Lecture 13: Structural Geology Chap. 8 p.

251-269;

DEFORMATION Deformation: alteration of size and/or shape Structural geology: Earth science discipline studying - The processes responsible for the deformation of the Earths crust - The geological structures produced by deformation: faults, joints, folds STRESS AND STRAIN Stress (): Force applied per unit area [N/m2] = force/area Normal stress: component of stress perpendicular to a given plane - Compressional: to shorten a body - Tensional: to pull apart a body - Shear: component of stress applied parallel to a given plane Strain (): Change in the shape and/or size of a body as a result of stress [dimensionless] - Elastic and Plastic deformation = L/L - Elastic deformation: returns to original shape Rocks typically behave as combination of ideal materials Some rocks have high modulus (strong) while others have a low modulus (weak) Some rocks will exhibit elastic deformation if the stress is small or over a short time period Some rocks deform plastically AFTER observing other types of deformation STRENGTH OF THE DIFFERENT ROCK TYPES Igneous rocks generally strong - Especially plutonic rocks due to large, interlocking crystals Sedimentary rocks vary - Salt, mudstones weak - Quartz-rich sandstones strong Metamorphic rocks vary - Quartizites strong - Schists weak due thin layering At shallow depth (low pressure) - Rocks behave elastically to elastic limit before brittle failure - Forces primarily vertical, weight of overlying materials Middle to lower crust (higher pressure) - Rocks first behave elastically - Forces/Temperature from different directions - Ductile failure Above the elastic limit, two scenarios: - Brittle rocks fail abruptly producing fractures -Ductile rocks undergo plastic deformation producing undulations called folds *Remember that layers are always deposited horizontally MAPPING PLANAR FEATURES Requires coordinate system - With respect to North - Planar features are expressed by Strike and Dip Strike: intersection of planar structure with a horizontal plane - Expressed as compass angle from North (clockwise) - 0 strike 360

MAPPING PLANAR FEATURES Dip: inclination of planar structure, measured 90 from strike line - Specify angle and direction - Water will flow in direction of dip - Dip always measured perpendicular to strike When measuring Strike and Dip, we apply the right hand rule - Thumb in direction of Strike - Fingers in direction of Dip FRACTURES Brittle rocks produce fractures Fractures are the most common geological structure - Fracturing occurs in all rock types - Fracturing occurs at several scales Meters to hundreds of kilometers Factors controlling the brittleness of a rock: - Rock composition and texture - Temperature and pressure - Presence of fluids Two types of fractures, scale dependent - Faults: major fractures, showing appreciable movement between rock blocks - Joints: minor fractures, showing little or no movement between rock blocks - Both faults and joints have significant engineering implications Stresses building up in the Earth's crust are relieved by relative motion between rock blocks Fault: fracture in the Earth's crust resulting from the displacement of one rock block with respect to the other Hangingwall: rock block above the fault Footwall: rock block below the fault Sudden movement along active faults are the cause of most earthquakes Many faults are inactive - Evidence of past deformation Faults are classified according to the relative movement between blocks - Dip-slip fault: movement in the direction of dip Normal fault & Reverse fault - Strike-slip fault: lateral movement along strike - Several faults display a combination of dip-slip and strike-slip movement THRUST FAULTS

Thrust fault: low-angle reverse fault Moves older rocks (hanging wall) over younger rocks (foot wall) Associated with plate collision and mountain building Large displacements (up to 100s km) Typical dip < 20

ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS: FAULTS Faults can introduce a number of conditions that can have a negative impact on engineering projects - Differing rock types on either side of the fault - Presence of weaker rock material - Faults provide access to water - Movement between rock blocks Narrow zone of intense deformation Rocks within the zone might be weaker - Fault breccia: pieces of broken rocks - Fault gouge: clay material resulting from rock pulverized during movement Surrounding rock is intact and strong The obvious: Earthquakes!!! JOINTS Joints are a concern for road cuts, slope stability, tunneling, mining operations Joint: a fracture with little or no movement between rock blocks Joint set: a group of parallel joints Joints are fractures Frequently form parallel to pre-existing zones of weakness: Bedding planes Bedding joints Foliations Foliation joints Slaty cleavage Cleavage joints Joint frequency is not necessarily constant throughout a rock mass - In sedimentary rock, regular joints - In granite, irregular joints JOINTS: THE CAUSE Joints result from internal stresses - Stresses transmitted into continents by plate tectonics - Expansive joints: loading (burial) and unloading (removal of overlying rocks by erosion) - Cooling joints: thermal contraction/expansion in relation to igneous processes Systematic joints - parallel, regularly-spaced fractures - Created by a regional uniform stress Non-systematic joints - randomly orientated fractures with irregular or curved joint faces - Created by local non-uniform stresses JOINTS: MEASUREMENT Stereonet plots strike and dip - Stereographic projection - Points closer to the circumference represent vertical faces - Points closer to the center represent horizontal faces SIGNIFICANCE OF JOINTS Impact on the strength (quality) of the rock Water flow: increased permeability and fluid movement along joints - In soluble rocks, dissolution occurs preferentially along joints - Concentration of chemical/mechanical weathering along joints - Favors circulation of mineral-rich hydrothermal fluids ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS: JOINTS Orientation - Orientation of joints are a major concern for slope stability - Take advantage of planes of weakness during quarrying Anisotropy: characteristic of a property having a different value when measured in different directions - Rock masses with non-systematic joints have less anisotropy than masses with systematic joints - Rock masses with systematic joints might have significantly weaker properties in a specific direction Spacing - Closely-spaced joints tend to cause numerous rock falls - More widely-spaced joints tend to cause massive rock failures

FOLDS Ductile rocks produce folds Fold: geological structure formed when rocks are bent or curved as a result of plastic deformation - Folds are produced by lateral compression of the crust - There might be multiple phases of deformation - Folds can be re-folded by a later event - Folding occurs at several scales Composition of a fold - Hinge: point of maximum curvature - Limbs: parts of fold that are not curved; interlimb angle - Axial plane: imaginary plane equidistant from each limb, bisects angle between limbs - Axis: intersection of hinge and axial plane - Plunge: angle between horizontal and hinge ANTICLINE AND SYNCLINE

Anticline: arched fold in which the central part contains the oldest rock layer - Convex upwards Syncline: arched fold in which the central part contains the youngest rock layer - Convex downwards Neutral: axial plane horizontal Folds can be complex when considering all the parameters Note double anticline forms a dome ATTITUDE OF AXIAL PLANE Four types of folds based on dip of axial plane

SYMMETRY ABOUT AXIAL PLANE Symmetric: lengths of limbs L1 and L2 equal Asymmetric or Overturned: limb lengths not equal, L1 > L2

PROGRESSION OF FOLDING

Map Example Note dip arrows still point away from plunging antiforms, in to synforms ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS: FOLDS Unequal stresses can be present in a folded rock mass - Event within the same rock unit Stresses are a function of: - Position in the fold - Style of the fold - Variations in bedding, foliation, etc. Civil engineering operations may meet with unexpected results when the stresses are released CASE STUDY: SUDBURY STRUCTURE The Sudbury structure formed by meteoritic impact (1.85 Ga) - Over the time, structure has been deformed by compressional forces from a circular to an oval shape Major mineral deposits (Ni, Cu) - Renew interest in the economic potential of other impact craters SUDBURY: INCO R&D PROJECT Joints are mapped to estimate the quality (structural integrity) of the rock It is difficult to map joints underground - Harsh environment - Poor lighting conditions - Manual, requires compass measurements Business drivers Quantitative structural analysis of joint orientation and block size for planning support Data archiving Money