmed by Prelog and Wieland (1944), who resolved Troger's base, V,
are sp

CH,

by chromatographic adsorption on D-lactose (cf. 10 vi. II). In this compound, the nitrogen is tervalent, but the frequency of osculation has been brought to zero by having the three valencies of nitrogen as part of the
ring system.

have examined- iV-substituted ethyleneimines (see spectroscopy. Their results support the " umbrella switch of bonds, and these authors believe that optical resolution of this
Roberts
I)

et at.

Vol.

by

NMR

(1958)

type of compound
2d.

may

be possible below 50.

Oximes.

In 1883, Goldschmidt found that benzil dioxime,

could be converted into an isomeric form

C 6H 6-C(=NOH)-C(=NOH)-C 6H 5 by boiling it in

ethanolic solution;

and then, in 1889, Meyer et al. isolated a third isomer of this compound. Beckmann, also in 1889, found that benzaldoxime existed in two isomeric forms, and from that time many aromatic oximes were shown to exist in two isomeric forms. The existence of isomerism in aromatic oximes was first explained by structural isomerism, two of the following four structures corresponding to the two isomers (where R is an alkyl or an aryl group) II is the modern way of writing the nitrone structure (originally, it was

Ar^ ^R
II

Ar

,^R

Arv.

.R

II

N=0
III

l>
IV

oxime
I

nitrone
II

written with quinquevalent nitrogen, the nitrogen being linked to the oxygen by a double bond). Hantzsch and Werner (1890), however, suggested that the isomerism of the oximes was geometrical and not structural. According to these authors, nitrogen is tervalent (in oximes), and is situated at one corner of a tetrahedron with its three valencies directed towards the other three corners; consequently the three valencies are not coplanar (cf. tertiary amines). These authors also assumed that there is no free rotation about the double bond (cf. 2. IV), and therefore proposed configurations and VI for the two isomers:

C=N

150

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. VI

Ar^

^R
V

Arv.
ii

/R
VI
e.g.,

Many
(i)

If

(ii)

Ar = R, then isomerism disappears. III and IV would be optically active;

facts are in favour of geometrical isomerism,

this is not

found to be so in

practice.
(iii)

Absorption spectra measurements show that the two isomers have

identical structures.

As pointed out above, Hantzsch and Werner chose structure I as the formula for the oximes, but examination of II shows that this would also satisfy the requirements for geometrical isomerism; structure I was chosen because oximes were known to contain the group >C=NOH. Later work, however, has shown that the problem is not so simple as this; methylation of an oxime (with methyl sulphate) usually produces a mixture of two compounds, one of which is the O-methyl ether, VII, and the other the iV-methyl ether, VIII. These two are readily distinguished by the fact
Ar..

Ar.
3

CH3

^C=NOCH BT
VII

R^

^C=1T
VIII

"^O

that on heating with hydriodic acid, VII gives methyl iodide, whereas VIII gives methylamine. Thus, Semper and Lichtenstadt (1918) obtained four methyl derivatives of phenyl ^>-tolyl ketoxime, IX-XIL On treatment

*>-CH 3 -C 6 H 4 .

.C6 H 6

/>-CH 3 -C 6 H 4

\
X

'C e

^OCH
IX

CH 3 Cr

/.-CHsCeH^

^C H
6

p-CHj-C.H^

^C^
<jxa 3

kj

w
XII

XI
iodide,

with concentrated hydriodic acid, two of these compounds gave methyl and therefore correspond to the O-methyl derivatives, IX and X; the other two compounds gave methylamine, and therefore correspond to the iV-methyl derivatives, XI and XII. Thus it appears that oximes can exist in forms I and II. Brady (1916) considered that oximes in solution are a tautomeric mixture of I and II {oximino-nitrone diad system). Ultraviolet absorption spectra studies show that the spectra of the oximes are the same as those of the O-methyl ethers, whereas those of the iV-methyl ethers are entirely different. Hence, if oximes are tautomeric mixtures of I and II, the equilibrium must lie almost completely on the oxime side,
i.e.,

2e]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SOME ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON

151

Ar

\ G/'
II

11

Ar

\G / R
and
II

=^~

^c^* ^~ Ar \ c /R
II II

^OH

H^ ^O

HO^
.

O^ ^H

It is possible, however, that none of the nitrone form is present, but its methyl derivative is formed during the process of methylation If we assume that methyl sulphate provides methyl carbonium ions, then it is possible that these ions attack the nitrogen atom (with its lone-pair) or the oxygen atom (with its two lone-pairs). This would result in the formation of the N- and O-methyl ethers, without having to postulate the existence of the

oximino-nitrone tautomeric system.

CRgQ)- SOjj-OCHg
Ar

*-CH + -0-S02 -OCH 3

Al
+

\c /R
+ CHS
|

Ar

\c/R
J.

\c^U
"N)

Nj
Ar

CH<" ^(P-H
Ar

CH^
Ar
-H +

\c/R
+

CH 3

+-

\c /R
^CP-H
CH,

\ c /R
^OCH 3

>(}

In the foregoing account, the geometrical isomerism of the oximes is based on the assumption that the nitrogen atom, in the oximino-form, exhibits the trigonal pyramidal configuration. Further proof for this configuration is obtained from the examination of the oxime of cycfohexanone-4-carboxylic
acid

(XHIa

or

b).

If

the three nitrogen valencies are non-planar

(i.e.,

the

H
H02 CT

CH^-CH,

OH

H
H02 Cr

GHrCH^
^CHg-CH^
XIII6

^CHg-CHg

XHIa

double bond), the configuration therefore be optically active. If, however, the three nitrogen valencies are coplanar and symmetrically placed, then the configuration will be XIII&, and this will not be optically active, since it possesses a plane of symmetry. Mills and Bain (1910) prepared this oxime and resolved it; hence its configuration must be Xllla. This is readily explained on the modern theory of valency (2c).
is

N O

bond

not collinear with the

C=N

is

XHIa, and

it will

2e. Nomenclature of the oximes. In oxime chemistry the terms syn anti are used instead of the terms cis and trans. When dealing with aldoximes, the syw-form is the one in which both the hydrogen atom and the hydroxyl group are on the same side; when these groups are on opposite sides, the configuration is anti. Thus I is syn- and II is awfo-benzaldoxime. With ketoximes, the prefix indicates the spatial relationship between the

and

152
Co Hi

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. VI

*\rt/ H

C 6 H5

\o
II

JR

/-CH 3 -C 6

H4X

'6*1-5 'QHi

N ^OH
I

HO^"N
anti

HO
III

syn
first

named
2f.

group named and the hydroxyl group (cf. 4. IV). Thus III may be as syn-p-tolyl phenyl ketoxime or awfo'-phenyl ^>-tolyl ketoxime.

seen, aromatic aldoximes

Determination of the configuration of aldoximes. As we have can be obtained in two geometrical isomeric forms, the syn and the anti. Aliphatic aldoximes, however, appear to occur in one form only, and this is, apparently, the anti-iorm. The problem, then,
with aromatic aldoximes, is to assign configurations to the stereoisomeric forms. The two forms (of a given aldoxime) resemble each other in many ways, but differ very much in the behaviour of their acetyl derivatives towards aqueous sodium carbonate. The acetyl derivative of one isomer regenerates the aldoxime; this form is known as the a-isomer. The other isomer, however, eliminates a molecule of acetic acid to form an aryl cyanide this form is known as the /5-isomer. Hantzsch and Werner (1890) suggested that the /3-form readily eliminates acetic acid because the hydrogen atom and the acetoxy-group are close together, i.e., the /9-isomer is the syn-form. Such a view, however, is contrary to many experimental results (cf. 5 xi. IV), i.e., the experimental results are:

*v*
N-OCOCH 3
synAr,

Arx
Na ' co .
II

M
k
^-OH

+CH

-C0 2 H

Ar

H
Na a CO,
>-

+ CH

-C0 2H

CH 3 -COON
anti-

Brady and Bishop (1925) found that only one of the two isomers of 2-chloro-5-nitrobenzaldoxime readily gave ring closure on treatment with
2

NaOll

O.N

0,N
Na 2 C0 3

0,N

2g]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SOME ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON

153

It therefore follows that this form is the anti-isomer of cyclisation, 5 i. IV). It was also found that it was this isomer that gave the cyanide on treatment with acetic anhydride followed by aqueous sodium carbonate. Thus awfe'-elimination must have occurred, i.e., the /?-isomer is the anti-form. These reactions may be formulated as shown at foot of previous page. Actually, the ring compound produced, the 5-nitrobenzwo-oxazole, is unstable, and rearranges to nitrosalicylonitrile. In a similar manner, Meisenheimer (1932) found that of the two isomeric 2 6-dichloro-3-nitrobenzaldoximes, it was the awfo'-isomer that gave ring closure, and was also the one that gave the cyanide. Hence, if antielimination is used as the criterion for these reactions, the configurations
(cf.

sodium hydroxide.

method

cr

>-

Nu 2 COj

of the syn- and anti-ioxms can be determined. It might be noted here, in passing, that since the sy-form was originally believed to form the cyanide, the configurations of the isomers in the literature up to 1925 (i.e., before Brady's work) are the reverse of those accepted now.

2g. Determination of the configuration of ketoximes. The configurations of ketoximes have been mainly determined by means of the

Beckmann rearrangement (1886). Aromatic ketoximes, i.e., ketoximes containing at least one aromatic group, occur in two forms; aliphatic ketoximes appear to occur in one form only. When treated with certain acidic reagents such as sulphuric acid, acid chlorides, acid anhydrides, phosphorus pentachloride, etc., ketoximes undergo a molecular rearrangement, resulting in the formation of an acid amide:
Arx

0=NOH -> Ar-CONHAr

Ar'

known as the Beckmann rearrangement or Beckmann best method is to treat an ethereal solution of the oxime with phosphorus pentachloride at a temperature below 20. On the other hand, Horning et al. (1952) have found that a very good method for effecting the Beckmann rearrangement is to heat the oxime in polyphosphoric acid at 95 to 130. Hantzsch (1891) suggested that the course of the rearrangement indicated
This rearrangement
transformation.
is

The

154

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. VI

the configuration of the oxime, and assumed that the sy-exchange of groups occurred since they were closer together in this isomer. This, again, was shown experimentally to be the reverse, i.e., it is the &'-rearrangement that occurs, and not the syn; thus:

Ar

V/R
NN
MDH
N

V*
AC
Arv
*L

NHAr

Ar

^/E
/N

-OH

N/-
NHR
i

HCK

^R

Meisenheimer (1921) subjected triphenyh'so-oxazole, I, to ozonolysis, and thereby obtained the benzoyl-derivative of anfc'-phenyl benzil monoxime, II. This configuration is based on the reasonable assumption that the ozonolysis proceeds without any change in configuration. Furthermore, the monoxime designated the /S-isomer gave II on benzoylation, and so the configuration

C6 H5-C
N.

C'GeHj;
II

ozonolysis

C 6 HB-CI

C-C6 H 5 CpH ijiii 5 coci

C6H5"C-

-OC6 H5
II

X 0^

c-c6

O K "0-COC H
6

N
III

II

of the /?-isomer, III, is determined. Meisenheimer then subjected this /}-oxime (i.e., the anti-phenyl oxime) to the Beckmann rearrangement, and obtained the anilide of benzoylformic acid, IV; thus the exchange of groups

C6 H 5 -C-CO-C6 H5

pc.

O=C-CO06 H6

NHC H
6

^OH
III

IV

in the awfo'-position. The configuration of the /?-monoxime, III, confirmed by the fact that it may be obtained directly by the ozonolysis of 3 4-diphenyhso-oxazole-5-carboxylic acid, V (Kohler, 1924). Meisenheimer et al. (1925) also demonstrated the awfo'-rearrangement as follows.

must occur
is
:

C6 H 5 -C

CC HS
9

ozonolysis

N V
The a-oxime

II

^CC02 H

II

+ C H -C-COCH
6 5

&
III

of 2-bromo-5-nitroacetophenone is unaffected by sodium hydroxide, whereas the /f-isomer undergoes ring closure to form 3-methyl-5nitrobenzt'so-oxazole; thus the a-oxime is the sytt-methyl isomer VI, and the /?-oxime the antf-methyl isomer VII. When treated with sulphuric acid or phosphorus pentachloride, the oc-oxime underwent the Beckmann

2g]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SOME ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON

156

rearrangement to give the iST-substituted acetamide; thus the exchange occurs in the tfn*i-positions.

Q 2Ni

HO-^
VII

NaOH

OoN

Further evidence for the fo'-exchange of groups in the Beckmann rearrangement has been obtained by studying the behaviour of compounds exhibiting restricted rotation about a single bond, e.g., Meisenheimer et al, (1932) prepared the two isomeric oximes of l-acetyl-2-hydroxynaphthalene3-carboxylic acid, VIII and IX, and of these two forms only one was resolvable. This resolvable isomer must therefore be IX, since asymmetry

H /OH

C6
VIII
of groups in each case.

OH

iCOsH

IX

due to restricted rotation is possible only with this form (c/. 3. V). Meisenheimer found that the ethyl ester of IX, on undergoing the Beckmann rearrangement, gave the amide Ar'CONH>CH a (where Ar is the naphthalene part of the molecule), whereas the ethyl ester of VIII gave the amide CH 3*CO'NH'Ar. These results are in agreement with the awfo-exchange

Thus the evidence is all in favour of the awfo'-exchange of groups in the Beckmann rearrangement, and hence by using this principle, the Beckmann

may be used to determine the configuration of ketoximes. interesting application of the Beckmann rearrangement is in the formation of heterocyclic rings, e.g., when cyc/opentanonoxime is subjected to the Beckmann rearrangement, the nitrogen atom enters the ring (thus producing ring expansion) to form 2-piperidone (see also 2h).
rearrangement

An

CH,-

-CH2
,CH2

H,so 4

CH

CH2
I

CHo

CH*

N
OH

CH 2

NH

II
^CO

CHo

_CH2

NOH

156

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. VI

On the other hand, Hill et al. (1956) have shown that the oximes of some spiro-ketones undergo abnormal Beckmann rearrangements in the presence of polyphosphoric acid, e.g., spiro-[4 4]-nonanone-l-oxime gives hydrind8 9-en-4-one:
: :

NOH

Although aliphatic ketoximes are not known in two isomeric forms, some

may produce two

e.g.,

products when subjected to the Beckmann rearrangement, the oxime of pentan-2-one gives iV-propylacetamide and iV-methylbutyramide. The reason for this is uncertain; possibly oximes of this type are actually a mixture of the two forms or alternatively, they exist in one
;

CH\
CH3* CH2" CI12

^C=NOH -^^*-

pcu

CH 3 -CONH-CH2 -CH 2 -CH3 + CH3 -CH 2 -CH2 -CO-NH-CH 3

form which, during the Beckmann rearrangement, is partially converted into the labile form which then undergoes the rearrangement (cf. benzaldoxime, below). Whereas the majority of ketoximes undergo the Beckmann rearrangement, In an attempt to prepare quinoline it appears that few aldoximes do so. by the dehydration of cinnamaldoxime with phosphorus pentoxide, Bamberger and Goldsehmidt (1894) actually obtained woquinoline; the formation of the latter compound and not the former can only be reasonably explained on the assumption that the oxime first undergoes the Beckmann rearrangement, and the rearranged product then undergoes ring closure to form isoquinoline. Recently, Horning et al. (1952) have shown that aldoximes can
stable

-h 2 o

be made to undergo the Beckmann rearrangement under the influence of polyphosphoric acid, e.g., sy-benzaldoxime gives a mixture of formanilide and benzamide, the latter being produced by the conversion of the syn-

C6

H C-H

^C H -NH-CHO+
6

C6 H5

CONH

syn -isomer

fi

H -C
5

-*-C 6 H 5 -CO-NH 2

N
HO'
anti- isomer

form into the anti; aft'-benzaldoxime gives benzamide only. These results are in agreement with the configurations obtained by other methods (see
2f).

2h]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SOME ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON

157

2h. Mechanism of the Beckmann rearrangement. This rearrangement is an example of the 1,2-shift in which the migration origin is carbon and the migration terminus is nitrogen (see also 1,2-shifts, Vol. I, Ch. V). As we have seen above (2g), an integral part of the rearrangement is the Since the oxime itself does not rearrange, it anti migration of the group. is reasonable to suppose that some intermediate is formed between the oxime and the reagent used to effect the rearrangement, and it is this intermediate which then rearranges. Kuhara et M. (1914, 1916) prepared the benzenesulphonate of benzophenone oxime and showed that this readily underwent rearrangement in neutral solvents in the absence of any acid catalyst to give an isomeric compound which, on hydrolysis, gave benzanilide and benzenesulphonic acid; thus:

Ph

Ph

Ph-CONHPh

Ph-C=N
OSO.-Ph

-> Ph-C=N
OSO.-Ph

*2*$.

+
Ph-SO,H

Kuhara assigned structure I to this intermediate on the fact that its absorption spectrum was almost identical with that of the compound prepared by reaction between iV-phenylbenzimidoyl chloride and silver benzenesulphonate:

Ph-CCl=NPh
Kuhara
phenone

+ AgOSCyPh

+ AgCl

(1926) also showed that the rate of rearrangement of the benzooxime ester is faster the stronger the acid used to form the ester;

the order obtained was:

Ph-S03H

> CH C1-C0 H > Ph-C0 H > Me-C0 H

2 2
2

(1934) showed that the rate of rearrangement of benzophenone oxime picryl ester is faster in polar than in non-polar solvents. Thus the work of Kuhara and Chapman is strong evidence that the rate-determining step in the rearrangement is the ionisation of the intermediate. Now let us consider the migration of the or Ar group. This could be either intermolecular or intramolecular, but Kenyon et al. have shown it to be the latter; e.g., in 1946, Kenyon et al. showed that when (+)-a-phenyl-

Chapman

ethyl methyl ketoxime is treated with sulphuric acid the product, 2V-<xphenylethylacetamide, is almost 100 per cent, optically pure. Thus the migrating group never separates during the rearrangement, since if it did a racemised product would have been obtained. Furthermore, this retention of optical activity might be cited as evidence for the formation of a bridgedion during the migration, since in such an ion the migrating group is not free and the " new partial " bond is formed on the same side as the bond which is breaking (see below).

PhMeCH-C-Me

NOH
of
is

II

w -^>
ao

0=C-Me
I

HN-CHMePh

Another problem that arises here is: Does the anion separate completely during the ionisation or does it also migrate intramolecularly? The work

Kuhara and Chapman strongly suggests

corhplete separation,

and

this

supported by the work of Brodskii et al. (1941), who found that when benzophenone oxime was treated with phosphorus pentachloride and then with water enriched with the isotope 18 0, the benzanilide obtained contained some of this isotope. Thus the oxygen atom of the oxime group

158

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. VI

must have been completely removed in the ionisation stage (see below). The following mechanism is in agreement with all of the above facts (Y is PC14 MeCO, etc.); the lower set of equations is the alternative route via
,

y
Ml
R

R'

YO
+ OY"

/*'
H.O
-

V
I

'

/*
R'
I

/ R

NHR

-C

R>

III

+ OY"

V
R/
N
OAc

0Y

--N

a bridged-ion. It might also be noted that when acid is used as the re+. arranging reagent, OY is probably Support for this mechanism is 2 the evidence obtained for the intermediate formation of the imidoyl ester (RN CR-OY) compound II was obtained by Heard el al. (1959), who examined the rearrangement of a 17-keto-16-oxime (a steroid; Ch. XI):

OH

yys

OAo

It has been shown that when the migrating group is aryl, the rate of the rearrangement is accelerated when there is an electron-releasing group, e.g., Me, in the ^-position. This may be cited as evidence to support the formation of a bridged-ion (at least for migrating aryl groups). On the basis of the above mechanism, we can now explain Brodskii's
results as follows:

Ph

.Ph

Ph
+ 0PC1 4
"

V
C^

ora<

OPCh
JH.O

Ph x

OH 2

Ph\ .OH

Pli

PhOONHPh

PhCONHPh

Stephen et al. (1956) have shown that one molecule of phosphorus pentachloride, phosphoryl chloride, thionyl chloride, or benzenesulphonyl chloride rearranges two molecules of the ketoxime to yield the corresponding amide

and imidoyl chloride

in approximately equimolecular amounts,

e.g.,

2R aC=NOH +

PCI.

-> R-CO-NH-R + R-CC1=N-R +

POCl 8

+ HC1

It has also been shown that hydrogen chloride is essential during the rearrangement, but that it does not itself cause the rearrangement of the

2i]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SOME ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON

159

oxime.

On the basis of these results, Stephen et al. have proposed the following mechanism for the Beckmann rearrangement of ketoximes. The reagent first produces some acid amide and imidoyl chloride, and the latter then dehydrates unchanged ketoxime to the anhydride which then reacts as shown:

R\
2R2C=NOH
-HjO

(R 2 C=N 2
anhydride

HC1.

CR2 cr N

anhydride salt

.0.
-HCl

RC

RN

II

p*
-R

RC

CR

HCl
-

RCC1

0=CR
+

RN

II

NR

II

RN

II

NHR

ketoxime imidate

which effect the Beckmann rearrangement may function as dehydrating agents for the formation of the ketoxime
It is also suggested that other reagents

anhydride.

The mechanism

a large yield of amide is obtained. believed to be the same as that given above, provided that in the initial stage there is sufficient to form a trace of the ketoxime anhydride in the presence of hydrogen chloride. Rearrangement of the anhydride will now take place as above with the formation of the imidoyl chloride which can then dehydrate ketoxime to anhydride, itself being converted into the amide: a
trace of the reagent is used,
is

When

2R aC=NOH + R-CC1=N-R> (R aC=N aO + R-CONH-R + HCl

Thus the
It

yield of amide increases at the expense of the imidoyl chloride. can be seen from the foregoing account that two mechanisms appear Both are intramolecular, but possible for the Beckmann rearrangement. now an intermolecular mechanism has also been proposed by Hill et al. (1962) who have reported an example in which the migrating group had the inverted configuration in the amide. These authors examined the rearrangement of 9-acetyl-m-decalin oxime and have suggested the following mechan-

ism:

^OH

Me X(

J^0H;
-H,0

Me-03

mO0V

The authors

identified methyl cyanide as a product of the reaction of III with phosphorus pentachloride, and also showed that methyl cyanide and m-/S-decalol in sulphuric acid gave IV.
2i. Stereoisomerism of some other tervalent nitrogen compounds containing a double bond. There are several other types of compounds besides the oximes in which the nitrogen atom is linked by a double bond. The other atom joined by this double bond may be a carbon atom (as in the oximes), or another nitrogen atom, and in both cases stereoisomerism is possible; e.g., Krause (1890) obtained two isomeric forms of the phenylhydrazone of o-nitrophenylglyoxylic acid, I, and Hopper (1925) isolated two

160

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. VI

N0 2
C6 H5 -C-CO-C6 H5

N-NH-C6 H5
I

II

N-NH-CO-NH
II

H0 2 C^ ^CHaCHa^
III

^COC H
6

isomers of the monosemicarbazone of benzil, II. Mills and Bain (1914) resolved III; this is resolvable because of the non-planar configuration of the three nitrogen valencies (cf. the oximes, 2d). Karabatsos et al. (1962) have examined the spectra of a number of ketone dinitrophenylhydrazones and semicarbazones, and have distinguished between the synand anti-forms, and have also calculated the amounts of each in solution. Phillips (1958) had already examined aldoximes by means of their

NMR

NMR

spectra.

Many cases of geometrical isomerism are known in which the two forms are due to the presence of a nitrogen-nitrogen double bond. Examples of this type which have been most extensively studied are the diazoates, IV, the diazosulphonates, V, and the diazocyanides, VI (see Vol. I, Ch. XXIV, for an account of these compounds).

II

.N'

II

NaCT
IV
syn-form

^S0 K
3

II

^CN

V
own -form
the anti-iorm.

VI
and- form
(1938),

Azobenzene

is

also

an example of this type, and according to Hartley

is

" ordinary " azobenzene

II

II

CeH 5
syn-azobenzene m.p. 71 -4"

C6H5
<ztt'-azobenzene

m.p. 68

Azoxybenzene

(in

quadricovalent) also exists in

which one nitrogen atom is tercovalent and the other two geometrical isomeric forms, the anti-

isomer being " ordinary " azoxybenzene.

C 6 Hb^

n
II

C H^

N
II

C6 Hf

^O

O^ ^C H
6

syn -azoxybenzene

owtt'-azoxybenzene

m.p. 86

m.p. 36

3a]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SOME ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON

161

Recently, Le Fevre et al. (1951) have measured the dipole moments and the ultraviolet absorption spectra of a number of triazens, and have concluded that these compounds exist in the ara&'-configuration about the nitrogen-

nitrogen double bond,

i.e.,

the configuration
E,

is:

II

^NH-R
These authors also believe that this anti-form is converted into an equilibrium mixture of the anti- and syw-forms when exposed to sunlight. Harley-Mason et al. (1961) have offered evidence to show that they have
isolated the three theoretically possible geometrical isomers of o-nitroaceto-

phenone azine (Ar

Me.

= o-N0 C H
2 6

4-)

/Ar

Ai\

N *r
Ar/
N

Y
Me

Y
N

Ms

A\ /Me
.N

Ar^^Me

Me/\A.r

Their evidence was based on infra-red, ultraviolet and spectra. This compound appears to be the first example of the isolation and characterisation of all three possible geometrical isomers of an azine.

NMR

3.

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF PHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS

we have seen, can exhibit covalencies of 3 and 4; phosphorus (and arsenic), however, can exhibit covalencies of 3, 4, 5 and 6, and consequently gives rise to more possible configurations than nitrogen. In tercovalent compounds the valency disposition is tetrahedral (sp 3), one orbital being occupied by a lone-pair; and in quinquevalent compounds the valency disposition is trigonal bipyramidal (sp 3d). In quadricovalent unielectrovalent compounds one electron is transferred from the phosphorus or arsenic atom to the anion and the valency disposition is tetrahedral (sp 3 ) (see also 4b). When there are double bonds present, one is a a- and the other is a jr-bond; thus, in POCl 3 the shape is tetrahedral (see also 1).
Nitrogen, as
,

3a. Tercovalent phosphorus compounds. Since the electronic configuration of phosphorus is (ls 8 )(2s 2 )(2^)(3s )(3^ 8 ), it might be expected that suitable tercovalent compounds, 3 P, could be resolved, since the configuration would be a trigonal pyramid (cf. 2c). No tertiary phosphines, however, have yet been resolved, and the reason for this appears to be the same as for tertiary amines, viz., that the phosphorus atom is in a state of
!!

Calculation has shown that the frequency of this oscillation in phosphine is 5 x 10* this is slower than that of nitrogen (2-3 X 10 10 ), and if it could be brought to zero, then tertiary phosphines would be resolvable. Increasing the weight of the groups slows down the oscillation in phosphorus compounds, e.g., replacement of the three hydrogen atoms by deuterium atoms changes the frequency to 6 x 10 s It seems possible, therefore, that very large groups might produce phosphines which would be resolvable; and if not zero in these compounds, the oscillation certainly can be expected to be zero in ring compounds (cf. nitrogen, 2c). Thus, if chemical difficulties can be overcome, tercovalent phosphorus compounds would be resolvable (see also 4c.)
oscillation.
;
.

162
3b.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. VI

Quadricovalent and quinquevalent phosphorus compounds. The earliest phosphorus compounds to be resolved were the phosphine
oxides,
e.g.,

Meisenheimer

et al.

(1911) resolved ethylmethylphenylphosphine

CH 3
C6 H 5

QH 3
C6H 5

P=0
I

P=
I

C 2 H6
I

OH 2 -C6 H5
II

oxide, I, and benzylmethylphenylphosphine oxide, II. Recent measurements of the P (and As O) bond length indicate that this bond is a

double bond. Some phosphine oxides that have been resolved recently are:

Me

OEt
6

0=P H4 -NMe
OMe
(McEwen
et al.,

3 (p)

}I-

EtP=0
I

SH I.
1956)

(Aaron

et al.,

1958)

Kipping (1911) obtained two optically active forms of the 2V-( )-menthyl derivative of 2-naphthylphenylphosphoramidic acid, III, and Davies and Mann (1944) resolved M-butylphenyl-/)-carboxymethoxyphenylphosphine
sulphide, IV.

NH-C 10H 19 (-)

C 6H 5 0P=0
O'C 10H 7 (2)
III

C 6H 6

^-COijH-CHjOCjHP=S
I 1

CH 2*CH2*CH CH
"

IV
its

Michalski

et al.

(1959)

(EtO)EtP(=0)-SCl, in

have prepared the phosphorus sulphenyl chloride, (+)- and ( )-forms, and Green et al. (1961) have

partially resolved phenylethylphosphinothiolic acid,

PhEtP(=0)*SH.

Another interesting phosphorus compound from the point of view of optical isomerism is ethyl triphenylmethylpyrophosphonate, V. If the two phosphorus atoms are asymmetric, then V contains two similar asymmetric
carbon atoms, and so
its

structure corresponds to the molecule Cabd-Cabd.

OC2H5
(C 6
5) S
" II

OC 2 H5
6 5) 3

H Q P O P C(C H
II

Thus there will be one racemic modification (composed of the pair of enantiomorphs) and one meso-iorm (cf. 7d. II). Hatt (1933) obtained two forms of compound V; both were inactive and so correspond to the racemic modification and the meso-iorm., but it was not possible to tell which was which. Many attempts have been made to resolve quaternary phosphonium
all these attempts failed. This failure attributed to the occurrence in solution of a " dissociation-equilibrium which causes very rapid racemisation (see 4a).

compounds, but until recently,

is ",

labcdF]+X-

^ abcV + dX
carried

The earlier attempts to

resolve

phosphonium compounds were always

4]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SOME ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON

163

out on compounds containing at least one alkyl group; consequently dissociation in solution could occur, thereby resulting in racemisation. Holliman and Mann (1947) overcame this difficulty by preparing a much more stable type of phosphonium compound; these workers prepared a salt in which the phosphorus atom was in a ring, viz., 2-phenyl-2-^-hydroxyphenyl[Link] 4-tetrahydro-wophosphinoliniurn bromide, VI, and resolved it. ^+
Br"

/P

CH i
VI
The

Nj HiOH(
g

/> ).

resolution of 3-covalent compounds of phosphorus does not prove that the phosphorus atom has a tetrahedral configuration; it only proves that the phosphorus atom cannot be in the same plane as the other four groups

VII
attached to it. Mann et al. (1955), however, have now synthesised P-spirobis-1 2 3 4-tetrahydrophosphinoliniUm iodide (VII) and resolved it into (+)- and ( )-forms which have high optical stability. The phosphorus atom is not asymmetric in this compound; it is the tetrahedral disposition of the four valencies which produces the dissymmetric cation (c/. nitrogen,
: : :

2a; see also 4b). Campbell et al. (1960) have prepared a series of azaphosphaphenanthrene NMe 2), but could not resolve them. When the (IX; e.g., H, R'

R=

HN

HNP=0

oxidised with hydrogen peroxide, the phosphine oxide Reduction of the (+)-oxide with lithium aluminium hydride gave the ( )-phosphine IX, and in the same way the reduction of the () -oxide gave the (+)-phosphine IX. It is not certain whether the optical activity in IX is due to an asymmetric tervalent phosphorus atom or to a rigid puckering of the molecular framework.
obtained, X,

phosphine

IX was
was

resolved.

4.

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF ARSENIC COMPOUNDS

Arsenic, like phosphorus, can exhibit covalencies of 3, 4, 5 and 6; consequently these two elements show a great similarity to each other, and differ from nitrogen which has a maximum covalency of 4.

164

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. VI

first

4a. Quadricovalent and quinquevalent arsenic compounds. The resolution of an arsonium compound was carried out by Burrows and Turner (1921). These workers obtained a solution of benzylmethyl-1-

CH,
1-C

CzHg +
I

As CeH
1

I-C10H7

-As CH2 -CH2 -CH 3 f

I

CH2 C 6 H5
-

CH^'CgHs
II

naphthylphenylarsonium iodide, I, that had a rotation of +12, but racemised rapidly (in solution). Similarly, Kamai (1933) isolated the (-f)-form of benzylethyl-1-naphthyl-w-propylarsonium iodide, II, which also racemised rapidly in solution. This rapid racemisation is believed to be due to a " dissociation-equilibrium " in solution. This explanation was suggested by Pope and Harvey (1901) to account for the racemisation of certain ammonium salts, but definite evidence for this theory was provided by Burrows and Turner (1921) in their work on arsonium salts. If this dissociation-equilibrium occurs, then in solution there will be:
[abcdAs] + I~

^ abcAs + dl
is

Burrows and Turner showed that when dimethylphenylarsine

treated
is

with ethyl iodide, the expected ethyldimethylphenylarsonium iodide

CH3
CHj As + C2 HS I
CeH5
I

CH3
CHr-As-C2 H5
C6 H6

CH3

As 2 H5 +
CH6

CH3I

CH3
CHj-As + CH3I
I

CH3 CH3-AsCH3
I

C6H5
obtained, but at the same time a considerable amount of trimethylphenylarsonium iodide is also formed. These results are readily explained by the
dissociation-equilibrium theory.

Since all the arsonium compounds investigated contained at least one alkyl group, Holliman and Mann (1943) prepared an arsonium compound with the arsenic atom in a ring, in the hope of stabilising the compound These authors prepared 2-^>-chlorophenacyl-2-phenyl(cf. phosphorus, 3b). [Link] 4-tetrahydro-woarsinolinium bromide, III, resolved it, and found that it did not racemise in solution at room temperature.

CH.

VH* .CJI S

Cir^ ^CH -C0-C H

2

Br"
6 4 -C1(^)

III

Although phosphine oxides of the type abcVO have been resolved (3b), On the other similar arsine oxides have not ; the reason for this is obscure. hand, arsine sulphides have been resolved, e.g., Mills and Raper (1925) resolved ^-carboxyphenylmethylethylarsine sulphide, IV.

4b]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SOME ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON

165

CH3
C 2 HS

As=S

CH.
|

CH2-CH 2 -CH 2-CH 3

*
-ir 0-C 6 H 2 (N0 2) 3 u -'t

Clfc-As^CgHs

CIV-A^-C6 H 5
CB.{

^C^-CHaCHij-CHa

V
C 6 H5

/CHj-CHg-CHg-CH,

C e Hs
|

/CHg-CHa-CHisCHs

CH^A8=S
CH2-As=S
CjHj^

CH2Aa
2 2

^PdCl ^
2

^CH OH -CH
VI

-CH3

C6 H^

X CH

CH2 CH 2 -CH3

VII
:

Chatt and Mann (1939) prepared ethylene-1 2-bis(M-butylmethylphenylarsonium) picrate, V, ethylene-1 2-bis(-butylphenylarsine sulphide), VI, and ethylene-1 2-bis(-butylphenylarsine)-dichloropalladium, VII, and obtained each compound in two forms. Each of these compounds is of the type Cabd'Cabd, and hence each should exist in one racemic modification and one weso-form (cf. 7d. II). As has already been stated, two forms of each were isolated; both were inactive, but the authors had no evidence for deciding which was which. It has already been pointed out above that Holliman and Mann prepared
:
:

Br"

VIII
the optically stable arsonium compound III. These authors, in 1945, also resolved an arsonium compound of the spiran type, viz., As-spiro-bis[Link] 4-tetrahydro-isoarsinolinium bromide, VIII. This does not contain an asymmetric arsenic atom; the optical activity is due to the asymmetry of the molecule (the two rings are perpendicular to each other), and this is evidence that the four valencies of arsenic are arranged tetrahedrally (see also 4b). Mann et al. (1960) have also resolved compound IX.
4b. Tercovalent arsenic compounds. The electronic configuration of arsenic is (ls 2 )(2s 2)(2p<i)(3s 2)(3p<i)(3d10)(4s i)(4p 3). Thus the configuration of tercovalent arsenic compounds will be a trigonal pyramid (cf. phosphorus,

166
3a).

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. VI

Physico-chemical evidence (X-ray analysis, spectroscopy and electron diffraction) has shown that in tercovalent compounds the arsenic atom is 4. at the apex of a tetrahedron, and that the intervalency angle is 100 It has also been shown that the arsenic is in a state of oscillation, the frequency of this oscillation through the plane of the three hydrogen atoms in arsine being 16 x 104 This is slower than that of phosphorus (5 x 10*), and very much slower than that of nitrogen (2-3 X 1010). Thus, preventing the oscillation of the arsenic atom, possibly by attachment to very large groups, should lead to the isolation of optically active tercovalent compounds. So far, however, all attempts to resolve compounds of the type Asdbc have failed (cf. nitrogen and phosphorus). On the other hand, tercovalent arsenic compounds in which arsenic has two of its valencies occupied in a ring compound have been resolved; the ring structure prevents oscillation of the arsenic atom (cf. Troger's base, 2c). Thus Lesslie and Turner These authors (1934) resolved 10-methylphenoxarsine-2-carboxylic acid, I. suggested that the assymetry of the molecule is due to the presence of a folded structure about the As axis, as well as the asymmetry due to the presence of an asymmetric arsenic atom (see structure II). This molecule

C02H

CH

CO,H

CH 3
II
I"

C2 H5
III

It might be noted, however, its mirror image are not superimposable. that the position of the methyl group with respect to the O As axis is uncertain (cf. the arsanthrens, below). This folded structure is reasonable in view of the fact that the valency angle of oxygen is also approximately 104; if the molecule were planar, then the valency angles of both arsenic and oxygen would be in the region of 120, which is a very large increase from the normal valency angle. When each enantiomorph of II is treated with ethyl iodide, the same racemised product is obtained. This is due to the fact that when the arsonium compound, III, is formed, the asymmetric quaternary arsenic atom is racemised owing to the dissociation-equilibrium.

and

X) v

.0.

C02 H
as

CO,H

<f

XC H
6

Lesslie and Turner (1936) also resolved 10-phenylphenoxarsine-2-carboxylic acid, IV. This compound was very stable, and oxidation to the arsine oxide, V, gave a completely racemised product. Campbell et at. (1956) have resolved some substituted 9-arsafiuorenes, e.g., 9-/>-carboxyphenyl-2-methoxy-9-arsafluorene (V). Campbell (1956) has also resolved 2^>-carboxyphenyl-5-methyl-l 3-dithia-2-arsaindane (Vb). This compound is optically stable in chloroform solution, but is racemised in aqueous sodium hydroxide. Campbell believes that this racemisation is due to the fission of the AsS bonds by aqueous alkali, and subsequent reversal of the reaction by acid, a type of behaviour observed in triaryl
:

4b]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SOME ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON

CH,
Sv

OCH,

167

CO2H

Vb
COjH
thioarsenites (Klement et al., 1938). Furthermore, Cohen et al. (1931) have shown that in sodium hydroxide solution, alkyl thioarsenites exist in equilibrium with thiol and arsenoxide:

/ R-As

SR'

\SR'

+ 2H aO

OH" 5==^ R-As H+

OH
+ 2R'SH

\OH

Chatt and Mann (1940) prepared 5 10-di-/>-tolyl-5 10-dihydroarsanthren, and pointed out that if the valency angle of arsenic remains constant at its normal angle (of approximately 100), then the structure will be folded, and consequently the three geometrical isomers, VI, VII and VIII, are apparently possible (T represents the ^-tolyl group). Chatt and Mann also
:

VII

VIII

pointed out that evidence obtained from models constructed to scale showed that the two ^>-tolyl radicals (T) in VIII would almost be coincident, and hence this isomer cannot exist. These authors isolated two optically inactive forms, but were unable to say which was which. When each compound was treated with bromine, both gave the same tetrabromide which, on hydrolysis, gave only one tetrahydroxide. The loss of isomerism in the tetrabromide (and in the tetrahydroxide) may be explained as follows. Bromination of VI and VII converts tercovalent arsenic into quinquecovalent arsenic, and in the latter state the ring valency angles of the arsenic become 120, and so the arsanthren nucleus is now planar. Thus both the

forms VI and VII would give the same tetrabromide, IX (the same is true for the tetrahydroxide) the tetrabromide should thus be planar, the configuration of each arsenic atom being trigonal bipyramidal in the 5-covalent
;

state (Fig. 2).

168

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

[CH. VI

Quinquevalent phosphorus and arsenic can make use of the 3d or Ad orbitals, respectively (cf. nitrogen, 2b). Thus nitrogen has a maximum covalency of 4, whereas that of phosphorus and arsenic is 5 or 6, e.g., the covalency of 6 is exhibited by phosphorus in solid phosphorus pentachloride X-ray diffraction shows this " molecule " (in the solid state) is PC14 + PC1 6 ~.

Phosphorus, which

become

is (Is ) (2s ) (2p*) (3s ) (3p s ) in the ground state, (ls 2 )(2s i )(2p s ){3s)(3p 3 )(3d) in its '* valence state ", since the 3s
2

may
and

3d orbitals have energy levels which are close together. Kimball (1940) showed, by calculation, that this arrangement, i.e., sp sd, could give rise to the stable trigonal bipyramidal configuration. This consists of three equivalent coplanar orbitals pointing towards the corners of an equilateral triangle, and two orbitals perpendicular to this plane (see Fig. 2) Electron diffraction studies of the vapours of phosphorus pentachloride and pentafluoride indicate the trigonal bipyramidal configuration in these molecules. The phosphonium ion might possibly be formed from this trigonal bipyramid by the transference of one of the electrons, or by the transference of a 3s
.

electron and hybridisation of the (3s)(3p 3) orbitals; in either case the tetrahedral configuration of the phosphonium ion can be asymmetric, but only in the case of the hybridisation of the (3s)(3p s ) orbitals will the four bonds be equivalent. Since the properties of phosphonium compounds are in agreement with the equivalence of the four bonds, it therefore appears, on theoretical grounds, that the tetrahedral configuration with the phosphorus atom at the centre is the probable one. From the experimental side, the preparation of optically active spirocompounds of phosphorus (3b) and of arsenic (4a) proves the tetrahedral configuration of these atoms. Earlier work by Mann et al. (1936, 1937) has also definitely established this configuration. These authors prepared compounds of the type [R3As Cul] 4 by combination of tertiary arsines or phosphines with cuprous iodide (or silver iodide) in these compounds the phosphorus or arsenic is 4-covalent, and X-ray analysis studies of the arsenic compound showed that the arsenic atom is at the centre of a tetrahedron. Since the corresponding phosphorus compounds are isomorphous, the configuration of the phosphorus is also tetrahedral. In the solid state, phosphorus and arsenic compounds may contain a negatively charged phosphorus or arsenic atom, e.g., PC1 4 + PC1 6 ~ (see above). In this condition, the phosphorus acquires an electron to become

and the

(3s)(3^)(3i 2 ),

In arsenic also acquires an electron to become -(As)(Ap s )(Ad z ). both cases the configuration is octahedral (six sp sd2 bonds), e.g., the following compound has been resolved (Rosenheim et al., 1925).

5a]

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SOME ELEMENTS OTHER THAN CARBON

169

Harris et al. (1956) have shown that a negatively charged phosphorus atom can also exist in solution these authors showed that triphenyl phosphite
;

dibromide ionises in methyl cyanide solution as follows: 2P(OPh) 3Br 2 ^[P(OPh) 3 Br] + + [P(OFh) t BrJ4c. Stereochemistry of antimony compounds. Some optically active tervalent antimony compounds have been prepared, the phenoxstibine (I) and the stibiafiuorene (II; Campbell, 1947, 1950). The asymmetry in I is probably due to the folding about the Sb axis (cf. phenoxarsines, 4b). Campbell et al. (1958) have also resolved the stibine (III).

CO.H

H0 2 C

It is of interest to note, in this connection, that calculations

by Weston

have led him to the conclusion that tervalent antimony, arsenic and sulphur compounds should be stable to inversion at room temperature. On the other hand, similar compounds of phosphorus would be optically stable only at low temperatures, and those of nitrogen not at all.
(1954)

5.

STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SULPHUR COMPOUNDS

Various types of sulphur compounds have been obtained in optically active forms, and although the general picture of the configurations of these molecules is quite clear, the details of the nature of the bonds of the central sulphur atom are in a state of flux (see 5e).
5a. Sulphonium salts. Pope and Peachey (1900) prepared carboxymethylethylmethylsulphonium bromide by the reaction between ethyl methyl sulphide and bromoacetic acid, and formulated the reaction as
follows:

At this time (before the electronic theory of valency, 191