FM 7-21.

13

THE SOLDIERS GUIDE

FEBRUARY 2004
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION:
Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

HEADQUARTERS
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

FOREWORD
The Soldier is the ultimate guardian of Americas freedom. In over
120 countries around the world, Soldiers like you are protecting
our Nations freedom and working to provide a better life for
oppressed or impoverished peoples. It is no accident our Army
succeeds everywhere we are called to servethe loyalty and
selfless service of the American Soldier guarantee it.
Today our Army is fighting directly for the American people. This
global war on terrorism is about our future. Its about ensuring our
children and grandchildren enjoy the same liberties we cherish.
While difficult tasks remain, victory is certain. The efforts and
sacrifices of the American Soldier will assure it.
Although our technology has changed, the core of our success
remains the American Soldier. Whether equipped with a bayonet
or an Apache helicopter, the American Soldier is the most lethal
weapon in the world. Regardless of MOS or location on the
battlefield, the American Soldier will accomplish the missionand
will destroy any enemy interference with that mission.
This Soldiers Guide applies to every soldier in the Armyactive,
reserve, and National Guardin every rank and MOS. It
condenses important information from a number of Army
Regulations, Field Manuals, DA Pamphlets and other publications.
This manual describes your role in the Army, your obligations, and
what you can expect from your leaders. Other subject areas are
Army history, training, and professional development. This manual
also describes standards in appearance and conduct and selected
individual combat tasks that are important for every Soldier to
master.
This manual gives you a good reference to find answers for many
questions. It helps clarify and reinforce standards and helps
prepare you to assume leadership positions. Read it thoroughly
and continue to do the great work American Soldiers have done
for almost 230 years.

FM 7-21.13, C1
Change No.1

HEADQUARTERS
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
Washington, DC, 20 September 2011

The Soldiers Guide

1. Change FM 7-21.13, 2 February 2004, as follows:
Remove old pages:

Insert new pages:

3-1 and 3-2 ...................................... 3-1 and 3-2

3-35 and 3-36 .................................. 3-35 and 3-36
3-41 through 3-48 ............................ 3-41 through 3-48
7-33 and 7-34 .................................. 7-33 and 7-34
Index-7 and Index-8 ........................ Index 7 and Index-8
2. An asterisk (*) marks new material.
3. File this transmittal sheet in the front of the publication.

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

FM 7 21.13, C1
20 September 2011

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

RAYMOND T. ODIERNO
General, United States Army
Chief of Staff
Official:

JOYCE E. MORROW
Administrative Assistant to the
Secretary of the Army
1122803

DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, Army National Guard, and U. S. Army Reserve: Not to be distributed; electronic
media only.

PIN: 081082-001

FM 7-21.13
Field Manual
No. 7-21.13

Headquarters
Department of the Army
Washington, DC, 2 February 2004

The Soldiers Guide

Contents
Page

FIGURES.............................................................................................. iii
TABLES ............................................................................................... iv
VIGNETTES .......................................................................................... v
ILLUSTRATIONS ................................................................................ vii
PREFACE........................................................................................... viii
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... x
Chapter 1

THE INDIVIDUAL SOLDIERS ROLE IN THE ARMY .......................1-1

Section I The Warrior Ethos and Army Values ...........................1-2
Section II The Team .....................................................................1-18

Chapter 2

THE ARMY AND THE NATION .........................................................2-1

Section I A Short History of the US Army ...................................2-2
Section II The Operational Environment ...................................2-59
Section III How the US Government Works...............................2-64

Chapter 3

DUTIES, RESPONSIBILITIES, AND AUTHORITY

OF THE SOLDIER..............................................................................3-1
Section I Duties, Responsibilities, and Authority.......................3-3
Section II Wear and Appearance ................................................3-15
Section III Uniform Code of Military Justice..............................3-30
Section IV Standards of Conduct...............................................3-38

Chapter 4

CUSTOMS, COURTESIES, AND TRADITIONS................................4-1

Customs..............................................................................................4-1
Courtesies ..........................................................................................4-2
Traditions ............................................................................................4-8

Chapter 5

TRAINING ..........................................................................................5-1
Section I Army Training Management .........................................5-2
Section II Individual Training......................................................5-15
Section III Force Protection ........................................................5-25

Chapter 6

DEVELOPMENTAL COUNSELING AND PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................6-1
Section I Developmental Counseling...........................................6-2
Section II Professional Development.......................................... 6-8
Section III Retention and Reenlistment ....................................6-20

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

This publication supersedes FM 7-21.13, 15 October 2003.
i

FM 7-21.13 ____________________________________________________________
Page

Chapter 7

BENEFITS OF SERVICE ...................................................................7-1

Section I Pay and Allowances ......................................................7-4
Section II Housing ........................................................................ 7-7
Section III Health ...........................................................................7-9
Section IV Financial Readiness and Planning ..........................7-16
Section V Education................................................................... 7-23
Section VI Relocation Assistance .............................................7-24
Section VII Legal Issues..............................................................7-27
Section VIII After the Army ........................................................ 7-29

Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Appendix D
Appendix E
Appendix F

SELECTED COMBAT TASKS ......................................................... A-1

ARMY PROGRAMS.......................................................................... B-1
CEREMONIES .................................................................................. C-1
INTERNET RESOURCES................................................................. D-1
PROFESSIONAL READING............................................................. E-1
ARMS AND SERVICES OF THE ARMY ...........................................F-1
SOURCE NOTES........................................................... Source Notes-1
GLOSSARY ...........................................................................Glossary-1
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................. Bibliography-1
INDEX.......................................................................................... Index-1
NOTES ....................................................................................... Notes-1

ii

FM 7-21.13

Figures
Page
1-1. The Army Leadership Framework....................................................... 1-23
1-2. The Problem Solving Steps ................................................................ 1-26
1-3. The Troop Leading Procedures .......................................................... 1-28
1-4. Ethical Reasoning Process................................................................. 1-30
2-1. Organization of the US Government................................................... 2-67
2-2. Organization of the Department of Defense ....................................... 2-70
2-3. Organization of the Department of the Army ...................................... 2-72
2-4. Make up of the Army of One............................................................... 2-74
3-1. On-the-Spot Correction Steps ............................................................ 3-13
3-2. Corrective Training Guidelines ........................................................... 3-14
3-3. Wear of the Beret, Male and Female .................................................. 3-23
3-4. The Code of Conduct.......................................................................... 3-43
4-1. The Army Flag and Streamers............................................................ 4-12
4-2. The Army Seal .................................................................................... 4-13
5-1. Integration of Collective and Individual Training ................................. 5-10
5-2. Individual Tasks to METL Relationship............................................... 5-15
A-1. Straight-line Route.............................................................................. A-10
A-2. Adjusted Route................................................................................... A-11
A-3. Route of Travel................................................................................... A-12
A-4. Checkpoints ....................................................................................... A-13
A-5. Distance Between Checkpoints.......................................................... A-14
A-6. Bypassing an Obstacle....................................................................... A-15
A-7. Temporary Fighting Positions............................................................. A-44
C-1. Fallen Soldier Display ........................................................................ C-12

iii

FM 7-21.13

Tables
Page
1-1. Reverse Planning Example ................................................................. 1-28
3-1. Maximum Punishments in Article 15 ................................................... 3-34
3-2. Types of Chapter Discharges..............................................................3-35
6-1. Promotion Criteria-Active Duty ............................................................6-15
6-2. Promotion Criteria-Army National Guard............................................. 6-17
6-3. Promotion Criteria-Reserve TPU, PV2-SSG ....................................... 6-18
6-4. Promotion Criteria-Reserve TPU, SFC-SGM ...................................... 6-18
6-5. Promotion Criteria-Active Guard and Reserve .................................... 6-18
6-6. Promotion Criteria-IRR, IMA, and Standby Reserve (Active List)........ 6-19
7-1. Other Pay .............................................................................................. 7-5
7-2. Allowances ............................................................................................ 7-6
7-3. Administrative Effect of Discharge ...................................................... 7-31
7-4. Transitional Benefits and Discharge.................................................... 7-31
7-5. Veterans Benefits and Discharge .......................................................7-32
7-6. Other Federal Benefits and Discharge ................................................7-33
F-1. Career Management Fields of the Armys Enlisted Soldiers .................F-7
F-2. Branches of the Armys Officers............................................................F-8
F-3. Areas of Concentration by Functional Area...........................................F-9
F-4. Branches of the Armys Warrant Officers ............................................F-10

iv

FM 7-21.13

Vignettes
Page
The Loyalty of Private First Class Ernest E. West ....................................... 1-7
Private First Class Clarence Eugene Sasser and Duty................................ 1-8
The Sentinels Creed ................................................................................. 1-10
SPC Michael John Fitzmaurice at Khe Sanh ............................................. 1-11
Private First Class Silvestre Santana Herrera in France............................ 1-13
Private First Class Parker F. Dunn in the Argonne Forest ......................... 1-15
The Deployment ........................................................................................ 1-21
A Better Way.............................................................................................. 1-25
Ethical DilemmaThe Checkpoint ............................................................ 1-29
Ethical DilemmaThe Checkpoint (contd) ............................................... 1-31
Ethical DilemmaGuard Duty ................................................................... 1-32
Crispus Attucks in the Boston Massacre...................................................... 2-3
The Marquis de LafayettePatron of Liberty .............................................. 2-6
Antietam and Emancipation ....................................................................... 2-18
The First Medal of Honor Recipient ........................................................... 2-19
The 1st Minnesota at Gettysburg................................................................ 2-20
The 7th Cavalry at the Little Big Horn ......................................................... 2-23
Private Augustus Walley in Cuba............................................................... 2-25
Harlem Hellfighters .................................................................................... 2-28
Sergeant Edward Greene at the Marne ..................................................... 2-29
Corporal Harold W. Roberts at the Montrebeau Woods............................. 2-30
The Unknown Soldier................................................................................. 2-31
Transformation in the 1920s ...................................................................... 2-33
A Company, 116th Infantry on D-Day ......................................................... 2-38
Krinkelt-Rocherath during the Battle of the Bulge ...................................... 2-39
Private First Class Desmond Doss at Okinawa ......................................... 2-41
v

FM 7-21.13

Task Force Smith .......................................................................................2-44

Chaplain Emil J. Kapaun in Korea.............................................................. 2-46
Corporal Gilbert G. Collier, the Last Army Medal of Honor
Recipient of the Korean War ......................................................................2-47
Landing Zone (LZ) X-Ray in the Ia Drang Valley........................................ 2-48
Specialist Fifth Class Dwight Johnson........................................................ 2-49
Task Force Ranger..................................................................................... 2-54
Making an On-the-Spot Correction............................................................. 3-13
Platoon Sergeant and Enlisted Soldier Relationship .................................. 3-39
Officer-Enlisted Gambling........................................................................... 3-40
The Salute .................................................................................................... 4-3
Parade Rest ................................................................................................. 4-6
The Best Machinegunner in the 101st ..........................................................5-5
Khobar........................................................................................................ 5-28
Rules of Engagement ................................................................................. 5-30
Informal Footlocker Counseling ................................................................. 6-5
Promotion Counseling .................................................................................. 6-6
The Oath of Enlistment............................................................................... 6-20
Medical Bills ............................................................................................... 7-15

vi

FM 7-21.13

Illustrations
Page
A Soldier Provides Security during Operation Iraqi Freedom....................... 1-6
The Army Medal of Honor.......................................................................... 1-12
An NCO Inspects his Soldiers Prior to Assuming Guard Duty ................... 1-16
Convoy Briefing during Operation Iraqi Freedom....................................... 1-27
A Junior NCO Decides His Teams Next Move.......................................... 1-33
The Whites of Their Eyes. The Battle of Bunker Hill .............................. 2-4
Von Steuben Instructs Soldiers at Valley Forge, 1778................................. 2-7
The Road to Fallen Timbers ...................................................................... 2-10
The SurrenderGeneral Lee meets General Grant .................................. 2-22
The 1st Volunteer CavalryThe Rough Ridersat Kettle Hill................. 2-24
th
Tip of the Avalanche. The 36 Infatry Division lands at Salerno ............ 2-37

A Squad Leader of the 25th Infantry Division.............................................. 2-40

The 7th Infantry Division Band on the Capitol Grounds in Seoul, 1945 ...... 2-42
The Equipment of the US Army Constabulary ........................................... 2-43
Artillery Gun Crew in Korea Waits for the Order to Fire ............................. 2-45
A Female Soldier Assigned to the 725th Ordnance Company (EOD)......... 2-51
On the Move during Operation Desert Storm............................................. 2-53
Soldiers of the 101st Airborne Division Fold the Flag ................................. 2-56
Soldiers from the 3d Infantry Division in Firing Positions ........................... 2-57
A Stryker Infantry Carrier Vehicle Squad Follows their Vehicle ................. 2-63
Bugler from the Army Band.......................................................................... 4-9
Hot WashAn AAR at the Combat Maneuver Training Center................. 5-13
Building an Individual Fighting Position...................................................... 5-18
A Military Police Soldier Inspects a Vehicle ............................................... 5-26
Reenlisting in Kandahar, Afghanistan ........................................................ 6-21
Soldiers of the 115th Military Police Company ........................................... 7-28
vii

Preface
This Field Manual is dedicated to the men and women of the United States
Army in the active component, the Army National Guard and the US Army
Reservealtogether Americas finest fighting machine. You are the soldiers
that fight and win the Nations wars. Be proud.
FM 7-21.13, The Soldiers Guide, is a pocket reference for subjects in which all
soldiers must maintain proficiency, regardless of rank, component or military
occupational specialty (MOS). It condenses information from other field
manuals, training circulars, soldier training publications, Army regulations,
and other sources. It addresses both general subjects and selected combat
tasks. While not all-inclusive or intended as a stand-alone document, the guide
offers soldiers a ready reference in many subjects.
FM 7-21.13 is divided into seven chapters. Chapter 1 describes the importance
of Army Values and the obligations of every soldier. Chapter 2 provides a short
history of the Army and examines the environment in which it operates.
Chapter 3 addresses the duties, responsibilities and authority of the soldier,
how to present a military appearance, and an introduction to the Uniform Code
of Military Justice. The importance of customs, courtesies, and traditions is in
Chapter 4. The soldiers role in training and a brief description of training
management are in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 discusses the importance of
counseling and professional development. The benefits of serving in the Army
are described in Chapter 7. The appendices contain specific combat tasks that
are important to every soldier and information on programs the Army offers to
assist soldiers and their family members.

The Soldiers Guide provides information critical to the success of soldiers in

the operational environment. Reading this manual will help prepare soldiers
for full spectrum operations and is a tool in building the Future Force soldier.
This book will be useful to every soldier who reads it.
The proponent for the publication is Headquarters, US Army Training and
Doctrine Command (TRADOC). Send comments and recommendations on DA
Form 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) to
Commandant, US Army Sergeants Major Academy, ATTN: ATSS-D, Fort Bliss,
TX 79918-8002 or through the Sergeants Major Academy website at
usasma.bliss.army.mil.
Unless stated otherwise, masculine nouns or pronouns do not refer exclusively
to men.
This publication contains copyrighted material.

viii

__________________________________________________________________ Preface

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The copyright owners listed here have granted permission to reproduce
material from their works. The Source Notes lists other sources of quotations,
vignettes, and examples.

Top Sergeant: The Life and Times of Sergeant Major of the Army William G.
Bainbridge, by William G. Bainbridge, William G. Bainbridge, New York:
Ballantine, 1995.

To Relieve Bastogne, by Don Stivers, Don Stivers, Stivers Publishing, 1990.

Dale E. Wilson, American Armor in the First World War, A Weekend With
the Great War: Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Great War Interconference
Seminar, ed. by Steven Weingarten, Cantigny First Division Foundation,

1996.

Captain Nathan Hale (1755-1776), by Mary J. Ortner, Ph.D., Mary J.

Ortner, 2001, Connecticut Society of the Sons of the American Revolution.
Stephen Hardin, "The Battle of the Alamo," Handbook of Texas Online,
www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online, Texas State Historical Association,
2003. Used with permission.
Don Rivers, William Pittenger, Medal of Honor Recipient, Village News (13
Aug 1998) Fallbrook Historical Society, Fallbrook, CA, 1998-1999.

We Were Soldiers Once and Young, LTG Harold G. Moore, US Army

(Retired) and Joseph L. Galloway, LTG H. G. Moore and Joseph L. Galloway,
Random House, Incorporated, 1992.

War as I Knew It by General George S. Patton. Copyright 1947 by Beatrice

Patton Walters, Ruth Patton Totten, and George Smith Totten. Copyright
renewed 1975 by MG George Patton, Ruth Patton Totten, John K. Waters, Jr.,
and George P. Waters. Reprinted by permission of Houghton Mifflin Company.
All rights reserved.
The Greenhill Dictionary of Military Quotations, edited by Peter G. Tsouras.

Copyright Peter G. Tsouras, London: Greenhill Books and Mechanicsburg,

PA: Stackpole Books, 2000.

Carl von Clausewitz, On War, edited by Michael Howard and Peter Paret.
Copyright 1976 by Princeton University Press. Reprinted by permission of
Princeton University Press.

ix

Introduction
Since the events of 11 September 2001, it is more evident than ever that
every American has the duty to contribute to the well being of our Nation
and its people; military service is one form of contribution. It is a privilege
to bear arms as a soldier in the defense of a free people. This privilege is
afforded only to individuals of good standing and of good reputation. What
you do with this opportunity is up to you. You took an oath that binds you
to this organization called the Army. Taking that oath meant that you
would defend our Constitution and comply with all the orders, regulations
and directions given by superiors. Always remember this commitment.
Although being a soldier is a dangerous profession, it can be the greatest
and most rewarding adventure of your life. The friends you make while in
the service will be your friends for life. This is especially true if you serve
with them in combat. If you stay in the Army you may serve with them
again in various jobs and locations. Where the Army takes you depends on
your personal and professional goals. When I was drafted in May of 1966, I
planned to serve only two years, but given all the opportunities the Army
afforded me, I spent a total of 24 years in the service. Many of those
opportunities are available to you; it is up to you to place yourself in the
position to take advantage of them.
This manual is a general guide that gives you a wealth of information about
the United States Army. Throughout your military service you have many
questions. Even if this guide does not have every answer you need, it should
give you the source to find the answer. I remember reading my Soldiers
Guide (the 1961 version) during basic training and advanced individual
training as a medical corpsman. While it answered some questions and was
helpful in refreshing my memory, its main purpose was to help us adjust to
Army life because the more we knew about the Army, the quicker the
adjustment would be. This manual you have today applies to every soldier
in the Army. Still, its a guide. You may have to look in other Army
publications for more detailed answers. Form the habit of using it whenever
a question about the Army comes to mind or in discussion with your fellow
soldiers.
Chapter 1 describes the individual soldiers obligations to the Army and
leaders obligations to soldiers. You will find a discussion of Army values,
those qualities that make the Army the elite organization it has become.
Although you already know Army values, this chapter will help explain why
they are important. This chapter tells you about team building and its
importance in the successful completion of the mission. Some day you will
be ready to assume a leadership position. When you demonstrate the
qualities highlighted in this chapter, you will have to accept the
responsibility to lead. In 1968, I was a staff sergeant responsible for 100
soldiers going through medical training. My leaders saw something in me
and I also thought I could contribute even more to the Army, and so I
x

____________________________________________________________ Introduction

applied for a direct commission. The teaching, coaching, and mentoring of

my leaders and my own assessment of my leadership skills allowed me to
assume positions of greater responsibility. It is the nature of military
service for soldiers to become leaders.
Chapter 2 contains a short history of the Army and it describes the
environment in which the Army operates. You can also refresh your
knowledge of how our government is organized and the Armys place within
the government. The history of our Army goes back over 300 years, and you
are part of a page in that history. I didnt imagine when I came in the Army
that I would receive the Medal of Honor, much less among a group that, for
the first time ever, was composed of all four branches of the service. As you
are reading do your very best to understand where you fit in the larger
picture. As a member of the military you might serve in any number of
locations so be prepared to meet an ever widening set of situations. You are
a soldier but you could perform a variety of duties in the completion of your
service. Because you support and defend the Constitution, it is important to
understand how the government works and how it affects you.
Chapter 3 details the duties, responsibilities, and authority of soldiers. You
will learn the sources of military authority and the reasons why authority
exists. This chapter also provides a guide on appearance and uniform
standards of the Army and answers most questions you may have about the
Uniform Code of Military Justice and the Armys standards of conduct.
These are basic requirements of all soldiers.
Chapter 4 addresses the customs, courtesies, and traditions of the Army.
Any organization that has been in existence as long as the Army has many
customs and traditions. They help make the Army and each unit unique. It
may be the motto or greeting that sets you apart as a member of a specific
unit, or it can even be the simple act of standing at parade rest, but our
customs and traditions are important to the spirit and morale of soldiers.
Take the time to learn these customs and traditions and what they mean,
always remembering that someone like you may have been the one that
started that tradition.
Chapter 5 contains information on training and how it will impact you. For
a person to be proficient in any skill, they must first have a good
understanding of what is to be accomplished. The knowledge needed may
come from classroom instruction, demonstrations, or field exercises. Keep in
mind that your training teaches you to shoot, move, communicate, and
survive so your unit can succeed in combat. The more you know the better
your chances for success. As a combat medic with an infantry company
during the Vietnam War, I trained on a number of skills that were not
normally expected of a medic. Our company required each soldier to be able
to adjust artillery, operate a radio, and many other tasks that, at the time, I
did not consider necessary. But a short time later I had to perform all those
tasks together, along with my basic medical training, and it made a
difference. During your training you must trust the knowledge and
experience of your leaders and learn all that is asked of you. Skills that you
consider unnecessary now may turn out to be important later.
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FM 7-21.13 _____________________________________________________________

Chapter 6 is about counseling and professional development. Here is how

the Army lets you know how you are doing and what you need to improve.
The service has a set path along which you can advance but you are
responsible for achieving your full potential. Your self-improvement
program is up to you. My experience over a period of 24 years shows how a
person can plan and advance in the service. Even though I had planned to
serve only two years when I was drafted, I discovered that I enjoyed
soldiering and wanted to continue being a soldier. I took advantage of
opportunities the Army offers every soldier who has the ability, discipline,
and desire to succeed and improve. I was able to have what was a
rewarding and successful career.
In Chapter 7 youll find detailed information on the benefits of serving in
the Army and in the appendices, the various programs the Army has to
help soldiers and their families. It is good information that will answer
many of the questions you have throughout your career.
I wish I could give you the secret of success, but I dont have it. All I can say
is that your success in the Army is a direct reflection of your effort. Work
each day to improve yourself. Make a commitment to make your unit better
by being a productive, proactive member of that unit. Try to learn
something new each day because the Army is a fast moving organization
and you must never stop learning. Treat your fellow soldiers as if they were
part of your family. They are. In all things, do your best; what you make of
yourself is your responsibility. And one last thingbe proud of being a
soldier. You are defending our Nation, our people, and our way of life. There
is no more honorable profession. Even after you leave the service you can be
proud to say, I am a soldier.

Charles C. Hagemeister
LTC, US Army (Retired), MOH
1 September 2003

xii

____________________________________________________________ Introduction

Biography of LTC Charles C. Hagemeister, US Army (Retired),

MOH
Lieutenant Colonel Charles Chris Hagemeister (US Army, Retired) has
served the Nation in both the enlisted and commissioned ranks. He has
been both a reserve and regular Army officer. His assignments include
tactical and training units, in peacetime and in combat.
He was drafted into the United States Army in March 1966 and entered
service in May 1966 at Lincoln, Nebraska. He went through basic training
at Fort Polk, Louisiana, and completed advanced individual training as a
combat medic at Fort Sam Houston, Texas, in November 1966.
LTC Hagemeister was assigned to the 1st Battalion, 5th Cavalry of the 1st
Cavalry Division in the Republic of Vietnam. He was a Specialist 4 (SPC) at
the time, supporting a platoon in A Company in Binh Dinh Province on 20
March 1967 during the Vietnam War. SPC Hagemeister's platoon suddenly
came under heavy attack from three sides by an enemy force occupying well
concealed, fortified positions and supported by machineguns and mortars.
After SPC Hagemeister saw two of his comrades seriously wounded in the
initial action, he unhesitatingly and with total disregard for his safety raced
through the deadly hail of enemy fire to provide them medical aid. SPC
Hagemeister learned that the platoon leader and several other soldiers also
had been wounded. He continued to brave the withering enemy fire and
crawled forward to render lifesaving treatment and to offer words of
encouragement. While attempting to evacuate the seriously wounded
soldiers, SPC Hagemeister was taken under fire at close range by an enemy
sniper. Realizing that the lives of his fellow soldiers depended on his
actions, SPC Hagemeister seized a rifle from a fallen comrade and killed
the sniper and three other enemy soldiers who were attempting to encircle
his position. He then silenced an enemy machinegun that covered the area
with deadly fire.
Unable to remove the wounded to a less exposed location and aware of the
enemy's efforts to isolate his unit, he dashed through the heavy fire to
secure help from a nearby platoon. Returning with help, he placed men in
positions to cover his advance as he moved to evacuate the wounded
forward of his location. These efforts successfully completed, he then moved
to the other flank and evacuated additional wounded men, despite the fact
that his every move drew fire from the enemy. SPC Hagemeister's repeated
heroic and selfless actions at the risk of his life saved the lives of many of
his comrades and inspired their actions in repelling the enemy assault. SPC
Hagemeister received the Medal of Honor on 14 May 1968.
After his service in Vietnam, LTC Hagemeister (then Specialist 5) served at
McDonald Army Hospital in Fort Eustis, Virginia, and then as a medical
platoon sergeant in C Company, 1st Battalion, US Army Medical Training
Center at Fort Sam Houston, Texas.
LTC Hagemeister received a direct commission in the US Army Reserve as
an armor officer. After training at Fort Knox, Kentucky he was assigned to
Fort Hood, Texas where he served as a platoon leader, cavalry troop
xiii

FM 7-21.13 _____________________________________________________________

executive officer, and squadron liaison officer. In 1970 LTC Hagemeister

went to Schweinfurt, Germany where he commanded Headquarters and
Headquarters Troop, 3d Squadron, 7th Cavalry of the 3d Infantry Division
where he was also the Squadron Intelligence Officer.
After attending the Armor Officer Advanced Course and the Data
Processing Course LTC Hagemeister went back to Fort Hood in September
1977. There he served in the Communications Research and Development
Command as the Tactical Operations System Controller. In 1980 he
returned to Fort Knox and served as the Chief of Armor Test Development
branch and later became the Chief of Platoon, Company, and Troop
Training. LTC Hagemeister became a Regular Army officer on 15 December
1981 and was later promoted to Major. Following this promotion, LTC
Hagemeister became the executive officer for the 1st Battalion, 1st Training
Brigade at Fort Knox. He then attended the US Army Command and
General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. He remained at Fort
Leavenworth as the Director of the Division Commanders Course and then
as the Author/Instructor for Corps Operations, Center for Army Tactics in
the Command and General Staff College.
LTC Hagemeister retired from the Army in June 1990 but continued to
serve the Nation as a contractor supporting the Battle Command Training
Program (BCTP) as a Maneuver and Fire Support Workstation Controller
with the World Class Opposing Forces (WCOPFOR).

xiv

Chapter 1

The Individual Soldiers Role in the Army

Soldiers are the Armys most important resource. Trained,
fit, and determined soldiers, strengthened by the warrior
ethos, win Americas wars. This chapter describes the
importance of the Army values in developing and
maintaining the warrior ethosthe will to win. The
importance of the team and the soldiers role in it is in this
chapter, too. Here also are some of the basics of leadership
decision making, ethical reasoning and what leaders must
BE, KNOW, and DO.
Section I - The Warrior Ethos and Army Values..............................1-2
Warrior Ethos ...................................................................................1-3
The Army Values..............................................................................1-7
Discipline........................................................................................1-12
Section II - The Team .......................................................................1-17
Types of Teams .............................................................................1-17
Leaders, Soldiers ...........................................................................1-20
Ethical Reasoning ..........................................................................1-29
Transition to a Leadership Position ................................................1-32
Soldier Recognition ........................................................................1-34
For more information on Army values, teambuilding, leadership, and ethical reasoning,
see FM 6-22 (22-100), Army Leadership and the Army Leadership website at
www.leadership.army.mil.

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SECTION I - THE WARRIOR ETHOS AND ARMY VALUES

1-1.
The profession of arms involves the disciplined use of legally
sanctioned force. It imposes many demands but imparts lasting rewards
upon those who enter it. While the professional calling of the soldier is to
support and defend the Constitution, the challenge is to learn the
profession well enough to accomplish any mission effectively while
protecting the force. The soldiers of the United States Army serve around
the world in a multitude of different missions and roles. We are all
volunteers. Although there are many reasons why each soldier joins the
service, at some level one of them is the desire to serve our Nation.
1-2.
Soldiers serve America, our fellow citizens, and protect our way of
life. That is a tough job and a great responsibility considering the
dangerous state of the world. But soldiersand marines, sailors, airmen,
and coastguardsmenthroughout Americas history have stepped forward
and pledged their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor to do
precisely that. It is no different today.

The most impressive thing about any Army is the individual

Soldier. He will always be the one responsible for taking and
holding the ground in support of our foreign policy, mission,
goals, and objectives. Even with sophisticated technology and
advanced equipment, an Army cannot fight, sustain, and win a
war without individual, quality Soldiers.
SMA Glen E. Morrell

1-3.
In the oaths of enlistment and commissioning, every soldier
promises to support and defend the Constitution from all enemies and to be
faithful to it. Enlisted soldiers also promise to obey the orders of the
President and the officers appointed over them. Every team has a leader,
and that leader is responsible for what the team does or fails to do. That is
why obeying orders is necessary; your leader is responsible for all your
military actions. When you take this oath you put into words your belief in
the United States, our form of government, and our way of life. It is a
formal statement supporting our freedoms that you will, if necessary, fight
any enemy who tries to take those freedoms from us. In taking the oath,
you became subject to military law as well as civilian law. You became a
soldier. Because you are a soldier, you will bear arms in defense of our
country until released by lawful authority. These are the fundamental
obligations of every soldier in the US Army.
1-4.
Human nature and inalienable rights are the same now as when the
writers of the Declaration of Independence put those immortal words to
paper: We hold these truths to be self-evident The dangers our Nation
and people face now are as real and daunting as then. We have a common
bond with those soldiers who first won our freedom and with those who

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paid in blood to maintain it. We today have their example to inspire and
educate us. We all stand a little taller because we share the title, soldier.
1-5.
The soldier, with comrades in arms from other services, is the
Nations ultimate guarantor of our way of life. Where America sends her
soldiers is where America makes the commitment to free the oppressed,
relieve suffering or protect freedom. The newly recruited Private and the
General who has served 35 years in multiple wars each have made the
same promise: to support and defend the Constitution of the United States.
We live by the same Army values and exhibit the same warrior ethos.

THE WARRIOR ETHOS

1-6.
Your adherence to Army values and your commitment to doing your
best is the basis of the warrior ethos. The warrior ethos is an individual and
collective quality of all soldiers. It is that frame of mind whereby soldiers
will not quit until they have accomplished their mission. It compels soldiers
to fight through all conditions to victory, no matter how long it takes and no
matter how much effort is required. It is the professional attitude that
inspires every soldier to fulfill his obligations, regardless of the obstacles.

Yours is the profession of arms, the will to win, the sure

knowledge that in war there is no substitute for victory, that if
you lose, the nation will be destroyed, that the very obsession
of your public service must be Duty, Honor, Country
General of the Army Douglas MacArthur

1-7.
At its core, the warrior ethos is the refusal to accept failure and
instead overcome all obstacles with honor. It begins as the soldiers selfless
commitment to the Nation, mission, unit and fellow soldiers. It is developed
and sustained through discipline, realistic training, commitment to Army
values, and pride in the Armys heritage. This demands continual
development, learning new skills and preparing to lead soldiers. Take
another look at the Introduction to this FM. When (then) SPC Hagemeister,
a medic, saw that he would have to fight in order to do his job, he did it
without hesitation. He was trained and confident in his ability to provide
medical care for his fellow soldiers and in his ability to fight to get it done.
1-8.
The Army has forged the warrior ethos on training grounds from
Valley Forge to the Combat Training Centers and sharpened it in combat
from Bunker Hill to Baghdad. It echoes through the precepts in the Code of
Conduct. The warrior ethos produces the will to win. Will and a winning
spirit apply in more situations than just those requiring physical courage.
Sometimes youll have to carry on for long periods in very difficult
situations. The difficulties soldiers face may not always be ones of physical
danger, but of great physical, emotional, and mental stress, as can occur in
support operations. Will empowers you to drive on during extended
deployments, under appalling conditions, and without basic necessities.
1-9.
Confidence enhances both physical courage and will. That
confidence in the ability of leaders, fellow soldiers, and the justness of the
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mission strengthen the soldiers resolve to fulfill his duty to the best of his
ability. He knows that if he is wounded, his buddies and the Army medical
system will do everything in their power to save his life. He knows that if
he is captured or missing, the Nation will spare no resource in returning
him to US control. And he knows that if he is killed in battle, he died
fighting for his fellow soldiers and protecting our people in a just cause.
1-10. Self-confidence is the faith that youll act correctly and ethically in
any situation, even one in which youre under stress and dont have all the
information you want. Self-confidence comes from competence. Its based on
mastering skills, which takes hard work, realistic training and dedication.
Soldiers who know their own capabilities and believe in themselves are selfconfident. Dont mistake loudmouthed bragging or self-promotion for selfconfidence. Self-confident soldiers dont need to advertise because their
actions say it all. Self-confidence is important for leaders, soldiers, and
teams. Self-confident leaders instill confidence in their people. In combat,
self-confidence helps soldiers control doubt and reduce anxiety. Together
with will and self-discipline, self-confidence helps leaders actdo what
must be done in circumstances where it would be easier to do nothingand
to convince their people to act as well.

No mission too difficult, no sacrifice too greatDuty First!

Motto of the 1st Infantry Division

1-11. The effect of the warrior ethos is that all soldiers understand they
must be prepared, and are confident in their ability, to accomplish their
assigned taskseven in the face of enemy resistanceanytime, anywhere
on the battlefield. The clear message is this: regardless of where
adversaries encounter you, the American soldier, you will not hesitate to
destroy them if they attempt to interfere with your mission, whatever it
may be. Dont overlook the importance of this. Many other soldiers depend
on what you do, so you cannot allow any obstacle or enemy action to prevent
you from accomplishing your assigned task.
1-12. America has a proud tradition of winning. The ability to forge
victory out of the chaos of battle includes overcoming fear, hunger,
deprivation, and fatigue. The Army wins because it fights hard; it fights
hard because it trains hard; and it trains hard because thats the way to
win. The warrior ethos fuels the fire to fight through the worst of conditions
to victory no matter how long it takes, no matter how much effort is
required. It sustains the will to win when the situation looks hopeless and
doesnt show any indications of getting better, when being away from home
and family is a profound hardship. The soldier who jumps on a grenade to
save his comrades is courageous, without question. That action requires
great physical courage, and pursuing victory over time also requires a deep
moral courage to persevere and concentrate on the mission.
1-13. Actions that safeguard the nation occur everywhere that you find
soldiers. The warrior ethos spurs the lead tank driver across a line of
departure into uncertainty. It causes the bone-tired medic continually to
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put others first. It pushes the sweat-soaked military police soldier to

remain vigilant regardless of the extreme temperature. It drives the
infantry soldier steadily toward the objective despite heavy enemy fire. It
presses the signaler to provide communications in a blinding sandstorm.
And the warrior ethos urges the truck driver along roads bounded by
minefields because fellow soldiers at an isolated outpost need supplies.
Such tireless motivation comes in part from the comradeship that springs
from the warrior ethos. Soldiers fight for each other; they would rather die
than let their buddies down. Such loyalty runs front to rear as well as left to
right: mutual support marks Army culture regardless of who you are, where
you are, or what you are doing.

We will always complete the Mission to the Best of our Ability.

We will Never Surrender.
We will Never leave a Soldier behind.
An attack on any one of us is an attack on us all.
Where goes one so goes us all.
Creed of the 272nd Chemical Company, Massachusetts ARNG

1-14. Each soldier has an important job to do, necessary to the overall
unit mission. Soldiers throughout the Army, for example, perform the
duties of medics, infantrymen, cooks, truck drivers, mechanics, legal clerks,
and aviators. We bring fuel to the tanks, we scout for the enemy, we listen
to the enemys signals, and we teach young Americans what it takes to be a
soldier. We defend against air attacks, ensure soldiers are properly paid,
and process awards to recognize soldiers accomplishments. We know that
these efforts and more support a team and that the whole is greater than
the sum of its parts. That realization, coupled with the warrior ethos, cause
us to complete our task successfully. If the enemy tries to interfere with our
ability to accomplish an assigned task, the warrior ethos causes us to defeat
that interference.
1-15. The warrior ethos concerns character, shaping who you are and
what you do. It is linked to Army values such as personal courage, loyalty to
comrades, and dedication to duty. Both loyalty and duty involve putting
your life on the line, even when theres little chance of survival, for the good
of a cause larger than yourself. Thats the clearest example of selfless
service. Soldiers never give up on their comrades and they never
compromise on doing their duty. Integrity underlies the character of the
Army as well. The warrior ethos requires unrelenting and consistent
determination to do what is right and to do it with pride, both in war and
military operations other than war. Understanding what is right requires
respect for both your comrades and other people involved in complex arenas
like peace operations and nation assistance. In such situations, decisions to
use lethal or nonlethal force severely test judgment and discipline. In every
circumstance, soldiers turn the personal warrior ethos into a collective
commitment to win with honor.
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A soldier provides security during Operation Iraqi Freedom.

THE ARMY VALUES

1-16. Our individual effectiveness as part of the Army team comes from
within, from our upbringing, our character, and our values. The Army is an
organization that is guided by values. Army values are the basic building
blocks that enable us to see what is right or wrong in any situation. They
build the warrior ethos and they are mutually dependentyou cant fully
follow one while ignoring another.
1-17. The Armys core values are loyalty, duty, respect, selfless service,
honor, integrity and personal courage. They form the acronym LDRSHIP.
Fulfilling your obligations as an American soldier is possible by accepting
and living these values. These values tell you what you need to be, every
day, in every action you take and remind us and the world who we are and
what we stand for.
LOYALTY
1-18. Bear true faith and allegiance to the US Constitution, the Army,
your unit, and other soldiers.

To be a good leader and a good soldier, you must be loyal.

Stand by your organization and the officers, non-commissioned
officers, and fellow soldiers in it.
FM 21-13, The Soldiers Guide, 1961

1-19. Bearing true faith and allegiance is a matter of believing in and

devoting yourself to something or someone. You began your Army career
by promising to support and defend the Constitution. Your loyalty to the
Constitution also means obedience to the orders of the President and higher
ranking officers and NCOs. Since before the founding of the republic,
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Americas Army has respected its subordination to the Presidenta

civilian. A loyal soldier is one who supports the leadership and stands
up for fellow soldiers. You show your loyalty to your unit by doing your
share, without complaint and to the best of your ability. The Armys
service ethic is fundamental in building loyalty.
1-20. As a soldier who displays loyalty do the following:
Put obligations in correct order: the Constitution, the Army, the unit,
and finally, self.
Show faithfulness to unit and comrades by finishing all tasks with
them.
Carry out tough orders without expressing personal criticism.
Defend soldiers against unfair treatment from outside or above.
1-21. Loyalty to fellow soldiers is critical for generating confidence and
trust. Loyalty to ones leaders and fellow soldiers is the most vital resource
a unit has. It is this commitment that causes units and soldiers to risk
everything to succeed and to bring everyone back. You will find that after
enduring a difficult experience the bond between the soldiers of your unit
will be even stronger.

The Loyalty of Private First Class Ernest E. West

Private First Class West, was a soldier assigned to L Company, 14th
Infantry Regiment in the 25th Infantry Division. On 12 October 1952,
near Sataeri, Korea, PFC West voluntarily accompanied a contingent to
locate and destroy a reported enemy outpost. Nearing the objective, the
patrol was ambushed and suffered numerous casualties. Observing his
wounded leader lying in an exposed position, Private First Class West
ordered the troops to withdraw and then braved intense fire to reach
and assist him.
While attempting evacuation, he was attacked by three hostile soldiers
employing grenades and small-arms fire. Quickly shifting his body to
shelter the officer, he killed the assailants with his rifle and then carried
the helpless man to safety. He was critically wounded, losing an eye in
this action, but courageously returned through withering fire and
bursting shells to assist other wounded soldiers. While evacuating two
comrades, he closed with and killed three more enemy soldiers. Private
First Class West's loyalty to his fellow soldiers and intrepid actions
inspired all who observed him. He received the Medal of Honor.
DUTY
1-22. Fulfill your obligations.

I just wanted to serve my country. So here I am.

PV2 Jeremiah Arnold

1-23. Duty is the sum total of all laws, rules and expectations that make
up our organizational, civic, and moral obligations. We expect all members
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of the Army to fulfill their obligations, and we often expect individuals to

exceed their duty, especially in ethical matters. Duty also means being able
to do your job as part of a team. We each have a part to play in
accomplishing the units mission. Some parts may be more visible, as in the
leaders role, but every task is important. Recognition and willingness to do
your duty is what protects all Americans liberty.
1-24. Expressing the value of duty means, at a minimum, doing the
following:
Carry out the requirements of the position to the best of your ability.
Fulfill legal, civic, and moral obligations.
Sacrifice personal time in pursuit of excellence.
1-25. Duty begins with everything required of you by law, regulation, and
orders; but it includes much more than that. Professionals do their work not
just to the minimum standard, but to the very best of their ability and then
try to improve on their performance. Commit to excellence in all aspects of
your professional responsibility so that when the job is done you can look
back and say, "I could not have given any more."

Private First Class Clarence Eugene Sasser and Duty

While still a private first class, Sasser displayed devotion to duty while
assigned to Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 3d Battalion,
60th Infantry, 9th Infantry Division in Ding Tuong Province of the Republic
of Vietnam on 10 January 1968. He was serving as a medical aidman
with Company A, 3d Battalion, on a reconnaissance in force operation.
His company was making an air assault when suddenly it was taken
under heavy small arms, recoilless rifle, machinegun and rocket fire
from well fortified enemy positions on three sides of the landing zone.
The company sustained over 30 casualties in the first few minutes.
Without hesitation, PFC Sasser ran across an open rice paddy through
a hail of fire to assist the wounded. After helping one soldier to safety,
PFC Sasser was painfully wounded in the left shoulder by fragments of
an exploding rocket. Refusing medical attention, he ran through a
barrage of rocket and automatic weapons fire to aid casualties of the
initial attack and, after giving them urgently needed treatment, continued
to search for other wounded.
Despite two additional wounds immobilizing his legs, he dragged
himself through the mud toward another soldier 100 meters away.
Although in agonizing pain and faint from loss of blood, PFC Sasser
reached the man, treated him and proceeded on to encourage another
group of soldiers to crawl 200 meters to relative safety. There he
attended their wounds for five hours until they were evacuated. PFC
Sasser later received the Medal of Honor.

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RESPECT
1-26. Treat people as they should be treated.

Regardless of age or grade, soldiers should be treated as

mature individuals. They are engaged in an honorable
profession and deserve to be treated as such.
GEN Bruce C. Clarke

1-27. In the Soldier's Creed (on the back cover of this FM), we pledge to
"treat others with dignity and respect and expect others to do the same.
The Army is one huge team, made up of hundreds of component parts.
There must be connectionsground rulesso that when one soldier
approaches, works with, or talks to another, it is with immediate and
unquestioned cooperation and respect. Respect is what allows us to expect
and appreciate the best in other people instead of distrusting what is
different. Respect is trusting fellow soldiers to do their duty, even while
checking the quality of their work, if you are in a leadership position.
Respect for others also means avoiding the use of profanity or obscene
gestures.
1-28. To consistently demonstrate respect, do the following:
Have genuine concern for the safety and well being of others.
Be discreet and tactful when correcting or questioning others.
Be courteous and polite.
Take care of yourself physically to show your self-respect.
1-29. Respect is an essential component for the development of
disciplined, cohesive, and effective war fighting teams. Discrimination or
harassment on any basis eats away at trust and erodes unit cohesion. The
Army has no tolerance for it. But respect also includes the broader issue of
civility, the way people treat each other and those they come in contact
with. Tact and courtesy demonstrate respect for others. Are there occasions
when someone needs to raise his voice? Of course. When a soldier sees a
safety problem, for example, he may have to get someones attention right
away, and it may be in a way that someone else may take offense to. But
most soldiers realize such occurrence results from the desire to keep fellow
soldiers free of unnecessary risk. Soldiers and DA civilians, like their
leaders, treat everyone with dignity and respect. The soldiers who stand
watch over the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier protect, for all of us, the
respect we have for those who gave their lives in the defense of freedom.

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The Sentinels Creed

My dedication to this sacred duty is total and wholehearted.
In the responsibility bestowed on me never will I falter.
And with dignity and perseverance my standard will remain perfection.
Through the years of diligence and praise and the discomfort of the
elements, I will walk my tour in humble reverence to the best of my
ability.
It is he who commands the respect I protect.
His bravery that made us so proud.
Surrounded by well meaning crowds by day, alone in the thoughtful
peace of night, this soldier will in honored glory rest under my eternal
vigilance.
(Creed of the Sentinel of the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier)
SELFLESS SERVICE
1-30. Put the welfare of the Nation, the Army, and your soldiers before
your own.

If a man hasn't discovered something that he will die for, he

isn't fit to live.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

1-31. In serving your country, you are doing your duty loyally, without
thought of recognition or gain. Your fellow soldiers and the mission come
before your personal comfort or safety. Selfless service is your commitment
as a team member to go a little further, endure a little longer, and look a
little closer to see how you can add to the effort of the unit, platoon, or
company. Selfless service is larger than just one person. With dedication to
the value of selfless service, each and every soldier can rightfully look back
and say, "I am proud to have served my country as a soldier."
1-32. To demonstrate the value of selfless service, do the following:
Focus your priorities on service to the Nation.
Place the needs of the Army, your unit and your fellow soldiers above
your personal gain.
Balance the mission, your family, and your personal needs.
Accept personal responsibility for your own performance.
1-33. Selfless-service signifies the proper ordering of priorities. An old
saying from horse cavalry days is the horse, the saddle, the man. What it
means is to fulfill your duty before thinking of your own comfort. Think of it
as service before self. The welfare of the Nation and the organization come
before the individual. You can easily see how closely related selfless service
is with loyalty and duty. This only illustrates the importance of accepting
all the Army values and ignoring none.
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SPC Michael John Fitzmaurice at Khe Sanh

SPC Fitzmaurice, 3d Platoon, Troop D, 2d Squadron, 17th Cavalry
displayed selfless service at Khe Sanh in the Republic of Vietnam on 23
March 1971. SPC Fitzmaurice and three fellow soldiers were occupying
a bunker when a company of North Vietnamese sappers infiltrated the
area. At the onset of the attack SPC Fitzmaurice observed three
explosive charges which had been thrown into the bunker by the
enemy. Realizing the imminent danger to his comrades, and with
complete disregard for his personal safety, he hurled two of the charges
out of the bunker. He then threw his flak vest and himself over the
remaining charge. By this courageous act he absorbed the blast and
shielded his fellow-soldiers.
Although suffering from serious multiple wounds and partial loss of
sight, he charged out of the bunker, and engaged the enemy until his
rifle was damaged by the blast of an enemy hand grenade. While in
search of another weapon, SPC Fitzmaurice encountered and
overcame an enemy sapper in hand-to-hand combat. Having obtained
another weapon, he returned to his original fighting position and inflicted
additional casualties on the attacking enemy. Although seriously
wounded, SPC Fitzmaurice refused to be medically evacuated,
preferring to remain at his post. SPC Fitzmaurice's heroism in action at
the risk of his life contributed significantly to the successful defense of
the position and resulted in saving the lives of a number of his fellow
soldiers. SPC Fitzmaurice received the Medal of Honor.
HONOR
1-34.
Live up to all the Army values.

Soldiers don't leave their buddies behind.

SSG David Santos

1-35. When we talk about "living up to" something, we mean being worthy
of it. We must make choices, decisions, and actions based on the Army core
values. Nowhere in our values training does it become more important to
emphasize the difference between "knowing" the values and "living" them
than when we discuss the value of honor. Honor is a matter of carrying out,
acting, and living the values of respect, duty, loyalty, selfless service,
integrity, and personal courage in everything you do.

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The Army Medal of Honor

1-36.

As an individual with honor do the following:

Develop and maintain a keen sense of ethical conduct.

Adhere to a public code of professional Army values.
Identify with the ideals embodied in the Army values.
Realize that your actions reflect on the unit and soldiers around you
and act accordingly.
1-37. Noticing a problem and deciding to take action involves respect,
duty, and honor. It was a matter of honor that soldiers, at great risk to
themselves, distributed food in Somalia and kept the peace in Bosnia, while
managing to protect the communities within their unit areas of
responsibility. There are thousands of examples of soldiers who have
distinguished themselves with honorable actions and service. It is
significant that the Nation's highest military award is named The Medal of
Honor.

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Private First Class Silvestre Santana Herrera in France

The day the draft notice came, Silvestre S. Herrera learned for the first
time that he was not a US citizen. Even more shocking, the man he
thought was his father wasnt. Herrera was born in Camargo, Mexico.
After his parents died, his uncle brought the infant Silvestre to El Paso,
Texas and raised him as his own son. Because he was a citizen of
Mexico, he didn't owe service to the United States. Besides, he was 27,
married with three kids, and another on the way. But he went anyway
because, in his words, I didn't want anybody to die in my place."
He joined the 36th Infantry Division of the Texas National Guard.
Months later, on 15 March 1945, Private First Class Herrera was with
his unit, E Company, 142d Infantry Regiment, near Mertzwiller, France.
As his platoon was moving down a road, they came under heavy enemy
fire from the woods, forcing most of the men to seek cover. But PFC
Herrera charged the enemy alone and neutralized the position,
capturing eight enemy soldiers.
With that threat ended, the platoon continued down the road. They soon
came under enemy fire again from a second stronghold, pinning down
the platoon. This time a minefield stood between the soldiers and the
enemy gun emplacement. Disregarding the danger, Herrera rose to his
feet and entered the minefield to attack the enemy. Mines exploded
around him, but he continued to attack the enemy and draw their fire
away from his comrades. Then a mine exploded under him, severing his
leg below the knee. Still determined to stop the threat to his fellow
soldiers, he struggled back up on his good leg to continue the attack.
Another mine exploded, this one severing his other leg below the knee.
Despite intense pain and the unchecked bleeding of his wounds he lay
in the minefield, firing to suppress the enemy while others of his platoon
skirted the minefield to flank the enemy position.
His courage and fighting spirit reflected honor upon his adopted nation
and that of his birth. Private First Class Silvestre S. Herrera received the
Medal of Honor.
INTEGRITY
1-38. Do whats right, legally and morally.

I hope I shall possess firmness and virtue enough to maintain

what I consider the most enviable of all titles, the character of
an honest man.
George Washington

1-39. When we say that someone has integrity, we mean that person
respects the rules of an organization, the country, and life. Such persons
can be counted on to do the right thing, live honestly, and relate to others
without playing games or having false agendas. Integrity is a quality you
develop by adhering to moral principles every day, 24/7. As your integrity
develops, so does the trust others place in you.
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1-40. Display integrity by the following actions:

Act according to what you know to be right even at personal cost.
Be truthful and show consistency between your words and deeds.
Use the authority and power that comes with your rank or position
for mission accomplishment or for soldiers benefit.
1-41. Integrity requires us to pay our debts on time, return items that
someone else has lost, and follow rules and regulations. Integrity is
essential in self-discipline.
PERSONAL COURAGE
1-42. Face fear, danger, or adversity.

I knew when I signed up the job would bring risk. It's a risk
I'm willing to take.
PFC Trent James David

1-43. Personal courage includes the notion of taking responsibility for

your decisions and actions. Additionally, courage involves the ability to
perform critical self-assessment, to confront new ideas, and to change.
Leaders must make decisions that involve risk and often must take a stand
with incomplete information during times of great stress. Personal courage
has long been associated with our Army. Accounts of the dangers and
hardships that soldiers have successfully faced are legendary. Personal
courage is not the absence of fear; it is taking positive action in spite of the
fear. It takes two forms: physical and moral.
1-44. Physical courage means overcoming fears of bodily harm and still
being able to do your duty. Its the bravery that allows a soldier to operate
in combat in spite of the fear of wounds or death. It is what gets the soldier
at airborne school out the aircraft door. Its what allows an infantryman to
assault a bunker to save his buddies or a medic to treat the wounded while
under fire. With physical courage, it is a matter of enduring physical duress
and, at times, risking personal safety.

Fear is a natural reaction to the unknown; it is not necessarily

a negative. A positive from fear is the heightened awareness
that comes from being afraid. Harnessed, this heightened
awareness is an asset.
CSM Michael T. Hall

1-45. Moral courage is the willingness to stand firm on your values,

principles, and convictions, even when threatened. Moral courage is
sometimes overlooked, both in discussions of personal courage and in
routine, daily activities. Moral courage often expresses itself as candor.
Candor means being frank, honest, and sincere with others while keeping
your words free from bias, prejudice, or malice.

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1-46. Your courage will allow you to do the following:

Control your fear in physical and moral contexts.
Take responsibility for your actions, mistakes, and decisions.
Confront problems and do what you believe is right.
Report successes and failures with equal candor.
1-47. When considering personal courage, physical or moral, there is one
important point to be made. Nowhere does the value say that fear must
disappearthat you should not feel fear. Nor does it imply that courage is
only required in combat. Many soldiers who have never seen a battlefield
have carried out acts of great courage. Demonstrate personal courage by
daily standing up for and acting upon the things that you know are right.

Private First Class Parker F. Dunn in the Argonne Forest

Private First Class Dunn displayed personal courage while assigned to
the 1st Battalion, 312th Infantry Regiment of the 78th Division. On 23
October 1918, near Grand-Pre, France, PFC Dunns battalion
commander needed to send a message to a company in the advanced
lines of an attack. Because of the extreme danger due to heavy enemy
fire and limited prospect for survival, he hesitated to order a runner to
make the trip. But PFC Dunn, a member of the intelligence section,
volunteered for the mission.
After advancing only a short distance across a field swept by artillery
and machinegun fire, he was wounded but continued on. He was
wounded a second time and fell to the ground. Despite his painful
wounds he got up again and persistently attempted to carry out his
mission until enemy machinegun fire killed him before reaching the
advance line. PFC Dunn received the Medal of Honor posthumously.
DISCIPLINE
1-48. Many civiliansand maybe a few soldiersmisunderstand what
discipline really is. Discipline is the glue that holds units together in order
to accomplish assigned missions. It is the culmination of the genuine
acceptance of the Army values. This acceptance results in self-discipline,
without which there cannot be military discipline. Discipline, then is an
individual quality that allows the soldier to see that despite his own
preferences, he must accomplish assigned jobs well to ensure the team can
do its tasks. Discipline is an essential part of the warrior ethos.

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An NCO inspects his soldiers prior to

assuming guard duty.
1-49. Discipline isnt blindly following orders or just imposing punishment
for infractions but is something leaders and soldiers build together. It is the
desire to do what is right even if it is difficult or dangerous. It doesnt
matter if the boss isnt watching; the task will be done and done properly.
It is the desire to accomplish the task well, not because of fear of
punishment, but because of pride in ones unit and oneself. Discipline
means putting the task of the unitthe teamahead of personal desires.
1-50. Your duties require you to accomplish tasks with your equipment
under the most difficult conditions: uncertainty, confusion, stress and fear
of battle. In those challenging circumstances your courage and that of your
fellow soldiers will be tested to the limit. You can expect fear to complicate
duty performance in crisis situations. Fear is a natural reaction to combat
and unknown situations. With the Army value of personal courage and the
discipline developed in training you will get the job done despite the
presence of fear. That discipline enhances the confidence that youll act
correctly and properly even under stressful conditions.

Discipline must be a habit so ingrained that it is stronger than

the excitement of battle or the fear of death.
GEN George S. Patton, Jr.

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1-51. Discipline in the Army is important because of the stakes involved.

In civilian life a lack of discipline may cause some discomfort or maybe
problems with the law. In the Army poor discipline could result in the
unnecessary loss of soldiers livesa cost too high to pay. As a disciplined
soldier you place the units mission above your personal welfare. It means
understanding your task and obeying orders promptly and cheerfully
because your fellow soldiers and leaders depend on you to do so. This is
military discipline; the kind of discipline that wins battles and saves lives.
1-52. The purpose of discipline is to make soldiers so well trained that
they carry out orders quickly and intelligently under the most difficult
conditions. Insistence on performing tasks properly enhances military
discipline. For example, ensuring soldiers wear their uniforms properly,
march well or repeat tasks until they do them correctly are part of military
discipline. This is not harassment or punishment. Proper and prompt
execution of orders will save lives in combat. This in no way means you
should not exercise initiative to solve a problem or to ensure the job gets
done. American soldiers have a long tradition of displaying initiative and
disciplined soldiers focus their efforts toward the success of the team.
1-53. Discipline is essential when we receive urgent orders. There are
times when success or failure depends on the immediate, correct execution
of tasks that may result in the deaths of the soldiers carrying them out. But
these successes are made possible through good training that breeds
confidence within units. Confidence in yourself, your fellow soldiers, and
your leaders all reinforce the discipline to finish the job, regardless of the
difficulty of the task.

Discipline is a measure of what a soldier does when the

commander is not there...
FM 22-100, Army Leadership, 1983

1-54. Discipline in routine things like saluting, police call and physical
training leads to discipline in the difficult things like advancing under fire,
disposing of unexploded ordnance, and safeguarding enemy prisoners of
war. That is why the Army insists on training to standard. It starts with
self-discipline but grows with pride in the unit and confidence in the
leaders and other soldiers abilities. A disciplined unit is made up of welltrained soldiers who trust each other and know they can accomplish any
mission they are given. Those soldiers will not let each other down nor even
consider failure.

SECTION II - THE TEAM

1-55. The Army is made up of hundreds of thousands of men and women
from different backgrounds, with different views of the world, who look
different and may even have been born outside the US. But they all have
one thing in common: they are soldiers and Department of the Army
Civilians (DAC) who promised to support and defend the Constitution to
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keep our Nation free. This commitment is as it should befree men and
women who have declared that, if necessary, they will fight to maintain the
right to live in our own American way and continue to enjoy the privileges
and benefits which are granted to no other nation.

The Army...mirrors the nation.

SGT Jack F. Holden

1-56. You are one of those great soldiers. You may be a US Army reservist
in Iraq, a national guardsman in Alaska, or an active component soldier in
Texas. Your unit and the soldiers you serve with are part of a team that can
only operate effectively when each of its parts works well together. This
great team also works with the other servicesthe Marine Corps, Navy, Air
Force, and Coast Guardas well as allied nations. Our Army assists nonDepartment of Defense (DoD) governmental agencies and even nongovernmental organizations in disaster relief or support operations. But the
common factors remain the necessity, and the ability and willingness to
operate and succeed as a team.
1-57. Throughout your life, you have and will continue to perform as a
part of a team. It is true many people admire great leaders, sports stars or
celebrities. But it is equally true that when soldiers work together to
achieve a common goal the world sees the enormous strength of the people
of the United States. Teamwork has been a defining quality of our Army. It
overcomes individual shortcomings, builds confidence in the unit and
among soldiers, enhances each persons courage, and magnifies the
commitment to succeed.
TYPES OF TEAMS
1-58. A team is a group of individuals banded together along
organizational lines for the purpose of accomplishing a certain goal. While
you are in the Army you will be a member of many teams and groups, often
many at the same time. To be a good soldier you must be a good team
member. We organize teams in different ways. The following shows types of
groups or teams:
A functional team is organized to accomplish a particular task and is
one of long standing in the organization. Squads, platoons and
companies are examples of functional teams.
Task groups are formed when two or more functional teams
contribute team members for a specific period of time to accomplish a
specific task. This is like task organization. Task groups are
disbanded after their mission is completed.
Cliques are small informal groups held together by common interests
and friendship outside recognized organizational lines.
Primary groups are closely knit and deeply committed to each other.
Your immediate family is an example of a primary group. In the

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Army, tank crews, two-person buddy teams, squads, and platoons

should be primary groups.
Secondary groups are impersonal but in which members often
interact. Secondary groups could be private or professional
organizations or the larger Army organizations of which your unit is
a part (e.g. division and corps).
Membership groups require little if any involvement of their
members. An example of this is an affiliated regiment.
Reference groups influence our attitudes, values, and behavior.
Examples of reference groups are church or chapel groups, political
parties, or unit sports teams.
1-59. Most soldiers will be members of more than one, even many teams
or groups. Your family, your unit, your friends, and other associations form
some of those groups. Sometimes these different groups may have
conflicting values, priorities, or goals. If conflicts occur, solve them with the
problem solving steps or the ethical reasoning process found later in this
chapter.

Nothing wrong with having a clique, so long as everybodys in

it.
SMA William G. Bainbridge

1-60. Teamwork thrives when the soldiers on the team are closely
associated with each other both on and off duty. Relationships, friendships,
and teamwork should spill over into the post housing area, the barracks,
the bowling alley, the chapel, the club system, the recreation center, and
other organizations. Such camaraderie increases esprit de corps and
improves the teams performance.
1-61. Most of us have the ability and desire to be a part of a winning team
and to help it succeed. Once part of a team we can stay the course despite
obstacles. The Armys service ethic is a soldiers commitment to place the
Nation, the Army, its soldiers, and their families above self. This
commitment is expressed by the willingness to perform ones duty at all
times and to subordinate personal welfare for the welfare of others, without
expecting reward or recognition.
1-62. Productive members of a team do their duty as well as they know
how and actively seek to improve their performance. They also cooperate
with other members of the team and help them willingly. The members of a
team are more interested in the success of the team than in personal gain.
Finally, the team knows that the leader has authority over the team
because he is responsible for the teams performance.

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The one question that always presents itself on the battle field
every minute of the time to every person, whether he be a
general or a private, is What play has my team captain
ordered, and how best may I act so as to work in conjunction
with the other players to bring about the desired result?... A
poor play in which every player enters with his whole heart
(teamwork) will often win, while, on the other hand, the best
play in which some of the players are skulkers and shirkers
will probably fail.
Manual for Noncommissioned Officers and Privates of Infantry of the
Army of the United States, 1917

1-63. Leaders and soldiers all contribute to teambuilding. In all training,

operations, and routine daily duties, the potential to further build the team
exists. Teambuilding also occurs in athletics, social activities, and unit
functions like a Dining-In or Dining-Out. Leaders are the primary
teambuilders, but every soldier properly motivated and trained can help in
teambuilding. Stay informed of what is going on. If you dont know, ask.
You cant help your fellow soldiers accomplish the units mission if you dont
know what the mission is or the commanders intent for the operation.
Every soldier brings previous training and experience to benefit the team.
As long as you share that experience and accomplish your duties as best
you are able, you make a valuable contribution.
LEADERS, SOLDIERS
1-64. One of the great aspects of our Army is that we develop future
leaders from within the force. As soldiers gain training and experience, they
also develop the skills necessary to lead other soldiers of junior rank and
experience. Every soldier is a leader in the making. Leadership is learned,
and it takes time. It takes more than 20 years to develop a brigade
commander or command sergeant major. Todays lieutenants and captains
will command tomorrows Future Force brigades and divisions. The enlisted
soldiers entering service today will be the 1SGs and CSMs of the Future
Force. Still, the necessities of combat may place soldiers into leadership
positions sooner than they expected. So even junior enlisted soldiers should
begin learning about leadership early in their careers.
1-65. Perhaps you are a junior enlisted soldier now, responsible for
performing the duties of your MOS. But some day, probably sooner than
you think, you will lead other soldiers. Even if you are already in a
leadership position as an NCO or officer, the following paragraphs should
help you in leading well. And this will help you understand how the Army
values can be put into action. You can find detailed information on direct
leadershipface-to-face, first-line leadershipin FM 6-22 (22-100) Army
Leadership. It is the Armys key publication on the subject and provides all
the nuts and bolts you need to know in Chapters 1-5.

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Leaders Obligations to Soldiers

1-66. The first obligation of the leader of every organization is to
accomplish his assigned missions. In doing this, leaders must be proficient
in both individual and collective tasks. Leaders ensure soldiers are well
trained, informed, and capable of accomplishing the assigned mission.
Leaders create a disciplined environment where soldiers can learn and
grow both personally and professionally. It means holding their soldiers to
high standards, training them to do their jobs effectively in peace and win
in war. Leaders take care of soldiers by being fair, refusing to cut corners,
sharing their hardships, and setting the example.
1-67. Taking care of soldiers includes everything from enforcing training
standards, to making sure a soldier has time for an annual dental exam, to
ensuring soldiers housing is adequate. Leaders have an obligation to
ensure soldiers and their families are living in safe and healthy
environments. Leaders set up the systems to prepare families so soldiers
know their families will be taken care of, whether the soldier is home or
deployed. Family readiness also means ensuring theres a support group in
place, that even the most junior soldier and most inexperienced family
members know where to turn for help when their soldier is deployed.

The Deployment
Preparations were almost complete. Equipment was loaded, the
soldiers gear was ready, and their families knew what was going on.
SFC Lamb thought his soldiers were as ready to deploy as any, except
for one. SPC Garrett is probably the best junior enlisted soldier in the
platoon, a real workhorse. But Mrs. Garrett is expecting their first child,
due three days after the unit deploys. SPC Garrett hasnt asked for any
favors and he wants to be with the unit when it goes. He had arranged
for his mother to stay with his wife after the baby is born to help while he
is away. But SFC Lamb thought that SPC Garrett should not be
deprived of such an important experience as the birth of his child.
Ive spoken to the 1SG and he agrees with me and the Commander
okayed it. Youre going to stay and see your baby born. Were
coordinating transportation for you with another unit leaving a week after
us. Before SPC Garrett could protest, SFC Lamb went on, Its already
decided. I know you want to deploy with us, but well make it without you
for a little while. Anyway, this is one of those things where the family can
and will come first. Sometimes thats the way it has to be.
SPC Garrett knew his platoon sergeant was right, but he also knew the
mission had to come first. He was a little surprised that didnt seem to
be the case, this time. Or was it?
1-68. Taking care of soldiers also means demanding that soldiers do their
duty, even at the risk of their lives. It doesnt mean coddling them or
making training easy or comfortable. In fact, that kind of training gets
soldiers killed unnecessarily. Training must be rigorous and as much like
combat as is possible while avoiding undue risk. Hard training is the best
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way to prepare soldiers for the rigors of combat. No training, no matter how
realistic, can prepare a soldier completely for combat. But leaders must
provide the best available training, equipment, and support to give soldiers
the best chance of survival while accomplishing the mission.
The Enduring Competencies: Self-Awareness and Adaptability
1-69. Effective Army leaders consistently demonstrate self-awareness and
adaptability. Self-awareness is the ability to understand how to assess your
abilities, know your strengths and weaknesses in the operational
environment and learn how to correct those weaknesses. For example, the
First Sergeant gave CPL Lawson a mission and three soldiers to accomplish
it. CPL Lawson was to lead the three soldiers from other platoons on a
detail to set up Target Reference Points (TRP) for training use that night.
CPL Lawson knew he had to refresh himself on the companys SOP for
setting up TRPs so he allotted some time to review the SOP. He also knew
that heavy rain was expected by late afternoon so he wanted to get to work
with his soldiers quickly to put the TRPs in place before the rain.
Nonetheless, he prepared his soldiers for the environmental effects by
ensuring they brought appropriate rain gear. He knew one of the soldiers
had a HMMWV license and tasked him with requesting and preparing a
vehicle for use. CPL Lawsons ability to recognize his own weaknesses
caused him to seek the knowledge he needed and he prepared himself and
his soldiers to adapt to foreseen environment changes.
1-70. Adaptability is the ability to recognize and react effectively to
changes in the environment. Lets say that once out on the range and
executing his mission, CPL Lawson sees that it has gotten significantly
colder and instead of rain, it has started to snow. The cold and reduced
visibility were two of the variables he had not foreseen. Still CPL Lawson
adapted by having the soldiers warm up in the HMMWV periodically,
telling his driver to go slower due to the more slippery driving surface, and
calling the First Sergeant on the radio to inform him of the conditions.
1-71. Your unit will receive varied missions in varied environments and
you will have to adapt to the environment while training to perform many
different tasks. Infantry could be supporting relief operations after a
natural disaster or a quartermaster unit could be defending its perimeter
against a terrorist attack. But because of the speed that information travels
now and in the future, one soldier can have an impact far beyond his units
actual area of operations. One soldiers actions could determine the success
or failure of an operation. And that soldier could be you.
Be-Know-Do
1-72. With the competencies of self-awareness and adaptability, Army
leadership begins with what the leader must BEthe Army values and
attributes that shape a leaders character. Interpersonal, conceptual,
technical, and tactical skills compose what a leader must KNOW.
Leadership demands competence in a range of human activities that
become more complex with positions of greater responsibility.
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1-73. But character and knowledgewhile absolutely necessaryare not

enough. Leadership demands applicationaction to DO what is needed
often in complex and dangerous conditions. Action is the essence of
leadership. The Army Leadership Framework (Figure 1-1) shows the
relationship of values, attributes, skills and actions to Be, Know, and Do. It
isnt important to memorize these as much as to understand what they
mean in your circumstances to best demonstrate and act upon them.

THE LEADER
of Character and Competence Acts

To Achieve Excellence
Mental
Loyalty
Physical
Duty
Respect
Emotional
Selfless Service
Honor
Integrity
Personal Courage

Interpersonal
Conceptual

Influencing

Technical

Operating

Tactical

Improving

Figure 1-1. The Army Leadership Framework

1-74. Be a person of character by living the Army values. Adhering to
Army values further develops character in a soldier. Remember that
character is an inner strength that helps you know what is right and what
is wrong. It is what gives you the desire and fortitude to do what is right
even in the toughest situations and it gives you the courage to keep doing
what is right regardless of the consequences. That desire and fortitude is
the warrior ethos. Your qualities and characteristicsattributesare both
inherited (eye and hair color, for example) and learned (self-discipline and
military bearing, for example). Experience has shown that the Army values
and leader attributes make for better leaders. These are attributes worth
aspiring to even for a soldier not in a leadership position.
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1-75. One of the most obvious ways to demonstrate character is to be

honest. Tell it like it is, not how you think someone wants to hear it. The
Army and your fellow soldiers want, need and deserve the truth. If you
make a mistake, admit it. If something is wrong, you must be willing to say
so, even to higher-ranking NCOs and officers. Tell them in an objective,
straightforward and tactful manner and present the facts. This often takes
moral courage. What you have to say may not be easy or even welcomed,
but your candor is necessary to develop and maintain trust. Soldiers need to
know whether they have met the standard and leaders need to know the
true status of units. A mark of loyalty is a burning desire to help the team
improve its performance. That demands honesty. Make it a habit to be
candid because in battle, lives will depend on it.
1-76. Spiritual fitness can help develop the attributes of leaders. Often
(but not necessarily) religious in nature, spiritual fitness reflects a sense of
self-worth and the value of human lives. Many soldiers find solace and
draw moral strength from their religious beliefs that support the
acceptance of Army values. Other soldiers who do not practice a religion
may draw that same moral strength from other sources. Soldiers may freely
practice their religion or none at all as they desire. However expressed or
sought, spiritual fitness is an individual concern that can be enhanced.

There are only two powers in the world, the sword and the
spirit. In the long run the sword will always be conquered by
the spirit.
Napoleon Bonaparte

1-77. To be a good leader, know your job, know yourself, and know your
fellow soldiers. Every day the Army becomes more technologically
advanced. Our fellow citizens have entrusted us to use complex tools to
protect the Nation and our way of life. This requires each soldier to be
proficient in his job and to work as a member of a team. Know how to think
and plan ahead and learn to visualize the effects of your actions. Know your
equipment and tactics and how to make decisions based on available
information. Knowledge is reflected in a soldiers skills. As you continue in
the Army, you will develop or improve these skills. Even the most senior
leaders work to improve certain skills. Knowledge is never complete; we
keep learning all our lives.
1-78. Being an expert in fieldcraft reduces the likelihood you will become
a casualty. The requirement to do ones job in a field environment is one of
the differences between soldiering and most civilian occupations. Likewise,
the requirement that Army leaders make sure their soldiers take care of
themselves and provide them with the means to do so is unique. The
Soldiers Manual of Common Tasks (STP 21-1-SMCT) lists individual skills
soldiers must master to operate effectively in the field. The field manual
Combat Skills of the Soldier (FM 3-21.75) is another good source. Those
skills include everything from how to keep your feet dry in the field to
tracking. Most MOSs require other skills and you can find them in unique
soldier training publications (STPs). If you see or know of a better way to
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perform a task, speak up. You may save your fellow soldiers time and effort
and perhaps even their lives!

A Better Way
In World War I, then Colonel George S. Patton was in France, training
American tankers and preparing to lead them in combat. Given the
propensity of the tanks for breaking down, maintenance was one of
Patton's chief concerns. He was constantly after his men to keep their
tanks in good running condition, a difficult task greatly hampered by a
shortage of spare parts and the absence of repair facilities close to the
battlefield.
As it happened, it was neither Patton nor one of his officers, but rather
a private who came up with a solution to the problem. The private,
whose name has long been forgotten, suggested that one tank in each
company be converted into a sort of roving repair shop loaded with
various spare parts (particularly fan belts) and equipped with towing
apparatus to retrieve damaged, mired, or broken-down vehicles from
the battlefield. Patton thought this an excellent idea and immediately
saw to its implementation.
This led to the creation of the first tank company maintenance team,
which consisted of mechanics from battalion headquarters who were
assigned to each tank company to operate the company's recovery
vehicle. It was the beginning of a system that is still in use today in
American armored units. And it is worth remembering that it was the
brainchild of a private, which just goes to show how much Patton
encouraged initiative in the ranks of the AEF Tank Corps.
1-79. Know the rules of engagement (ROE) and, if applicable, rules on the
use of force. Conditions in every area of operations differ, and they will
change within those areas, as well. Knowing the ROE not only saves time
in reacting to a potential threat but gives soldiers the confidence that they
will react properly. See more on ROE in Chapter 5.
1-80. Know the commanders intent. Included in every operation order,
commanders intent is a clear, concise statement of what the unit must do
and the conditions the unit must meet to succeed with respect to the enemy,
terrain, and the desired end state. While usually specific to a given
operation or mission, knowing the commanders intent and your units
mission will help you accomplish the mission even in the absence of specific
orders. This isnt just for leadersevery soldier should know their
commanders intent and that of the next higher commander. The
comanders intent channels the natural initiative of soldiers to take
advantage of opportunities on the battlefield in a disciplined manner. The
commanders intent will let you know what is the most important thing the
unit has to accomplish and when it must be done.
1-81. Know your own capabilities and believe in yourself and your
training. Understand right now that courage is not a substitute for proper
training, working equipment or firepower. Putting rounds on target quickly
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and accurately is the best antidote to fear, but it requires well trained,
disciplined soldiers to accomplish.
Decision-Making
1-82. Do what is necessary to fulfill your duties and support your fellow
soldiers by putting your knowledge into action. Taking action requires
making decisions. Everyone makes decisions every day to solve problems. A
problem is an existing condition in which what you want to happen is
different from what actually is happening. So decision making is knowing
whether to decide and then when and what to decide. The Army uses a
method known as the problem solving steps to help choose the best course
of action. The seven problem solving steps are in Figure 1-2.

The Problem Solving Steps

Problem definition. Dont be distracted by the symptoms or effects of the
problem, get at its root cause. For example, if you get called down to the
motor pool on Saturday because there is a lot of oil under your truck, the
problem is not the oil or the loss of free time. The problem is the worn seal
that is allowing the oil to leak out.
Information gathering. In the time you have available, gather facts about
the situation. You may also make assumptions to help in the next step.
Assumptions are statements of what you believe about the situation but
dont have the facts to support them. Make only those assumptions you
believe are true and are necessary to come up with alternatives.
Course of action (COA) development. Courses of action are ways to
solve the problem. Develop as many different COAs as time permits. Dont
be satisfied with the first thing that comes into your mind. The third or
fourth or tenth COA you come up with might be the best one.
COA analysis. Identify what is likely to occur from each COA and any
resource or other constraints. Determine what are the advantages and
disadvantages of each COA, without favoring any COA over the others.
COA comparison. Evaluate each COA as to its probability of solving the
problem. Consider the cost of each COA, also. For example, replacing the
engine in your leaky truck might solve the problem, but so will replacing
the bad seal at far less cost.
Decision. Select the best COA that solves the problem.
Execution and Assessment. Once youve decided, make it happen! Plan
how to accomplish the tasks required to solve the problem so you can get
it done in an organized, efficient manner. Then assess the results. Does
the truck run properly? Is there any oil leaking?
Figure 1-2. The Problem Solving Steps
1-83. This process is the basis for all decision making and includes
understanding the consequences of your actions. Apply the problem solving
steps even when time is short. You can reduce the length of the process by
developing fewer COAs or gathering less information. Even when time is
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_____________________________________________________________ Chapter 1

constrained, the steps will help you decide on the best available solution.
You may find that sometimes you need to take into account your
knowledge, your intuition, and your best judgment. Intuition comes from
accumulated experience and is often referred to as "gut feeling." But dont
rely only on intuition, even if it has worked in the past. Use your
experience, listen to your instincts, but do your research as well.

Convoy Briefing during Operation Iraqi Freedom.

1-84. Another tool that small unit leaders use is called the troop leading
procedures (TLP). The TLP, shown in Figure 1-3, elaborates on the problem
solving steps to support tactical decision-making. The TLP is a series of
eight inter-related steps that may be accomplished concurrently. The TLP
enables a leader to use available time effectively and efficiently in the
planning, preparing, executing, and assessing of missions. Collectively, the
TLP is a tool to assist leaders in making, issuing, and supervising operation
orders. While the TLP does not necessarily follow a rigid sequence, it is
important to accomplish every step to ensure planning is thorough and all
soldiers know their required tasks.
1-85. The TLP is the best tool for planning at the small unit level to be
sure every important detail is considered. Using the TLP keeps all soldiers
fully informed on future operations. But its usefulness is not limited to
tactical field conditions. You can use it even in garrison situations in
everyday tasks.

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The Troop Leading Procedures

Receive the mission. Once you receive your mission, analyze to
determine what exactly has to be done and what other factors will affect
your ability to do it.
Issue warning order. As soon as you understand the mission, let
subordinates know so they can begin planning.
Make a tentative plan. After analyzing the mission, develop some
different ways (courses of action -- COA) to get it done. Then compare
these COAs to determine which one is best.
Initiate movement. Begin soldiers and equipment movement to where
they will be needed or where they will rehearse the operation.
Conduct reconnaissance. Survey, as much as possible, the ground on
which you will operate. At a minimum, conduct a map reconnaissance.
Complete the plan. Based on the reconnaissance and any changes in
the situation complete the plan of action.
Issue the order. Fully brief soldiers on what has to get done, the
commanders intent, and how you are going to accomplish the task.
Supervise and assess. Supervise preparation for the mission through
rehearsals and inspections.
Figure 1-3. The Troop Leading Procedures
Reverse Planning
1-86. The reverse planning process is a time management technique. You
develop your time schedule by starting at "mission time" and working
backward to the time it is now. For example, lets say that you have a Class
A uniform inspection on Friday at 0900 and it is now Monday 1630. You
could list the tasks you have to do to prepare for the inspection, how much
time each will take, and when they should start, such as in Table 1-1.
Table 1-1. Reverse Planning Example
Action

Time

Start time

Class A uniform inspection

Friday, 0900

Final uniform check by your squad leader

10 minutes

Friday, 0850

Place awards, insignia, etc., on your uniform

20 minutes

Thursday, 1900

Clean and shine insignia and brass

30 minutes

Thursday, 1830

Get new ribbon mount from clothing sales

30 minutes

Thursday. 1800

Pick up uniform from the dry cleaner

30 minutes

Thursday, 1730

Drop off uniform with the dry cleaner

3 days

Monday, 1730

1-87. The reverse planning process helps you accomplish important tasks
without wasting time. By the example you can see that you would have to
turn in your uniform Monday night for cleaning and pick it up on Thursday.
Then you would pick up a new ribbon mount (you didnt have a chance since
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getting that new ARCOM) Thursday afternoon before the PX closes. Finally
youll probably want to set up your uniform Thursday night for your squad
leader to check the next morning before the inspection. Reverse planning is
a tool to see if there is enough time to accomplish all required tasks.
Ethical Reasoning
1-88. Our nation places a premium on our professional values, and
entrusts the success of its defense to our actions. Ethics is the process of
putting our professional values into action. In making decisions we all come
across situations where more than one solution appears to be correct. As a
soldier who accepts and lives the Army values, the various COAs you
develop for any given problem will most likely be legal, appropriate and can
solve the problem. How then, do we select the right COA if they all appear
to be equally effective? In these situations we decide on a COA not only
because it can solve the problem, but because it can do so ethically, in a way
that is most consistent with Army values, rules and the situation.
1-89. The values themselves may, in certain situations, conflict with each
other or some other valid factor such as rules, orders or the situation itself.
An ethical dilemma is a situation where two or more factors conflict in
deciding the right course of action. These are dilemmas in which there are
two apparent right answers. So how do we decide which right is right?

Ethical DilemmaThe Checkpoint

Two days after a suicide car-bombing killed four soldiers at a
checkpoint, another unit is operating a similar checkpoint some distance
away. The unit was recently involved in offensive operations but was
beginning the transition to stability operations. Unit training has
emphasized the importance of helping the citizens return to a normal
lifestyle. Nonetheless, the events of the previous day demonstrate that
the enemy is still active, and will use civilian vehicles loaded with
explosives to kill themselves in an attempt to also kill US soldiers.
At this time, soldiers at the checkpoint notice a large civilian passenger
vehicle approaching at a high rate of speed.
1-90. In the example above we know that the rules, in this case the rules
of engagement (ROE), say that the US soldiers may anticipate an attack
and take action to prevent itif an approaching vehicle appears to be a
suicide bomber, soldiers may use deadly force to stop it. The soldiers also
know that their mission is part of stability operation to maintain public
order and protect innocent civilians. Analysis of METT-TC for this type of
mission, the Law of Land Warfare, and both personal and Army values tells
soldiers to protect noncombatants. Yet those same values, orders, training,
and the mission also place a high value on protecting our fellow soldiers.
Innocent civilians could possibly be the occupants of the approaching
vehicle. What is the right thing to do?
1-91. This dilemma illustrates that we cannot, in some situations,
simultaneously honor two or more values and follow given rules while
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accomplishing the mission. In these situations we have an ethical dilemma.

When this happens the ethical reasoning process can help us decide the
correct course of action. This thinking must be done as part of mission
preparationprior to the moment of decision. The ethical reasoning
process is outlined in Figure 1-4.

The Ethical Reasoning Process

Step 1. Problem definition. Same as the problem solving steps.
Step 2. Know the relevant rules and values at stake. Laws, ARs, ROE,
command policies, Army values, etc.
Step 3. Develop possible courses of action (COA) and evaluate them
using these criteria:
a. RulesDoes the COA violate rules, laws, regulations, etc.? For
example, torturing a prisoner might get him to reveal useful information
that will save lives, but the law of war prohibits torture under any
circumstances. Such a COA violates an absolute prohibition.
b. EffectsAfter visualizing the effects of the COA, do you foresee
bad effects that outweigh the good effects? For example, you are driving
along a railroad and you see a train on the tracks. If you speed up to beat
the train to the crossing, you might save a little time getting to your
destination. But the potential bad effects outweigh the time you might
save.
c. CircumstancesDo the circumstances of the situation favor one
of the values or rules in conflict? For example, your battle-buddy was at
PT formation this morning but now is absent at work call formation. Do you
cover for him? Your honor and loyalty to the unit outweigh your friendship
and loyalty to your buddy, so the ethical COA would be to report the truth
rather than lie about his whereabouts.
d. Gut checkDoes the COA feel like it is the right thing to do?
Does it uphold Army values and develop your character or virtue? For
example, you come upon a traffic accident and a number of vehicles have
stopped, apparently to render aid, but you arent sure. Stopping may
cause further congestion in the area, but ensuring injured are cared for
and that emergency services are on the way further strengthens the
values of duty and honor.
Step 4. Now you should have at least one COA that has passed Step 3. If
there is more than one COA, choose the course of action that is best
aligned with the criteria in Step 3.
Figure 1-4. Ethical Reasoning Process
1-92. Ethical reasoning is patterned after the problem solving steps.
Ethical reasoning helps soldiers and DA civilians decide the best course of
action for ethical dilemmas. As explained in FM 6-22 (22-100), Army
Leadership, Chapter 4, ethical reasoning isnt a separate process used only
when you have discovered an ethical problem. It is a part of making any
decision. Admittedly, most decisions dont involve ethical dilemmas. But
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ethical reasoning will help you select the best COA from among those in
which there is no obvious best solution (because they all appear to be right).
1-93. In applying ethical reasoning to the (Checkpoint) example, the
problem is that a possible suicide bomber in a large civilian passender
vehicle is approaching at a high rate of speed. The ethical dilemma is the
risk involved in civilian protection vs. force protection The relevant rules
include Army values, the ROE, the current mission, and the Law of Land
Warfare. So what should be done? There may be more, but lets say there
are four possible Courses of Action (COA):
COA a) do nothing.
COA b) call higher for instructions.
COA c) disable or destroy the vehicle.
COA d) block the vehicle with a Bradley.
1-94. The first COA (a) reduces the risk of harming any noncombatants in
the approaching vehicle but it probably does not fulfill the units mission at
the checkpoint. The second COA (b) offers a way to seek advice or higher
guidance on what to do but will probably take time, during which the
soldiers at the checkpoint could suffer casualties if the vehicle is carrying
explosives. The third COA (c) complies with the ROE and should stop the
vehicle but could harm any noncombatants in it. The fourth COA (d) puts
soldiers and equipment at risk but it might stop the vehicle without
harming any noncombatants in it.

Ethical Dilemma The Checkpoint (continued)

The commander ordered the platoon manning the checkpoint to fire a
warning shot at the vehicle to signal the occupants to stop the vehicle.
When the vehicle continued to approach, he ordered the platoon to fire
into the vehicles radiator. When he saw nothing happening he ordered
the platoon to stop the vehicle, immediately followed by a number of
loud reports from the 25 mm guns of the Bradley Fighting Vehicles of
the platoon.
The commander ordered the platoon to cease firing. In the now
destroyed vehicle were a number of civilians, many killed or wounded
by the fire of the Bradleys. The vehicle contained no explosives or
weapons.
1-95. Nobody has a crystal ball to see all the future results of our actions.
However, ethical action requires us to live out our values in a way that
considers the future. The soldiers at the checkpoint, not realizing the
approaching vehicle carried noncombatants, made a decision to prevent an
anticipated attack against fellow soldiers. It demonstrates the serious
consequences of putting our values into action and their effect upon our
Nation, the Army, our fellow soldiers, and those whom we protect. Not all
ethical dilemmas have life or death consequences, but nevertheless they
affect our professional identity in the way we place our values into action.
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Ethical DilemmaGuard Duty

PFC Rust was conducting a patrol of the motor pool while on guard duty
one night. He saw two figures about 20 meters away climbing over the
fence into the motor pool. He ordered them to halt and when he got
closer recognized them as two friends from his own company. They
explained they were on the way to the club on the other side of the
Motor Pool and were cutting across so they didnt have to walk all the
way around. There didnt seem to be any damage to the fence and it
was a long way around the motor pool to the club.
Should PFC Rust bring them to the sergeant of the guard (SOG) or let
them go their way?
1-96. In the guard duty ethical dilemma there is apparently more than
one right answer. Referring back to the ethical reasoning process, what are
the factors?
Rulesthe unit SOP requires soldiers to report in to the SOG if
going to the motor pool after duty hours.
EffectsPFC Rust doesnt want his buddies to get into trouble, but
he knows the effect on unit discipline by letting them go would be
worse.
Circumstancesduty and honor cause PFC Rust to bring his friends
to the SOG because while they said they were just going to the club,
he isnt completely sure of their intentions.
Gut checkeven though his friends might resent him for it, PFC
Rust feels best about taking the two soldiers to the SOG as it seems
to be the more professional COA.
1-97. The warrior ethos is defined by our professional values, and it is
lived out as we put those values into action. The ethical actions of a soldier
require both a self-understanding of these values and the determination to
apply them in all situations. But ethical reasoning is not a science, despite
the crisp procedure laid out in this manual. It is an art that improves as
your character grows stronger and as you gain experience. Even senior
leaders continue to learn and also work through ethical dilemmas.
1-98. Whenever time permits, seek advice from more experienced soldiers
to help you solve such problems. You will gradually gain the ability to solve
even complex dilemmas. Just like playing a sport where with enough
practice you begin to develop better coordination and muscle memory, so
too will it be as you develop character, gain experience, and find that you
can make decisions more quickly because of ethical memory.
TRANSITION TO A LEADERSHIP POSITION
1-99. Nearly every soldier, at some point in his service, will have to
supervise other soldiers of junior rank and experience. It may even happen
before promotion to the NCO ranks for enlisted soldiers. At that point, the

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leader is no longer one of the guys but accountable for accomplishing a

task and for the welfare of the soldiers he leads.

A junior NCO decides his teams next move along the

Administrative Boundary Line in Kosovo.
1-100. The transition to a leadership position is from one that was cared
for to one who cares for others and from one who was taught to one that
teaches, prepares for, and supervises tasks. You might stay in the same
section or perhaps you will move to a different organization entirely. Either
way, you will do the job you have been selected to do; lead soldiers.

When [a corporal] first receives his appointment, his caliber

meets with the severest tests. Soldiers, for a time, will be apt
to try the material he is made of, which they do in many ways,
and by progressive steps, and, if not checked, will increase to a
complete disregard, and terminate in an entire inefficiency of
the corporal.
Customs of Service for Noncommissioned Officers and Soldiers, 1865

1-101. The transition to a leadership position may be difficult but is

important to make. Identify exactly whom you report to. You should learn
what your responsibilities are and what is expected of you. Right away, ask
what is the standard of performance so there wont be any confusion later.
Once you know these things, look to the soldiers you will lead. What are
their strengths and weaknesses? Make sure the soldiers you lead and the
resources you have access to are sufficient to complete the mission.
Determine if additional preparation or training is necessary. Even if you
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are a PFC and in charge of two PV2s on police call, these steps will help you
complete the mission.

We should be shaping todays soldiers to be tomorrows

leaders. The things we learned in basic training were taught
for a reason.
SGT Kerensa Hardy

1-102. Your experience helps prepare you for assuming a leadership

position. But you also have to make an effort to learn about leading through
study, reflection and observing leaders. Our Armys history and the leaders
of your own unit are good places to start. The Army expects total
commitment from those who are selected to lead, train, and care for its
soldiers. It is an honor and a privilege to lead Americas finest men and
women during peacetime and at war. To learn more about the transition to
a leadership position take a look at FM 7-22.7, The Army Noncommissioned
Officer Guide, Chapter 2.

SOLDIER RECOGNITION
1-103. Leaders of effective teams recognize the good work of their soldiers.
The Army has a number of ways to recognize outstanding performance in
soldiers. The most obvious is through promotion. You receive promotions
because you have demonstrated the potential to succeed in the next higher
rank. Your leaders observe that potential in the daily performance of your
duties (a brief description of the Armys promotion system is in Chapter 6).
Another way to recognize achievement or service is through awards,
decorations, and badges. Medals, ribbons, certificates, qualification badges,
patches and coins provide various degrees of recognition for a soldiers hard
work. See AR 600-8-22, Military Awards, for a full description.
1-104. The Medal of Honor is the Nations highest military award. The
Medal of Honor may be given to a member of the Armed Forces of the
United States who in action involving actual conflict with an enemy,
distinguish himself conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of
his life above and beyond the call of duty. Many of the recipients of the
Medal of Honor were killed during the action for which they received it.
1-105. Other awards, below the Medal of Honor in the order of precedence,
recognize extraordinary bravery in combat. These are the Distinguished
Service Cross and the Silver Star. The Bronze Star may be awarded for
valor in action or for other meritorious service in a combat zone. The Purple
Heart is recognition of injuries received in combat or a terrorist attack. But
soldiers also do outstanding work in noncombat areas and for that they may
receive the Meritorious Service Medal, the Army Commendation Medal, or
the Army Achievement Medal. Soldiers performing noncombat heroic acts
may be recognized with the Soldiers Medal.
1-106. Service ribbons and qualification badges are other visible means of
soldier recognition. By looking at the ribbons, badges, and insignia a soldier
wears, you can really discover a lot about him. For example, suppose you
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_____________________________________________________________ Chapter 1

have just met your new platoon sergeant and she was wearing her Class A
uniform. You can deduce her name (SSG Jordan), that she is a
quartermaster soldier who has been in the Army over six years, and is both
airborne qualified and a parachute rigger. She has completed Basic
Noncommissioned Officer Course (BNCOC) and been on two overseas tours
as well as a humanitarian relief mission. You can also see that her service
has been exemplary by noting a Meritorious Service Medal as well as both
the Army Commendation Medal and an Army Achievement Medal each
with three oak leaf clusters. You would probably conclude that your new
platoon sergeant is squared away. You would probably be correct.
1-107. Commanders and command sergeants major or first sergeants often
give certificates of achievement or the highly prized unit coin to recognize
the impact a hardworking soldier has on his unit. All in all, awards and
decorations serve to recognize soldiers for their accomplishments and tend
to both motivate fellow soldiers and build the team. When you receive an
award for a noteworthy accomplishment you should be proud. When your
leaders receive awards, be equally proud because your efforts are reflected
in those awards. As you progress in rank and assume supervisory roles,
remember that the awards you receive are the results of your soldiers work
as much as your own efforts.
1-108. Other means of recognition are in the form of competitions such as
Soldier of the Month or Year boards. These boards are held at the unit,
installation, and even Department of the Army Level. They challenge
soldiers knowledge and skill and often the winners receive awards and
prizes. NCOs also may compete in monthly, quarterly or yearly NCO boards
at the various levels. NCOs of outstanding ability may also compete for
membership in the prestigious Sergeant Audie Murphy or Sergeant
Morales clubs. Company grade officers may compete for the MacArthur
Leadership Award.
1-109. No form of recognition detracts from the Army value of selfless
service. As long as your priorities are straight, awards and decorations add
to the pride of a unit and to the confidence of individual soldiers.
1-110. Few professions in this world are more satisfying, rewarding and
challenging than that of the soldier. It isnt easy and isnt meant to be. We
have a serious job to do in protecting our freedom and our way of life. Do
your duty, treat people the way you wish to be treated, learn to lead and
prepare for the day when it is you in front of soldiers and they look to you to
make the right decisions. Look forward to it!

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1-36

Chapter 2

The Army and the Nation

The Army serves the Nation and defends the Constitution,
as it has done for nearly 230 years. The Army has had
enormous impact on the course of events throughout that
time. This chapter provides a brief description of the Armys
role in our Nations history and of the environment the
Army operates in today. This chapter also shows the Armys
place as a department of the Executive Branch of the federal
government.
Section I - A Short History of the US Army......................................2-2
Colonial Times to the Civil War ........................................................2-2
The Civil War to World War I..........................................................2-16
The World Wars and Containment..............................................2-26
Post-Vietnam and the Volunteer Army. ..........................................2-51
The War on Terrorism ....................................................................2-55
Section II - The Operational Environment......................................2-59
Full Spectrum Operations...............................................................2-61
Homeland Security .........................................................................2-61
Army Transformation......................................................................2-62
Section III - How the US Government Works.................................2-64
The Constitution .............................................................................2-64
Branches of Government ...............................................................2-66
Department of Defense ..................................................................2-69
Department of the Army .................................................................2-71
For more information on Army history, see the Center of Military History (CMH)
homepage at www.army.mil/cmh-pg.
Much of Section I can also be found in CMHs 225 Years of Service: The US Army 17752000 and American Military History from the Center of Military Historys Army Historical
Series.
For more information on the operational environment, see FM 3-0, Operations. For more
information on Army Transformation see the Army homepage at www.army.mil or Army
Knowledge Online.
For more information on the US Constitution and our American system of government,
see Bens Guide to the US Government at bensguide.gpo.gov, the House of
Representatives homepage at www.house.gov, or the Federal Government information
website at www.firstgov.gov.
For more information on the Department of the Army organization and missions, see
FM 1, The Army, AR 10-5, Headquarters, Department of the Army, and DA PAM 10-1,
Organization of the United States Army and the Army Homepage.

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SECTION I A SHORT HISTORY OF THE US ARMY

2-1.
The Armys institutional culture is fundamentally historical in
nature. The Army cherishes its past, especially its combat history, and
nourishes its institutional memory through ceremony and custom. Our
formations preserve their unit histories and proudly display them in unit
crests, unit patches, and regimental mottoes. Such traditions reinforce
esprit de corps and the distinctiveness of the profession. Our history of past
battles bonds and sustains units and soldiers. History reminds soldiers of
who they are, of the cause they serve, and of their ties to soldiers who have
gone before them. An understanding of what has happened in the past can,
in many cases, help a soldier solve problems in the present.

Those who do not remember the past are condemned to repeat

it.
George Santayana

COLONIAL TIMES TO THE CIVIL WAR

2-2.
The oldest part of our Army, the Army National Guard, traces its
heritage to the early European colonists in America. In December 1636, the
Massachusetts Bay Colony organized Americas first militia regiments,
some of which still serve today in the Army National Guard. Those first
colonists and the regiments they formed were primarily made up from
colonists who came from England, who brought with them many traditions,
including the distrust of a standing army inherited from the English Civil
War of the 17th century.
2-3.
The colonists used the militia system of defense, requiring all males
of military age (which varied as years went by) to serve when called, to
provide their own weapons and to attend periodic musters. Theirs was a
reliance on citizen-soldiers who served in time of need to assist in the
colonys defense. The various colonies (later states) organized and
disbanded units as needed to face emergencies as they arose. Throughout
our Nations history, volunteer citizen-soldiers have stepped forward to fill
in the ranks and get the job done.
2-4.
In 1754, George Washington, then 22 years old, led Virginia
militiamen in a fight against French regulars at the beginning of the
French and Indian War. On one side of the war were the British and
American colonists with Indian allies versus the French and their Indian
allies. At stake was whether the colonies could continue to expand
westward or be limited to the eastern seaboard of the continent. This war
would determine who would control North America, the French or the
British and American colonists. Such groups as Rogers' Rangers won fame
with their abilities and successes. England won the war and assumed
control over the area east of the Mississippia vast empire in itself.

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2-5.
In 1763, the British king decreed that most of the newly acquired
territory was off-limits to new colonization and reserved for the use of the
native American Indians. The American colonies saw this as complete
disregard for what they saw as their right to use the western territories as
they saw fit. The following year, Britain imposed the first in a series of
taxes designed to pay the cost of British forces stationed in America. The
colonists objected to these new taxes. The Billeting Act of 1765 required the
Americans to quarter and support British troops. But it was the Stamp Act
of that year that most infuriated the colonists. The Stamp Act required that
a stamp be affixed to nearly all published materials and official documents
in the colonies, as was the case in Great Britain, to produce revenue
required for the defense of the colonies.
2-6.
Patrick Henry and the Virginia legislature denounced the Stamp
Act as Taxation without Representation. Americans broke into tax offices
and burned the stamps. The level of opposition astonished the British, who
thought the Stamp Act was an even, fair way of producing the revenue
needed to pay for the defense of the colonies. In the next few years,
additional taxes imposed upon other goods further angered Americans.
Emotions ran high in Boston where tax officials were occasionally
mistreated, causing the British to station two regiments there, which only
agitated Americans even more, prompting a number of violent incidents.

Crispus Attucks in the Boston Massacre

On the evening of March 5, 1770, a barber's apprentice chided a British
soldier for allegedly walking away without paying for his haircut. The
soldier struck him and news of the offense spread quickly. Groups of
angry citizens gathered in various places around town.
A group of men, led by the towering figure of Crispus Attucks, went to
the customs house and began taunting the lone British guard there.
Seven other soldiers soon came to his support. Attucks was a man who
had escaped from slavery and became a sailor to maintain his freedom.
He also was a man of some leadership ability. He and a growing crowd
confronted the soldiers. In some accounts Attucks struck a British
soldier but others say there was no such provocation. In any event, the
British fired and Attucks lay dead, struck by two bullets. Samuel Gray,
James Caldwell, Samuel Maverick and Patrick Carr also died instantly
or in the following days and six others were wounded. Citizens
immediately demanded the withdrawal of British troops. The deaths of
these men "effected in a moment what 17 months of petition and
discussion had failed to accomplish."
The town's response was significant. The bodies of the slain men lay in
state. For the funeral service, shops closed, bells rang, and thousands
of citizens from all walks of life formed a long procession, six people
deep, to the Old Granary Burial Ground where the bodies were
committed to a common grave. Until the signing of the Declaration of
Independence, Boston commemorated their deaths on March 5,
"Crispus Attucks Day."

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THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR

2-7.
The Declaration of Independence of 4 July 1776 is rightly associated
with the birth of our Nation, but the revolution had already been under way
for over a year. On 19 April 1775 at Lexington Green, 70 Massachusetts
citizen-soldiers stood their ground and refused to allow a British regiment
through to destroy a weapons cache in Concord. Without orders, someone
on one of the sides fired the shot heard round the world. The British fired
and charged, killing eight of the Massachusetts soldiers in what began
eight years of war but ended with an independent Nation that one day
would become the beacon of freedom for uncounted millions around the
world. Those first days of our Army and the Republic it served were difficult
times. We lost many battles, but won just enough to hang on and maintain
the resolve to continue the fight.
2-8.
The United States Army began 14 June 1775, when the Continental
Congress adopted the New England army besieging Boston as an American
Army. The next day Congress selected George Washington to command the
first Continental Army: Resolved, that a General be appointed to command
all the continental forces, raised, or to be raised, for the defence of
American liberty. This resolution of the Second Continental Congress
established the beginnings of the United States Army as we know it today.
Those early days were tough and the British roughly handled the Army. Yet
the Battle of Bunker Hill on 17 June 1775 showed the patriots that they
could stand up to British regulars.

The Whites of Their Eyes. The Battle of Bunker Hill.

New York
2-9.
In one of the first major actions of the war, General Washington
defended New York against a far more mobile British force on Long Island,
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_____________________________________________________________ Chapter 2

whose evident intent was to seize New York. The patriots were preparing
defenses around New York City and expected an attack. But Washington
was desperate for information on British intentions and finally resorted to
sending a spy to reconnoiter the enemy positions. Captain Nathan Hale
volunteered for the mission.
2-10. After landing on Long Islands northern shore, Captain Hale moved
toward New York. He soon discovered that the British had already begun
their attack against the Continental Army. Though the immediate purpose
of his mission was negated, Hale continued to try and obtain information of
value to the patriots cause. Perhaps betrayed by a kinsman, perhaps just
unlucky, Captain Hale was captured on 21 September 1776 with
incriminating notes of British dispositions. He was brought before General
Howe, the British commander. Captain Hale admitted his spying and
without a trial, Howe ordered him to be hanged the following morning.
Nathan Hale went bravely to his death, knowing he would be an example to
his fellow patriots. His last words were, I only regret that I have but one
life to lose for my country.
2-11. Despite Captain Hales bravery, the Americans lost New York to the
British and withdrew to New Jersey and then Pennsylvania. General
Washington knew that the Nation needed a victory to keep up its spirit and
with many soldiers near the end of their enlistment, knew such a victory
must come sooner than later. Those were the conditions when Washington
decided to attack the Hessian garrison of Trenton, New Jersey. Sailors
turned soldiers of Glovers Regiment from Marblehead, Maine ferried the
little force of 2,400 across the icy Delaware on Christmas, 1776. After
marching nine miles through heavy snowfall, they charged into the town
early the next morning, taking the Hessians utterly by surprise. In 90
minutes it was over and the Army had won a victory to keep the fires of
liberty alive for awhile longer. Even though more defeats on the field of
battle were ahead, our people, our soldiers and our leaders never lost heart.

These are the times that try men's souls: The summer soldier
and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the
service of their country; but he that stands it NOW deserves
the love and thanks of man and woman. Tyranny, like hell, is
not easily conquered; yet we have this consolation with us,
that the harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph.
Thomas Paine

Saratoga
2-12. Nearly a year later, the Battles of Saratoga again tested the
determination of the patriots. The British had intended to seize Albany,
New York by simultaneous advances from Canada and New York City
along the Hudson River in order to divide the colonies along that vital
waterway, with a third axis from Oswego along the Mohawk Valley. The
British attack from New York never materialized, instead becoming
diverted to Philadelphia. American forces, swelled by many new volunteers
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FM 7-21.13 ____________________________________________________________

from the state militias, were able to mass against the British coming south
from Canada. In a series of battles in September and October 1777,
America won its first major victorya pivotal event in the war. It showed
the world that America remained unbowed and determined to win and led
to active assistance from the French that complicated the war for the
British. Ultimately, the British had to contend with America, France,
Spain, and the Netherlands.

The Marquis de LafayettePatron of Liberty

Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette was born into French nobility in
1757. After service in the French army, Lafayette became interested in
the cause of American freedom. He desired to provide actual assistance
and not only sent money to America but also offered his services to the
American Congress in 1776. Since official French policy at the time was
to remain neutral, Lafayette went secretly to America. In July 1777,
Congress appointed him a major general, though stipulated he would
have to serve at his own expenseLafayette received no pay.
After taking part in several battles in which he demonstrated both his
bravery and his skill in combat, Congress appointed Lafayette to
command an invasion of Canada. Unknown to him, Lafayettes
appointment was wrapped up in a strange conspiracy known as the
Conway Cabal. A group of officers had decided that the conquest of
Canada was more important than loyalty to America or to General
Washington. Lafayette, who was intensely loyal to General Washington,
was appointed simply to provide the pretense of legitimacy to the affair.
He soon saw the plot for what it was. After determining the mission had
insufficient resources, he succeeded in canceling the ill-advised attack
entirely. Lafayette continued to lead well in battle elsewhere.
Soon after France allied herself to America, Lafayette decided he could
serve the American cause best by returning to France in order to
strengthen the relationship and enhance cooperation between the
Nations. Lafayette provided a full report on the situation in America and
persuasively argued for complete support of the Americans, including
ground troops. He returned to America with many French soldiers. The
assistance of France was essential to winning the Revolutionary War.
With the Marquis de Lafayette, General Washington won the Battle of
Yorktown in 1781.
Lafayette continued his support long after the Revolution, though he
returned to his native France. He returned to the United States in 1825
for a yearlong visit and was greeted by thunderous applause wherever
he went. Americans still remembered his important role in winning
freedom. Lafayette died in 1834 and was buried in Paris. An American
flag flies over his grave.
Valley Forge
2-13. Our soldiers endured the harsh winter of 1777-1778 at Valley Forge
but learned how to make war under the tutelage of a Prussian drillmaster
named Friedrich Wilhelm Baron von Steuben. The self-styled Baron (he
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wasnt really a baron, but the soldiers didnt care) took the ragtag remnants
of two years of hard campaigning and turned them into a force that could
stand against the might of the British empire. Von Steuben carried out the
program during the late winter and early spring of 1778. He taught the
Continental Army a simplified but effective version of the drill formations
and movements of European armies, proper care of equipment, and the use
of the bayonet, a weapon in which British superiority had previously been
marked. He attempted to consolidate the understrength regiments and
companies and organized light infantry companies as the elite force of the
Army. He impressed upon officers their responsibility for taking care of the
soldiers and taught NCOs how to train and lead those soldiers.

I would cherish those dear, ragged Continentals, whose

patience will be the admiration of future ages, and glory in
bleeding with them.
Colonel John Laurens

2-14. Von Steuben never lost sight of the difference between the American
citizen soldier and the European professional. He realized that American
soldiers often had to be told why they did things before they would do them
well. He applied this philosophy in his training program. After Valley
Forge, Continentals would fight on equal terms with British regulars in the
open field. Much of what von Steuben taught our soldiers is still in use
today. After his training took effect, the Continental Army became the
equal of the British forces. Nonetheless, operations in the northern states
degenerated into a stalemate that lasted to the end of the war.

Von Steuben Instructs Soldiers at Valley Forge, 1778

War in the South
2-15. The Revolutionary War after 1777 was mainly fought in the
southern states. There it was a war between patriots and Tories
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Americans who remained loyal to the crown and were recruited by the
British to fight the rebels. As such, it was more a civil war than not, and
neighbors and brothers fought each other in engagements that became
increasingly vicious and merciless. They fought as much to protect their
homes and families as for the future of the new nation.
2-16. On the patriot side, much of the combat power existed in bands of
guerrillas, employing hit and run tactics that helped whittle away British
strength and interrupt supplies. Francis Marion, the Swamp Fox, led one
of these partisan groups. What he lacked in numbers he made up for in
audacity and thorough knowledge of the terrain, his soldiers, and his
enemy. Over the course of three years he harassed the enemy, cut his
communications, and caused the British to divert many soldiers to
eliminating him.
2-17. The Tories were usually more organized, often led by a British
officer, and fought more in line with existing British tactical doctrine. But
some of the Tory units took up the practice of burning houses and
destroying crops to deny them to the patriots. It had the effect of pushing
the southern population, much of whom had been loyal to the Crown, into
the American cause. One of these Tory units was under the command of
Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton. Tarleton was the British
commander on the field at the American disaster of the Battle of Waxhaws.
2-18. In May 1780, the British captured Charleston, South Carolina and
its garrison, leaving the entire south open to attack. The prospects of
American victory had never looked worse. But General Washington
appointed Nathanael Greene as commander of the Southern Army. Greene
began to wear down the British by leading them on a six-month chase
through remote areas of the Carolinas and Virginia.
2-19. Greene never won a battle, but maintained constant pressure on the
enemy with local guerrilla groups. The British, low on supplies, began
stealing from any Americans they encountered, infuriating them. The
British recourse to theft and destruction of property turned the local
populace against the British. Many had been sympathetic to the Loyalist
cause, but no more. The British actions directly resulted in their defeat at
the Cowpens on 17 January 1781. Greenes persistence won back the south
as the British abandoned post and city to return to the seacoast where they
could maintain unhindered communications.
Cowpens
2-20. Part of Greenes strategy was to split his Army to cause the British
to weaken their forces in pursuit. It worked when the British commander
detached Tarletons command, reinforced by two regiments of British
regulars, to pursue one of the columns of Continentals and militia,
commanded by Brigadier General Daniel Morgan. Though untrained in
tactics or strategy, Morgan knew his soldiers strengths and weaknesses
and that of his enemy. He turned to face the British in a field known as
Hannahs Cowpens and won a victory that altered the course of the war.

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2-21. Though outnumbered by Tarletons force, Morgan chose a low,

sparsely wooded hill to defend. He would place most of his his militia in the
front, instructing them to fire two shots before withdrawing. Behind these
militia troops would be his stalwart Continentals and trusty Virginia
militia in the main line and a small cavalry force as his reserve. Morgan
intended for the first lines of militiamen to fire at close range to strike down
enemy leaders and depart the field as if retreating. Then when the British
charged after them, they would run into the main line of Continentals and
Virginians. He spent much of the evening before the battle ensuring all his
soldiers knew the plan and what was expected of them. He knew each
soldier would do his duty.
2-22. Tarletons aggressiveness was also something Morgan counted on
when the battle began the next morning. As expected, after the militia fired
and withdrew, the British closed on the main line of patriots. They
attempted to outflank the American right, and a misunderstood order
caused the Continentals there to move to the rear. Tarleton thought they
were retreating and plunged recklessly after them. But Morgan turned the
Continentals about and charged the attacking British. While engaged to the
front, the American cavalry and the reformed militia surrounded Tarletons
force of 1,100 and killed, wounded, or captured all but 50 who barely
escaped, including Tarleton himself. This decisive victory seriously reduced
the British strength in the south.
Yorktown and Victory
2-23. Soon the British began a withdrawal to Yorktown where they would
evacuate part of the force to New York. Instead the French fleet arrived and
drove off the outnumbered British vessels that were guarding the
Chesapeake Bay. They landed 3,000 more French troops to join the 12,000
Americans and French that had surrounded Yorktown and began a
blockade to deny reinforcements or evacuation from Yorktown. The
resulting siege ended when the British surrendered on 19 October 1781, the
day the world turned upside down.
2-24. The victory at Yorktown broke the will of the British to continue the
war and ultimately decided it in Americas favor. The Revolutionary War
officially ended 3 September 1783 with the signing of a peace treaty in
Paris. The British recognized the United States as a free and independent
nation and that the US boundaries would be the Mississippi River in the
west and the Great Lakes in the north. The area west of the Appalachian
Mountains was called the Northwest Territory.
A NEW NATION
2-25. The United States initially were governed by a document called the
Articles of Confederation. After a few years Congress called for a convention
simply to mend the documents flaws. But the convention soon decided to
write a new instrument, the Constitution. When it was ratified the
Constitution left in place a small professional Army supplemented by the
militia of all able-bodied males, under strict civilian control. Read more
about the Constitutionin Section III.
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Fallen Timbers
2-26. Despite the treaty provisions at the end of the Revolutionary War,
the British did not evacuate the Northwest Territory. Even so, American
Settlers began moving into the territory. The native American Indians in
the area believed the land was theirs because of previous treaties and
resisted this encroachment. Americans suspected that the British were
arming the Indians and perhaps encouraging their resistance. A
confederation of tribes led by Chief Little Turtle of the Miami soundly
defeated two major Army expeditions sent to protect the American settlers
from Indian raids. This caused a crisis of confidence in the effectiveness of
the Federal government and of the Constitution itself. President
Washington appointed General Anthony Wayne to prepare a force to
remove the Indian threat to the settlers if ongoing negotiations failed.
2-27. The negotiations did indeed fail. The US would not ban settlers
from moving across the Ohio River and the Indian tribes would not allow
such intrusion without a fight. On 11 September 1793, President
Washington ordered General Wayne to attack. Wayne built forts deeper
and deeper into Indian territory and defeated all attacks against them,
severely shaking the Indians confidence in their leaders and in their ability
to win the struggle. By August 1794, Wayne had offered the remaining
tribes a chance to end to the fighting but received no response.

The Road to Fallen Timbers

2-28. Expecting a battle, Wayne made known the Army would attack on
17 August. Realizing that the Indian warriors habitually did not eat on the
day they expected combat, Genereal Wayne waited an additional three days
believing many of the Indians would leave to seek food. He attacked on 20
August 1794 near Toledo, Ohio, and fought the remaining 800 Indian
warriors in a forest that had suffered severe damage from a recent storm,
giving the battle its name Fallen Timbers. In less than two hours Wayne
defeated the Indian force, paving the way for the Treaty of Greenville that

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secured southern and eastern Ohio and effectively ended British

interference in the Northwest Territory.
LEWIS AND CLARK
2-29. The young Nation more than doubled in size in 1803 when it
acquired a huge expanse of territory from France in what became known as
the Louisiana Purchase. President Jefferson sent the Corps of Volunteers
for North Western Discovery to explore and assert American authority
over the area. Sergeants John Ordway, Nathaniel Pryor and Charles Floyd
(and later Sergeant Patrick Gass when Floyd died along the Missouri River)
joined two Army officers, Captains Meriwether Lewis and William Clark.
2-30. With a select group of volunteers from the United States Army and
civilian life they ventured west towards the Pacific coast. The skill,
teamwork, and courage of each soldier contributed significantly to the
success of the expedition. When the soldiers finally returned in September
1806 after traveling almost 8,000 miles in under two and a half years, their
journey had already captured the admiration and imagination of the
American people.
WAR OF 1812
2-31. In the early 1800s Britain and France were at war with each other
and desperate for men and materiel. Both belligerents seized American
ships at sea but Britain was the chief offender because its Navy had greater
command of the seas. The British outrages took two distinct forms. The
first was the seizure and forced sale of merchant ships and their cargoes for
allegedly violating the British blockade of Europe. The second, more
insulting type of outrage was the capture of men from American vessels for
forced service in the Royal Navy.
2-32. The seat of anti-British sentiment appeared in the Northwest and
the lower Ohio Valley, where frontiersmen had no doubt that their troubles
with the Indians in the area were the result of British intrigue. Stories
circulated after every Indian raid of British Army muskets and equipment
being found on the field. By the year 1812 the westerners were convinced
that forcing the British out of Canada would best solve their problems.
Then on 1 June 1812, President Madison asked Congress to declare war,
which it narrowly did by six votes in the Senate.
2-33. American strategy was simple; conquer Canada and drive British
commerce from the seas. But in practice, it became clear that public support
for an enterprise was critical to the success of American operations. After a
few abortive attempts to invade Canada in which many regional militia
units were unwilling to take part, the Army quietly went into winter
quarters. Repeated attempts throughout the war to make gains in Canada
met with similar misfortune.
2-34. In 1813 American forces attempted to take the western panhandle
of Florida and southern Mississippi, then territories of Spain. Defending
the area were a few tribes of Indians that had long been difficult to control.
Initially poor logistics preparation stymied the small American force of
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volunteers, but after reorganization and additional reinforcements, they

drove the remaining tribes into Spanishheld Florida.
2-35. In 1814 the Army fought its finest engagements of the war. Though
strategically the US was frustrated yet again in failing to conquer Canada,
time after time the Army fought hard and well against the very best units
of the British Empire, many of which were veterans of the war against
Napoleon. At Lundys Lane, where Sergeant Patrick Gass fought with
distinction, Baltimore and Plattsburg, well-trained regulars and volunteers
acquitted themselves superbly against what was then believed to be the
finest infantry in the world.
2-36. In setbacks like Bladensburg, poor training and poor leadership
were the reasons why 5,000 hastily assembled Regulars, militia and naval
gunners were swept aside by an inferior British force that then entered and
burned Washington. Yet many of these same militia, after two weeks of
training, were resolute and inflicted heavy loss on the British in the defense
of Baltimore.
2-37. News of the British defeats at Baltimore and at Plattsburg caused
the British government to reevaluate its objectives in North America. As a
result it redoubled efforts to reach an agreement in peace negotiations that
were already underway, ultimately resulting in peace by the Treaty of
Ghent on 24 December 1814, two weeks before what was probably the most
famous battle of the war.
The Battle of New Orleans
2-38. In late 1814 the British sent 9,000 soldiers to capture New Orleans
in order to isolate the Louisiana Territory from the United States. They
landed at a shallow lagoon some ten miles east of New Orleans. During an
engagement on 23 December 1814, General Andrew Jackson almost
succeeded in cutting off an advance detachment of 2,000 British, but after a
3-hour fight in which casualties on both sides were heavy, Jackson was
compelled to retire behind fortifications covering New Orleans.
2-39. Opposite the British and behind a ditch stretching from the
Mississippi River to a swamp, Jackson prepared the defense with about
3,500 soldiers and another 1,000 in reserve. It was a varied group,
composed of the 7th and 44th Infantry Regiments, Major Beale's New
Orleans Sharpshooters, LaCoste and Daquin's battalions of free AfricanAmericans, the Louisiana militia, a band of Choctaw Indians, the
Baratorian pirates, and a battalion of volunteers from the New Orleans
aristocracy. To support his defenses, Jackson had assembled more than
twenty pieces of artillery, including nine heavy guns on the opposite bank of
the Mississippi. He was forced to scour New Orleans for a variety of
obsolete and rusty small arms to equip his entire force. Knowing many of
these dueling pistols and blunderbusses were nearly useless against British
muskets, he shaped the battlefield to his advantage by erecting formidable
earthworks, high enough to require scaling ladders for an assault.
2-40. After losing an artillery duel, the British commander decided to
launch a frontal assault with 5,400 of his force. On 8 January 1815, waiting
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patiently behind high banks of earth and cotton bales, the Americans
opened a murderous fire, first with artillery and then with small arms. In
the area of the main attack the British were decimated and the
commanding general killed. The British successor to command, horrified by
the losses, ordered a general withdrawal. Over 2,000 British soldiers were
killed or wounded as opposed to 13 on the American side.
2-41. Soon after, word came that a peace treaty had been signed on
Christmas Evetwo weeks before the battle. The War of 1812 was over,
and the Army had kept the Nation free. Although the United States did not
conquer Canada (President Jefferson once said it would be a mere matter
of marching), it did gain new respect abroad and inspired a sense of
national pride and confidence. The US Army was recognized as a
formidable force.
30 YEARS OF PEACE
2-42. After Wellingtons victory at Waterloo in June 1815, Americans
feared there would be another war with Britain. Such fears prompted
congress to triple the size of the peacetime regular Army (to 10,000), begin
an impressive program of building fortifications along the vulnerable
eastern seaboard, and improve the facilities at the US Military Academy at
West Point. Because of these efforts, America enjoyed 30 years of relative
peace, although sharply punctuated by wars with the Creek and Seminole
Nations, the Blackhawks, and other Indian tribes.
2-43. For the first time since von Steubens Blue Book, the Army
developed written regulations to standardize many aspects of Army
operations. The Army Regulations of 1821, written by General Winfield
Scott, covered every detail of the soldiers life such as the hand salute, how
to conduct a march, and even how to make a good stew for the company.
General Scott was one of the most prolific writers in the Army of the early
19th century. Based on his combat experience in the War of 1812 and other
conflicts, he wrote a manual of infantry tactics that was used with minor
modification until the Civil War.
2-44. Scott believed that the US Army needed a formal system of tactics
to enable it to operate effectively. The tactics of the time, based on the line
formation, were a result of the small arms technology of that period.
Infantry armed with muskets had an effective range of less than one
hundred meters. This fact and the extremely slow rate of fire of the
weapons meant that to mass fires required massing soldiers. Soldiers had
to operate in tightly packed units. But firepower was really a means to an
end. The bayonet charge was the decisive movement and the ability to
maintain a tightly packed formation simply assured the attacker would be
able to outnumber the defender at the point of attack.
2-45. General Scott also explained the School of the Soldier, providing
explicit detail on how a soldier stands, walks and moves, all to most
efficiently move large groups of soldiers about the battlefield and to ensure
their fire was concentrated where the commander desired it. Scotts Tactics
provides us a distant echo of how our Army trains today. In the School of
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the Soldier, School of the Company, and the School of the Battalion, we see
familiar traces of individual and collective training. It may be said that
Winfield Scott turned the US Army into a professional fighting force with
the methodical application of standardized training techniques.
2-46. As America grew, western expansion and exploration brought
settlers into more frequent conflict with the Indian nations. Much of the
regular Army was stationed on the western frontier to try and maintain
peace and order. But the expansion was free of European interference, due
to the isolation gained by Britains naval supremacy that kept the peace at
sea. That isolation enforced the Monroe Doctrine and allowed the Army to
turn its focus to the west. At times the Army was the buffer between the
settlers and the native Americans while at other times it was directed to
move the Indian tribes, by force if necessary, from their lands. One such
action turned into the Black Hawk War, in which Abraham Lincoln
participated as a captain of volunteer infantry.
2-47. From 1821-1830 large numbers of Americans, at the invitation of
the Mexican government, moved into the area called Texas. This soon
became the focus of a dispute that would lead to war with the United
States. The growing numbers of settlers from the United States created
suspicion in the Mexican government which then ordered a halt to all
immigration and began to reassert its authority in the area. Volunteers
from across the United States went to Texas to lend their support.
The Alamo
2-48. In December 1835 Texians (immigrants from the United States) and
Tejanos (Hispanic Texans), fighting for independence, seized the towns of
San Antonio de Bexar and Goliad and began preparing them as outposts for
an expected Mexican counterattack. The volunteers in San Antonio, under
the command of Colonel James C. Neill, expertly strengthened the existing
fortifications centered on the old mission of the Alamo. After Neill had to
leave to attend an illness in his family, Colonel Jim Bowie and Lieutenant
Colonel William B. Travis jointly commanded the garrison at the Alamo,
fully expecting Colonel Neill to return in a few weeks.
2-49. The Mexican Army under General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna
would not give them that time. Santa Anna arrived outside the Alamo on 23
February 1836 and immediately demanded the surrender of the garrison,
who promptly refused by firing a cannon in reply. General Santa Anna
prepared for a siege and began pounding the fort with his artillery.
2-50. Travis took over sole command on 24 February 1836 when Colonel
Bowie fell seriously ill. He sent a number of messages calling for
reinforcements but only 32 more volunteers had arrived by 1 March 1836.
By 5 March 1836 only 189 Texians and Tejanos defended the Alamo. Still,
they kept the enemy at their distance, sniping at Mexican work parties and
gun crews. But on 5 March, even though the siege and bombardment were
having effect on the Alamos fortifications and defenders, General Santa
Anna abruptly decided to assault the fort before dawn the next morning.

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2-51. At 0400 on 6 March 1836, Santa Anna began his assault. About
1,800 Mexican soldiers attacked in four columns, but the rifle and cannon
fire of the defenders repelled the first two attempts to scale the outer walls.
The vast advantage in numbers allowed the Mexican force to continue its
attack and succeeded in breaching and scaling the walls on the third try.
The Mexican soldiers poured into the Alamo, killing every defender, but
suffered over 600 casualties in doing so. It was a very costly Mexican
victory that served to rally Texans in subsequent battles.
2-52. After Sam Houstons decisive victory at San Jacinto the following
month, Mexican forces withdrew from Texas. For the next nine years Texas
operated as an independent republic although the Mexican government did
not recognize it as such. At the same time, Texas was trying to become part
of the United States. Their efforts were frustrated for a time over the issue
of slavery, but on 1 March 1845 Congress resolved to admit Texas to the
Union. Because Mexico had desired to regain control of Texas for itself, she
promptly broke off diplomatic relations with the United States and both
countries prepared for war. In addition to regulars, volunteers from Texas
and Louisiana joined General Zachary Taylor at the Rio Grande where they
built a number of fortified positions to pressure Mexico into accepting that
river as the international boundary.
WAR WITH MEXICO
2-53. Hostilities began 25 April 1846 near Matamoros and were soon
followed by the Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. In these
successive battles, the Army fought a defense against a force that was twice
as large. The next day, they attacked an entrenched enemy force and drove
it from the field. Enlisted soldiers demonstrated their toughness and
resiliency, and the officer corps provided skillful leadership, particularly in
the use of artillery. Yet these early victories were incomplete because
Taylors force had no means to cross the Rio Grande in pursuit of the
defeated Mexican force. By the time Taylor had brought boats from Point
Isabel, the enemy had withdrawn into the interior of Mexico.
2-54. To provide the necessary resources to win the war, Congress
authorized an increase of the Regular Army to 15,540 and also authorized
the President to call for 50,000 volunteers to serve for one year or the
duration of the war. The United States objective in the war was to seize all
Mexican territory north of the Rio Grande and Gila rivers all the way to the
Pacific. This area comprised what we know today as New Mexico, Arizona,
California, Nevada, Utah and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. To
accomplish this huge task the Army would attack to destroy the Mexican
Armys offensive capability and occupy key points in northern Mexico to
obtain favorable terms. In attacks along three axes in northern Mexico, the
US Army never lost a battle. But Mexico continued to resist and American
leaders concluded that a direct strike at Mexico City was necessary.
2-55. The Army under General Winfield Scott made its first ever major
amphibious landing at Vera Cruz on 9 March 1847. While heavily fortified,
the city fell within the month and soon the Army was moving west. During
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the next five months, the Armys soldiers again displayed fine fighting
qualities at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Churubusco, and Chapultepec. Army
officers distinguished themselves as scouts, engineers, staff officers,
military governors, and leaders of combat troops. Many of these officers,
including Robert E. Lee, Joseph E. Johnston, Thomas J. Jackson, Ulysses S.
Grant, and George B. McClellan, would command the armies that would
face each other in the American Civil War fourteen years later.
2-56. Ultimately, Mexico capitulated and signed the Treaty of Guadalupe
Hidalgo on 2 February 1848. After full ratification on both sides, Mexico
recognized the Rio Grande as the boundary of Texas and gave control of
New Mexico (including the present states of Arizona, California, New
Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and part of Wyoming) to the United States in
exchange for $15 million. This addition to the United States and the
settlement of the Oregon boundary dispute with Great Britain opened a
vast area that would occupy the Armys attention until the Civil War.

THE CIVIL WAR TO WORLD WAR I

2-57. Slavery had been a bitterly divisive issue among Americans since
before the Revolutionary War. By the Presidential election of 1860, a
number of political compromises had averted war. Presidential candidate
Abraham Lincolns platform included that he would not support extending
slavery into the western territories. Southerners believed this would give
political advantage to the northern states. In addition, Congress had
imposed a tax on certain imported manufactured goods in order to protect
American industries, most of which were in the north. But it was the issue
of the expansion of slavery that most directly led to war.
THE CIVIL WAR
2-58. After American voters elected Lincoln as President, South Carolina
seceded from the Union. Other southern states soon followed, though some
took a wait and see approach. Virginia, for example, did not secede until
after Fort Sumter fell when the President ordered a partial mobilization to
suppress the rebellion. The American Civil War had been avoided for many
years but began when South Carolina militia forces fired on Fort Sumter in
Charleston Harbor in April 1861.
2-59. The regular Army at the beginning of the Civil War was tiny in
comparison to the task at hand and it was almost totally engaged with
peacekeeping on the western frontier. Both the North and the South had to
call for volunteers to fight for their respective sides. Initially, many in the
North thought it could suppress the rebellion in a short time so the
President called for volunteers for a short period of enlistment. The rush to
the Colors on both sides following the call for volunteers reflected the
countrys tradition of a citizenry ready to spring to arms when the Nation
was in danger.
2-60. In overall command at the beginning of the war was General
Winfield Scott (the same officer who fought in 1812 and against Mexico and
wrote the 1821 regulations). He understood that the defeat of the South
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would take a long time and the Union would have to attack the
Confederacys economy. His plan was to conduct a naval blockade of the
South to prevent imports and exports, split the Confederacy by seizing the
length of the Mississippi, and maintain continuous pressure along the
entire front while waiting for the Confederacy to either dissolve from
internal dissension or seek peace negotiations. But this strategy would take
time, so much so that it was initially ridiculed as the Anaconda Plan
because of the slow effect it would have. War fever was high and politicians,
newspaper editors, and the public wanted action. They thought that if the
Federal (Union) forces could simply seize the capital of the Confederacy, the
South would just give up.
Early Battles
2-61. The Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run showed the need
for more thorough preparation and for more soldiers. That realization
allowed professional Army officers like Major General George B. McClellan
to begin the hard work of transforming volunteers into soldiers. Within
months, the Army increased to almost 500,000 men, and it would grow
much larger in the ensuing years. Regular Army personnel, West Pointers
returning from civilian life, and self-educated citizen-officers all did their
part in transforming raw recruits into an effective fighting force.
2-62. Ultimately, the North adopted the essential elements of Scotts
Anaconda Plan and it did, indeed, take time. The four years of bloody
warfare that followed cost nearly as many Americans lives as in all our
other wars combined, before and since. Civil wars, by their nature, are
brutal and merciless. Yet, for the common soldier on both sides, there were
examples of extraordinary courage, compassion, and fortitude. That they
endured is testament to the natural strength of the American soldier.
2-63. The Confederacy had clear disadvantages in comparison to the
Union states. The smaller population of the South and the huge disparity in
manufacturing capability were the most obvious of these. But these were
partially offset, at least initially, by the great skill of southern commanders
and the established trade the Confederacy continued with European
nations. The Souths greatest advantage was that it simply had to endure to
succeed. For the Union to win it would have to conquer the Confederacy or
force it to negotiate a truce that included rejoining the Union. This put the
northern states on the strategic offensive in order to succeed.
2-64. In its efforts to restore the Union in 1861 and 1862, the Army
achieved mixed results. It secured Washington, DC, and the border states,
and provided aid and comfort to Union loyalists in West Virginia. In
cooperation with the Union Navy, the Army seized key points along the
southern coast, including the port of New Orleans, while the Navy
conducted an increasingly stronger blockade of the Confederacy. Under
such leaders as Major General Ulysses S. Grant, the Army occupied west
and central Tennessee and secured almost all of the Mississippi River.
2-65. In the most visible theater of the war, however, the Union Army of
the Potomac under a series of commanders made little progress against the
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Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, commanded by General Robert E.

Lee. After victories in the battles of Seven Days and Second Bull Run, Lee
invaded Maryland. The Union victory at the Battle of Antietam forced Lee
to return to Virginia, although subsequent defeats at Fredericksburg and
Chancellorsville brought the Union effort in the East no closer to success
than it had been at the start of the war.

Antietam and Emancipation

Lee crossed the Potomac in 1862 for a number of compelling reasons.
Primarily he wanted to maintain the initiative in the war. A battle on
northern soil would show the people of the Union that it was going to be
a long, hard struggle to subdue the Confederacy. Perhaps it would push
them to vote more pro-southern politicians into office in the coming
election. He also hoped that such an invasion would encourage
European support of the Confederacy. Finally, since it was harvest time,
he wanted his army to subsist on northern crops.
President Lincoln wanted to prevent any European alliance with the
Confederacy. Since the Europeans were opposed to slavery, he thought
freeing the slaves would make it politically impossible for European
nations to side with the South. Emancipation would also gain the full
and continuing support of abolitionists in the North. But issuing an
Emancipation Proclamation while Union armies were losing battles
might be seen as an act of desperation, rather than one of strength.
The Battle of Antietam on 17 September 1862 was a bloody day on
which 6,000 soldiers were killed and 17,000 wounded in a twelve-hour
period. In tactical terms, Antietam was a draw. General Lees army was
severely outnumbered at the outset and his enemy, Major General
George McClellan, knew his invasion plan, yet the Confederates still
held the field at the end of the day. But the terrible losses Lee sustained
meant he could not continue operations on Union territory without risk of
complete destruction. Lees resulting withdrawal from Maryland was a
strategic victory for the Union and provided Lincoln the opportunity to
issue the Emancipation Proclamation.
2-66. President Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation on 22 September
1862 freed the slaves in any areas still under Confederate control as of 1
January 1863. This had no real effect until the Union Army took control of
those areas, but it expanded the Armys mission of restoring the Union to
include freeing the slaves in the Confederate states. Soon Union armies
moving through the South were followed by a fast-growing multitude of
African-American refugees, most of them with little means of survival.
2-67. The Army gave food, clothing, and employment to the freedmen, and
it provided as many as possible with the means of self-sufficiency, including
instruction in reading and writing. African-Americans in the Union Army
were among those who achieved literacy. After years of excluding AfricanAmericans, the Army took 180,000 into its ranks. Formed into segregated
units under white officers, these free men and former slaves contributed
much to the eventual Union victory. One of the notable units was the 54th
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Massachusetts Regiment, which led an assault on Battery Wagner at

Morris Island on 18 July 1863.

The First Medal of Honor Recipient

Congress authorized the creation of the Medal of Honor on 12 July 1862
and on 25 March 1863, Private Jacob Parrott, Company K, 33d Ohio
Volunteer Infantry, received the first Medal of Honor ever awarded.
In April 1862 Private Parrott and 23 other volunteers were part of a raid
into Georgia to destroy track and bridges on the railroad line between
Atlanta and Chattanooga. They penetrated nearly 200 miles south and
boarded a train headed north. During a scheduled stop at Big Shanty,
Georgia, the group stayed on the train while the engineer, conductor,
and the rest of the passengers went to get breakfast. Then the Union
soldiers uncoupled the engine, tender and three boxcars from the rest of
the train. Most of the men got into the rear car, while the raid leader
boarded the engine with Privates Wilson Brown and William Knight,
both engineers, and another soldier who acted as fireman. The group
steamed out of the station without incident.
The Union soldiers drove the train north but soon the Confederates
began to chase them in another locomotive. The raiders tried to burn
bridges, but because they were followed so closely were unable to
destroy any. Even dropping off some of the train cars along the way did
not slow the pursuers. Eventually, they ran out of fuel north of Ringgold,
Georgia and the raiders tried to escape on foot. All were captured,
including Private Parrott. He returned to the Union after a prisoner
exchange in March 1863. For his part in the undercover mission, Private
Jacob Parrott became the first recipient of the Medal of Honor, soon
followed by other surviving raiders.
Gettysburg
2-68. In June 1863 General Lee decided to invade the North again. He
intended to draw the Union Army of the Potomac out of its strong defensive
positions guarding Washington, DC, and destroy it on ground of his
choosing. At the very least, he intended to disrupt the plans of the Army of
the Potomac. Lee led his Army of Northern Virginia into Pennsylvania and
the Army of the Potomac followed. They met at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania
on 1 July 1863, where Union cavalry had occupied favorable defensive
positions on Seminary Ridge west of the town. The cavalry held long
enough for infantry and artillery of the Army of the Potomac to begin
arriving. But then more Confederate units marched in from the north and
outflanked the Union positions. They drove the Union soldiers back through
Gettysburg onto Cemetery Ridge and Culps Hill east of the town, where
the Union line held.
2-69. On 2 July 1863 Lee attacked again, on both the Union right and left.
Though poorly coordinated and starting late in the day, it nearly succeeded.
On the Union left, resolute soldiers from Maine, New York, Pennsylvania,
and Minnesota helped prevent the Confederates from flanking the Union
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Army. On that day the names Peach Orchard, the Wheatfield, Devils Den,
and Little Round Top were etched into US Army history.

The 1st Minnesota at Gettysburg

On the second day of the Battle of Gettysburg, the Union III Corps
moved forward of the Union lines on Cemetery Ridge to occupy a
position about 600 meters to its front. While the position was good, the
III Corps was too small to secure its flanks and therefore was
vulnerable. This became obvious when two Confederate divisions
crashed into the III Corps southern flank.
The fighting in the Peach Orchard and the Wheatfield lasted through the
afternoon, but ultimately the III Corps was overwhelmed and began
streaming back over Cemetery Ridge with the Confederates in close
pursuit. If they succeeded in pushing over the ridge they could outflank
the Army of the Potomac and defeat it on northern soil, with disastrous
consequences to Union morale. Major General Winfield Hancock,
seeing the danger, ordered two brigades to Cemetery Ridge to plug the
gap left by the retreating III Corps, but it would take time. The only
troops in the area were the soldiers of the 1st Minnesota Infantry.
Hancock galloped to its commander, Colonel William Colvill, Jr., and
pointing at the enemy closing on the ridge told him, Colonel! Do you
see those colors? Take them! With no hesitation Colvill and his 262
soldiers moved down the slope toward the 1,600 Confederate soldiers.
The 1st Minnesota drove into the enemy, causing confusion and
stopping them in their tracks. Though they suffered terrible casualties,
the volunteers from Minnesota bought the five minutes needed to move
two brigades into position on Cemetery Ridge and so prevented a rout
of the Army of the Potomac. At the end, only 47 of the 262 soldiers on
the rolls that morning were left standing. This casualty rate of 82% was
the highest of any Union regiment in the war.
2-70. On 3 July 1863, the third day of the Battle of Gettysburg, General
Lee thought he could still win with one last attack. After an intense
artillery preparation about 13,000 Confederate soldiers advanced across a
mile of ground swept by Union artillery and small arms fire into the center
of the Union line. With the Confederates was Major General George
Picketts division. The courage of Americans on both sides was never more
clearly demonstrated than during Picketts Charge. Despite the loss of half
the attacking force, the Confederate infantry reached the Union line where
infantry and artillery turned them back with crippling losses, effectively
ending the battle. During the Battle of Gettysburg, a total of 51,000 Union
and Confederate soldiers were killed, wounded or became missing but it
was unquestionably a Union victory. Though the war would not end for
nearly two more years, Gettysburg gave the Union renewed hope in victory.
2-71. In July 1863 Grants triumph at Vicksburg gave the North control of
the entire Mississippi River. The capture of Chattanooga, Tennessee, in the
fall of 1863 opened the way for an invasion of the Confederate heartland.
Appointed commander of all the Union armies, Grant planned not only to
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annihilate the enemys armies but also to destroy the Souths means of
supporting them.

Washington, Nov. 21, 1864.

Dear Madam, -I have been shown in the files of the War Department a
statement of the Adjutant General of Massachusetts that you
are the mother of five sons who have died gloriously on the
field of battle.
I feel how weak and fruitless must be any words of mine which
should attempt to beguile you from the grief of a loss so
overwhelming. But I cannot refrain from tendering to you the
consolation that may be found in the thanks of the Republic
that they died to save.
I pray that our Heavenly Father may assuage the anguish of
your bereavement, and leave you only the cherished memory
of the loved and lost, and the solemn pride that must be yours
to have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of freedom.
Yours very sincerely and respectfully,
A. Lincoln
President Lincolns letter to Mrs. Lydia Bixby of Boston, Massachusetts

2-72. Grant wore down Lees army at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania Court
House, and Petersburg during the 1864 and 1865 campaigns. His
commander in the West, Major General William T. Sherman, drove through
Georgia and the Carolinas, burning crops, tearing up railroads, and
otherwise wrecking the economic infrastructure of those regions.
Shermans March showed that victory might be hastened by destroying
the enemys economic basis for continued resistance and demoralizing his
population.
2-73. In March and April 1865 Grant pursued Lee and his Army of
Northern Virginia to Appomattox Court House, Virginia. General Lee
recognized further bloodshed would not alter the outcome of the war and
surrendered his army on 9 April 1865. The Confederate formation under
General Joseph Johnston surrendered to General Sherman on 26 April
1865, twelve days after the assassination of President Lincoln. The last
major Confederate unit west of the Mississippi gave up on 26 May 1865.
2-74. The bloodiest war in American history was over, slavery was gone,
over 600,000 Americans on both sides had died, but the Union was
preserved and the South would be rebuilt. The Armys role in reunifying the
nation was not finished with the end of the war. The Army had already
established military governments in occupied areas, cracking down on
Confederate sympathizers while providing food, schools, and improved
sanitation to the destitute. This role continued after the collapse of the

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Confederacy, when Congress adopted a tough "Reconstruction" policy to

restore the Southern states to the Union.

The Surrender.
General Lee meets General Grant at Appomattox, 9 April 1865.
2-75. The Army maintained order in the former Confederate states.
Keeping watch over local courts, the Army sought to ensure the rights of
African-Americans and Union loyalists, a task that became increasingly
difficult as support for Reconstruction waned and the occupation forces
declined in numbers. At the same time, military governors expedited the
Souths physical recovery from the war. Through the Freedmens Bureau,
the Army provided 21 million rations, operated over fifty hospitals,
arranged labor for wages in former plantation areas, and established
schools for the freedmen. The Armys role in Reconstruction ended when the
last federal troops withdrew from occupation duties in 1877.
THE WESTERN FRONTIER
2-76. Soon after the Civil War the bulk of the Regular Army returned to
its traditional role of frontier constabulary. Early settlers from Europe had
been in conflict with native Americans as early as 1622. For over 250 years
there were periodic wars and battles as settlers moved west into the
wilderness. Conflict often resulted as the Indian nations fought to preserve
their way of life while the Army fought to protect settlers, property, and the
continued expansion of the United States.
2-77. Army officers negotiated treaties with the Sioux, Cheyenne, and
other western tribes and tried to maintain order between the various tribes
and the prospectors, hunters, ranchers, and farmers moving west. Native
American tribes were pushed off lands they had inhabited for centuries.
They fought against the encroachment, periodically raiding settlements,
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work parties or wagon trains. When hostilities erupted, the Army was
usually ordered to force the Indians onto reservations. Campaigns generally
took the form of converging columns invading hostile territory in an
attempt to bring the enemy to battle. Most of the time, the tribes lacked the
numbers or inclination to challenge an Army unit of any size.

The 7th Cavalry at the Little Bighorn

In 1875, the Sioux and Cheyenne left their reservations, infuriated at
violations of their sacred lands in the Black Hills. They gathered in
Montana with Sitting Bull and vowed to fight. Victories in early 1876
made them confident to continue fighting through the summer. The 7th
Cavalry and other units moved to find and destroy hostile encampments
and force the Indians back onto their reservations.
On 25 June 1876 Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer, commanding
the 7th Cavalry, learned that a Sioux village was in the valley of the Little
Bighorn River in Montana. He expected that the village contained only a
few hundred warriors at most and that the Indians would try to slip away
from the cavalry as in previous engagments. Custer divided his force of
652 soldiers into four columns to simultaneously attack the northern and
southern ends of the village and also block any escape. But the plan did
not account for difficult terrain or the fact that the village was much
larger than he expected. The village actually contained 1,800 well
armed warriors, and they intended to stay and fight.
At about 1500, Major Marcus A. Renos element of 175 soldiers began
their attack on the southern end of the village. Hundreds of Indian
warriors spilled out of the village and routed the cavalrymen. By 1630
the Indians had turned their attention to Custers column of 221 soldiers
approaching the village from the east. The Indians pushed them back
onto a ridge and encircled them. In an hour all of the soldiers in Custers
group were dead. Though the united Sioux and Cheyenne nations had
achieved a great victory, it had aroused the American public who
demanded retribution. The boundaries of the reservation were redrawn
to exclude the Black Hills and settlers flooded the area. Within a year
the Sioux and Cheyenne were defeated.
2-78. The Army contributed in other ways to the development of the West.
One Army officer, Captain Richard H. Pratt, established the US Indian
Training and Industrial School at Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania, to teach
Native American youth new skills. At the same time, other soldiers
conducted explorations to finish the task of mapping the continent. The
surveys from 1867 through 1879 completed the work of Lewis and Clark,
while discoveries at Yosemite, Yellowstone, and elsewhere led to the
establishment of a system of national parks. Army expeditions explored the
newly purchased territory of Alaska. For ten years before the formation of a
civilian government, the Army governed the Alaska Territory.
SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR
2-79. As the nineteenth century drew to an end, the Army again served
the Nation during the American intervention in Cubas war of liberation
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from Spain in 1898. A US Navy battleship, the USS Maine, anchored in the
harbor at Havana, Cuba, mysteriously exploded on the night of 15 February
1898 killing 266 American sailors. Public opinion quickly turned hostile
toward Spain and Congress declared war on 25 April 1898. The Army once
again struggled to organize, equip, instruct, and care for raw recruits
flooding into its training camps. By the end of June 1898 the Army had
embarked 17,000 soldiers enroute to attack approximately 200,000 Spanish
soldiers occupying Cuba.

The 1st Volunteer CavalryThe Rough Riders at Kettle Hill near

Santiago, Cuba on 1 July 1898.
2-80. The expeditionary force that included Lieutenant Colonel Theodore
Roosevelts volunteer cavalry regiment began landing in Cuba on 22 June
1898. The Army drove the Spanish from the San Juan Heights overlooking
the port of Santiago, causing the enemy ships in the port to flee into the
waiting guns of the United States Navy. Other expeditionary forces landed
in the Spanish possessions of Puerto Rico and the Philippines, following
Commodore George Deweys naval victory at the Battle of Manila Bay. With
the end of the war and American acquisition of the Philippines, the Armys
task of establishing American authority led to a series of arduous
counterguerrilla campaigns to suppress the insurrectosFilipinos who still
fought for independence.

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Private Augustus Walley in Cuba

On 24 June 1898 during the Battle of Las Guasimas, Cuba, Major Bell
of the 1st Cavalry had gone down with a wound to the leg. Another
officer attempted to carry him from the field, but his shattered leg bone
broke through the skin, causing so much pain that he had to let Bell
down. The fire was so intense that in one plot of ground, fifty feet
square, sixteen men were killed or wounded. Still, a fellow American
soldier was badly hurt and in need of assistance. Private Augustus
Walley of the 10th Cavalry, the Buffalo Soldiers, his compassion
overcoming self-preservation, ran to help the wounded soldier. He and
the officer together dragged Major Bell to safety.
Conspicuous gallantry under fire was not new to Walley. He had
received the Medal of Honor while assigned to the 9th Cavalry for his
actions on August 16, 1881 in combat against hostile Apaches at the
Cuchillo Mountains, New Mexico. During the fight Private Burtons horse
bolted and carried him into enemy fire where Burton fell from his saddle.
Assumed dead, the command was given to fall back to another position,
but Burton called out for help. Private Walley, under heavy fire went to
Private Burton's assistance and brought him to safety.
Walley was recommended for a second Medal of Honor for his role in
saving Major Bell at Las Guasimas. Instead he received a Certificate of
Merit for his extraordinary exertion in the preservation of human life. In
1918 Congress upgraded Certificates of Merit to the Distinguished
Service Medal and in 1934 to the Distinguished Service Cross.
2-81. The experience of the Spanish-American War, the perception of
increased external threats in a shrinking world, and other looming
challenges of the new century called for a thorough reform of Army
organization, education, and promotion policies. The new Secretary of War,
Elihu Root, added an Army War College as the high point of the services
educational system. He also took steps to replace War Department bureaus
and a commanding general with a chief of staff and general staff that could
engage in long-range war planning. Also, a new militia act laid the
foundation for improved cooperation between the Regular Army and the
National Guard. These reforms, as well as some first steps toward joint
Army-Navy planning, reflected the emphasis on professionalism,
specialization, and organization that characterized the Progressive Era and
were in accord with Secretary Roots conviction that the real object of
having an Army is to prepare for war. Subsequently, Congress authorized
100,000 as the regular Army strength in 1902.
2-82. After the turn of the century, the Army began to look into the value
of aircraft. Balloons used for artillery spotting had already proven their
worth in the Civil War. But new developments, the dirigible and the
airplane, caught the interest of President Theodore Roosevelt. On 1 August
1907 Captain Charles D. Chandler became the head of the Aeronautical
Division of the Signal Corps, newly established to develop all forms of
flying. In 1908 the corps ordered a dirigible balloon of the Zeppelin type,
then in use in Germany, and contracted with the Wright brothers for an
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airplane. Despite a crash that destroyed the first model, the Wright plane
was delivered in 1909. The inventors then began to teach a few enthusiastic
young officers to fly; Army aviation was born.
PANCHO VILLA AND THE PUNITIVE EXPEDITION
2-83. Years of injustice and chafing under dictatorial rule caused the
Mexican people to revolt in 1910. The United States attempted to stay out
of the affair but was reluctantly drawn into the Mexican Revolution. A
number of incidents raised tension between the United States and Mexico,
and America began to take sides in the conflict. In May 1916 Pancho Villas
Mexican rebels killed eighteen American soldiers and civilians in a raid on
Columbus, New Mexico. Part of the 13th Cavalry, then garrisoned in
Columbus, drove Villa off and hastily pursued, killing about 100 Villistas
before returning to Columbus.
2-84. In an attempt to bring Villa to justice or destroy his ability to raid
the US, President Woodrow Wilson sent Brigadier General John J.
Pershing to lead an expedition south of the border in an unsuccessful
pursuit of Villa. The Mexican government threatened war over the violation
of its territory, causing Wilson to call up 112,000 National Guardsmen and
to send most of the Regular Army to the border. But the two nations
avoided a larger conflict and America withdrew the punitive expedition.

THE WORLD WARS AND CONTAINMENT

2-85. World War I began in August 1914 after a Bosnian separatist
murdered the Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary and his
wife during a visit to Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary demanded that Serbia
allow them to investigate the crime but under conditions that Serbia would
not accept. Because of numerous alliances and agreements, AustriaHungarys subsequent declaration of war on Serbia soon embroiled most of
Europe. For nearly three years the United States remained technically
neutral, though its trade favored the Allies who controlled the seas.
America, with its large immigrant population, was not eager to go to war
against any of the nations in Europe. Even after German submarines sank
the passenger ships Lusitania and Sussex, the United States refrained from
joining the conflict. The war in Western Europe degenerated into a bloody
stalemate, nearly destroying an entire generation of young men. Both the
western allies and Germany launched offensive after offensive in the hopes
of achieving a breakthrough that would end the war but all in vain.
THE UNITED STATES ENTERS WORLD WAR I
2-86. On 23 February 1917 the British turned over to the US Government
an intercepted note from the German foreign minister to the German
ambassador in Mexico. In the note were instructions to offer Mexico an
alliance in the event of war with the United States and promising that
Mexico could regain Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. Coupled with
Germanys recent resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare, this was
the last provocation America needed. On 2 April 1917 President Wilson
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asked Congress to declare war on Germany because the world must be

made safe for democracy.
2-87. A much more professional Army spearheaded American
intervention in World War I. After Wilsons war message in April 1917,
Army officers worked with business and government counterparts to
mobilize the nations resources. Yet enormous difficulties resulted from the
huge size of the effort. To meet the need for a massive ground force capable
of fighting on the European battlefield, the Army drew on its Civil War
expertise and on popular acceptance of a more activist federal government
to develop a more efficient system of manpower allocation through
conscription.

Lafayette, we are here.

LTC Charles E. Stanton, at the grave of the Marquis de Lafayette

2-88. The 1st Infantry Division reached Paris in time to participate in a

Fourth of July parade, raising French spirits at a low point in the war.
Ultimately, 8 regular Army divisions, 17 National Guard divisions, and 17
newly organized National Army divisions served in France. The US
divisions were twice the size of Allied and German divisions but American
soldiers and marines had a lot to learn about trench warfare. At training
centers near the front they practiced and received a hint of what lay ahead.
2-89. Though slower to arrive than France and Britain wished, the sight
of fresh, eager, and strong American soldiers in great numbers, with
millions more available, raised the allies spirits and eroded German
morale. But the Allies wanted American soldiers sent directly to British
and French formations as individual or unit replacements. However, the
Commander in Chief of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF), General
John J. Pershing was determined to preserve the independence of the AEF.
He would not allow Americans merely to be absorbed into existing British
and French units.
2-90. This stance was based not only on national pride but also on
President Wilsons vision that the United States would have to take a more
active, leading role in the post-war world. Enabling that role would require
a significant role in the war as a distinct fighting force. On occasion
Pershing did offer the use of American regiments and in a few instances,
even smaller units in the British and French sectors. In fact, two US
divisions fought as a corps in the British sector. But Pershing resisted all
attempts to get American soldiers sent directly to British and French units
as individual replacements.

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Harlem Hellfighters
By early 1918 General Pershing relented somewhat in his policy of not
sending Americans directly to the Allies. He provided the infantry
regiments of one of the African-American infantry divisions, the 93d,
(the US Army was still segregated at the time) directly to the French
Army. One of these regiments, the 369th Infantry, was formed from the
National Guards 15th New York and was in combat longer than any
other American regiment in the war.
In May 1918, Privates Henry Johnson and Needham Roberts of the
369th were part of a five-man patrol on duty in a listening post along the
front line. The other three soldiers were off-watch and sleeping in a
dugout to the rear when a 24-man German raiding party caught the post
by surprise with a grenade attack. Both Johnson and Roberts were
seriously wounded but fought off the first attack and crawled to their
own supply of grenades. Throwing them one after another like baseballs
at batting practice, they fought back with explosives as Johnson
shouted, "turn out the guard," over and over. Grabbing his rifle, he shot
a German soldier and clubbed another. He then saw three enemy
soldiers trying to drag Roberts away.
Out of grenades and with his rifle now jammed and broken, Johnson
pulled out his knife and attacked the three Germans, killing one. Roberts
broke free and continued fighting. Hit by fire, Johnson fell wounded and
dazed, but nonetheless took a grenade off a dead enemy soldier and
threw it at his attackers. It devastated the remaining enemy and they
withdrew leaving their dead and a number of rifles and automatic
weapons. When reinforcements arrived, they found the two soldiers
laughing and singing. Privates Johnson and Roberts were both
peppered with shrapnel and shot several times, but remained in good
humor and reportedly saw the experience as a great adventure.
Later promoted to Sergeant, Johnson was the first American in World
War I awarded the Croix de Guerre with Palm, Frances highest award
for gallantry. On 13 February 2003, Sergeant Henry Johnson received
the Distinguished Service Cross posthumously.
2-91. Germany saw the potential of the United States and resolved to
defeat the French and British allies before US power could be fully brought
into the war. In July 1918 the Germans launched an offensive that carried
it nearly to the outskirts of Paris. In the line east of Chateau-Thierry was
the 3d Infantry Division, just arrived to try to stem the German advance at
the Marne River.
2-92. The divisions infantry regiments were deployed along the south
bank of the Marne River with the French 125th Division on its right.
Attached to the French division were four companies of the US 28th
Division, National Guardsmen from Pennsylvania. As the German attack
reached and began crossing the Marne River, the French units were forced
to withdraw but did not inform the American Guardsmen. The Keystone
soldiers fought against many times their own number, delaying and
inflicting heavy losses on the enemy, but ultimately most of the Americans
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were killed or captured. Nonetheless, their bravery and sacrifice helped

make the historic stand of the 3d Division possible.
2-93. The 38th Infantry Regiment soon found itself under attack from
three sides and the other regiments of the 3d Division under great enemy
pressure, as well. Wave after wave of German infantry crossed the Marne
and assailed the front and flanks of the 38th, but the resolute Doughboys
held on. When asked by a French commander if his division could hold,
Major General Joseph Dickman replied, Nous resterons laWe shall
remain there. They did, helping to break the German attack and entering
into Army history. Two months later the US First Army attacked at St.
Mihiel. In the Meuse-Argonne campaign, the AEF contributed to the final
Allied drive before the Armistice.

Sergeant Edward Greene at the Marne

Sergeant Greene was a cook for the 3d Divisions Battery F, 10th Field
Artillery in July 1918. He was without a mission when his field kitchens
were destroyed in the pre-assault bombardment prior to the German
attack across the Marne river. Sergeant Greene, without being ordered,
began carrying ammunition forward to his batterys guns.
For several hours while under constant artillery shell fire and enemy
observation, he performed his mission until wounded. He had to be
ordered to the rear for medical attention. Sergeant Greene received the
Distinguished Service Cross.
2-94. World War I was the impetus for many new innovations in
weaponry, industry, and medicine. In an attempt to break the stalemate on
the Western Front, the Germans used chlorine gas as a weapon in 1915.
Not having anticipated the effectiveness of the weapon against unprepared
troops, they did not exploit the resulting panic among the Allied soldiers in
the affected area. The Allies soon developed defensive measures to mitigate
the effects of chemical weapons, though even today they have terrifying
potential against unprotected targets.
2-95. The British first brought the tank to the Western Front in 1916. But
while its initial use was poorly exploited, even later, well-prepared attacks
using tanks did not always achieve hoped for success because of the poor
reliability and maneuverability of the equipment. Nonetheless, the dawn of
tank warfare showed many great military thinkers that fixed fortifications
and static positions would soon be obsolete. The US Army fielded two tank
brigades in Europe, one of which was commanded by Colonel George S.
Patton. The tanks were mostly of French manufacture with American
crews, and they also suffered from poor mechanical reliability and
maneuverability across the moonscape of no-mans land. But when the
AEF was able to break into the open country, tanks were very useful and
gave an indication of their future capabilities.

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Corporal Harold W. Roberts at Montrebeau Woods

Corporal Harold W. Roberts was a tank driver in A Company, 344th
Tank Battalion during the St. Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne offensives. His
company was advancing under heavy enemy artillery fire in the
Montrebeau Woods. After about a mile, the tank commander/gunner,
Sergeant Virgil Morgan and Corporal Roberts saw a disabled tank with
a soldier crouched by it. As Roberts stopped his tank, the soldier
crawled toward them, opened the door and asked for help. They said
they could not help at the moment but would return after the battle and
render aid and drove off into the heart of the German artillery barrage.
Ahead lay a large mass of bushes that they thought was a machine gun
nest and drove the tank into it. In an instant, they found themselves
overturned. Recovering from the shock they discovered the tank had
fallen into a tank trap with about 10 feet of water in it. The tank had only
one hatch and with water rushing in Roberts said to Morgan, "Well, only
one of us can get out, and out you go." With this he pushed Sergeant
Morgan from the tank. Morgan tried to assist Roberts, but with the
heavy gunfire around the area, was unable to do so. After the enemy
fire ceased, Sergeant Morgan returned but found Roberts dead.
Corporal Roberts was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor, the
second tanker to receive it. Camp Nacimiento, California, was renamed
Camp Roberts in 1941. It was the only Army installation at the time to
be named for an enlisted soldier.
2-96. The airplane also demonstrated its potential. The Army first began
experimenting with aircraft before the war and, when war came, attempted
to build an air component to support its ground forces. Many enthusiastic
pilots fought in France, such as Eddie Rickenbacker and Frank Luke. By
the end of the war most American pilots were still flying French or British
aircraft as American industry had not caught up with the demand.
Nonetheless, aircraft and American flyers had proven their worth and that
of the US Army Air Service.
2-97. As a direct result of US entry into the war, Germany realized
victory was out of its reach. It still hoped to gain armistice terms allowing it
to retain captured territory. But as the American forces helped push the
German army back and the naval blockade of Germany made her citizens
lives more miserable, revolutionary elements within Germany began to
exert influence. Finally it was clear to the German High Command that it
could not continue the war without risking complete destruction of the
nation and negotiated for peace.
2-98. The Armistice ended the fighting at the 11th hour of the 11th day of
the 11th month of 1918. Known for many years as Armistice Day, it is now
called Veterans Day in the United States. A final peace treaty was signed
at Versailles the following year, although the United States negotiated a
separate treaty with Germany in 1921. With the other allies, the US Army
began an occupation of Germany west of the Rhine near Cologne on 1 Dec
1918 but had withdrawn all soldiers by 24 January 1923.
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The Unknown Soldier

During and after World War I the Graves Registration Service positively
identified most of the remains of US servicemen who died in Europe
during the war. There were 1,237 who were never identified. Congress
resolved to construct a tomb as a final resting-place for one of the
unknowns to honor all of them.
On 24 October 1921, four caskets carrying the remains of unidentified
American soldiers were brought to a room in the Hotel De Ville in the
French town of Chalons-sur-Marne. One American soldier entered,
alone. Sergeant Edward F. Younger, Headquarters Company, 2d
Battalion, 50th Infantry, from Chicago, Illinois, had fought in the war as a
private, corporal and sergeant. He was wounded twice and had
received the Distinguished Service Cross for valor in battle. In his hands
he carried roses, a gift of Mr. Brasseur Bruffer, a former member of the
city council of Chalons, who had lost two sons in the war. As a French
band played a hymn outside, Sergeant Younger slowly walked around
the caskets several times and finally paused in front of one of them.
Gently he laid his roses on the casket, and then came to attention,
faced the body, and saluted. He had chosen "The Unknown."
"I went into the room and walked past the caskets," he later explained. "I
walked around them three times. Suddenly I stopped. It was as though
something had pulled me. A voice seemed to say: This is a pal of
yours.
The remains were later transported to the French port of Le Havre, put
onboard the cruiser USS Olympia, and sailed for home, arriving on
November 9th. The body lay in state in the Capitol Rotunda for two days
as over 90,000 people quietly filed by. On 11 November 1921, this
brave soldier, whose true identify will forever be a mystery, was formally
interred on native soil. Since then unknown soldiers from World War II,
the Korean War and, for a time, the Vietnam War, have joined him. The
Unknown Soldier from the Vietnam War was later identified; the space
where he once rested remains empty.
BETWEEN THE WARS
2-99. Revolutionary turmoil in Soviet Russia induced President Wilson in
August 1918 to direct Army participation in allied stability and support
operations in European Russia and in Siberia. As a result, about 15,000
soldiers deployed to the Murmansk area and Siberia. These Army
contingents guarded supplies and lines of communication but incurred
about as many combat casualties as the Army did in Cuba in 1898. After
the withdrawal of American occupation forces from Germany and Russia,
few Army forces remained stationed on foreign soil. The Marine Corps
provided most of the small foreign garrisons and expeditionary forces
required after World War I, particularly in the Caribbean area.
2-100. One result of WWI was the creation of the League of Nations. This
international body, roughly similar to the United Nations of today, was
envisioned as a forum where disputes could be settled peacefully. If
peaceful negotiations failed, the League could collectively force one or more
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belligerents to comply with League mandates. The United States never

joined the League due to a variety of reasons, including George
Washingtons warning against entangling alliances and since a condition
of membership was a pledge to provide military forces when and where the
League called for them.
National Defense Act of 1920
2-101. Legislation following the First World War included the new
National Defense Act of June 4, 1920, which governed the organization and
regulation of the Army until 1950. The Act has been acknowledged as one of
the most constructive pieces of military legislation ever adopted in the
United States. It established the Army of the United States as an
organization of three components: the professional Regular Army, the
National Guard, and the Organized Reserves (Officers' and Enlisted
Reserve Corps). Each component would contribute its appropriate share of
troops in a war emergency. In effect the Act acknowledged the actual
practice of the United States throughout its history of maintaining a
standing peacetime force too small to meet the needs of a major war and,
therefore, depending on a new Army of civilian soldiers for large
mobilizations.
2-102. The training of reserve components now became a major peacetime
task of the Regular Army. For this reason the Army was authorized a
maximum officer strength more than three times that before WWI. The act
also directed that officer promotions, except for doctors and chaplains,
would be made from a single list, a reform that equalized opportunity for
advancement throughout most of the Army. The Regular Army was
authorized a maximum enlisted strength of 280,000, but Congress soon
reduced that to below 150,000.
2-103. The Act of 1920 contemplated a National Guard of 436,000, but its
actual peacetime strength became stabilized at about 180,000. This force
relieved the regular Army of any duty in curbing domestic disturbances
within the states from 1921 until 1941 and stood ready for immediate
induction into the active Army whenever necessary. The War Department,
in addition to supplying large quantities of surplus World War I materiel
for equipment, applied about one-tenth of its military budget to the support
of the Guard in the years between wars. Guardsmen engaged in regular
armory drills and 15 days of field training each year. The increasingly
federalized Guard was better trained in 1939 than it had been when
mobilized for Mexican border duty in 1916. Numerically, the National
Guard was the largest component of the Army between 1922 and 1939.
2-104. From 1921 to 1936 Americans thought that the United States could
and should avoid future wars with other major powers by maintaining a
minimum of defensive military strength, avoiding entangling commitments
with Europe, and attempting to promote international peace and arms
limits. Subsequently a treaty in 1922 temporarily checked a naval arms
race. As long as both the United States and Japan honored treaty
provisions, neither side could operate offensively in the Pacific. In effect,
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these provisions also meant that it would be impossible for the United
States to defend the Philippines against a Japanese attack.

Transformation in the 1920s

After World War I ended, America discovered it had defeated its
principle adversary and there were no known nation-state opponents.
Technology provided new, more lethal weapons, notably the tank and
the airplane, which the Army sought to use effectively. The Army began
to put intellectual effort into determining both the best ways to use
existing technology and in how to best defend from current or future
threats realizing that warfare, tactics, weapons and priorities would also
change over time.
This situation, in some ways similar to the Transformation process our
Army is undergoing today, took advantage of an expected respite from
major conflicts. The Army conducted wargames, simulations and indepth studies during the 1920s and 1930s. While industry continued to
develop better radios, tanks, planes, and other tools of war, the Army
continued to think through the problems of integrating the new
technology, training soldiers, mobilization, and supporting mechanized
forces. But the Army had a serious drawback in the inability to conduct
large-scale exercises to confirm theory. Officers could visualize new
techniques might work, but could not prove them nor incorporate valid
lessons learned from actual application.
During this period the Army spent a great deal of its scarce resources
on educating officers so they could be adaptive and versatile leaders.
The Command and Staff College at Fort Leavenworth and the Infantry
School at Fort Benning were two of the most important centers, not only
in the educational processes, but also in the development of doctrine
and concepts.
2-105. The war to end all wars,World War Iwas poorly named. A
number of conflicts erupted in the 1920s and in 1931 the Japanese army
seized Manchuria. Japan quit the League of Nations and a few years later
renounced naval limitation treaties. In Europe, Adolf Hitler came to power
in Germany in 1933, and by 1936 Nazi Germany had denounced the Treaty
of Versailles, began rearming, and reoccupied the demilitarized Rhineland.
Italy's Benito Mussolini began his career of aggression by attacking
Ethiopia in 1935. A revolution in Spain in 1936 not only produced another
fascist dictatorship but also a war that became a proving ground for World
War II. The neutrality acts passed by the US Congress between 1935 and
1937 were a direct response to these European developments. The United
States opened diplomatic relations with Soviet Russia in 1933 and in 1934
promised eventual independence to the Philippines.
2-106. The Army concentrated on equipping and training its combat units
for mobile warfare rather than for the static warfare that had characterized
operations on the western front in the First World War. To increase the
maneuverability of its principal ground unit, the division, the Army decided
after field tests to reorganize the infantry division by reducing the number
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of its infantry regiments from four to three, and to make it more mobile by
using motor transportation only. The planned wartime strength of the new
division was to be little more than half the size of its World War I
counterpart.
WORLD WAR II
2-107. The German annexation of Austria in March 1938 followed by the
Czech crisis in September of the same year showed the United States and
the other democratic nations that another world conflict was likely. War
had already begun in the far east when Japan invaded China in 1937. After
Germany seized all of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, war in Europe
became inevitable. Hitler had no intention of stopping with that move and
Great Britain and France decided that they must fight rather than yield
anything more. On 23 August 1939 Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union
agreed to a non-aggression pact, a partition of Poland and a Soviet free
hand in Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. On 1 September 1939
Germany invaded Poland. France and Great Britain responded by declaring
war on Germany, a course that could not lead to victory without aid from
the United States. Still the majority of Americans wanted to stay out of the
new war if possible, and this tempered the Nations responses to the
international situation.
2-108. Immediately after the European war started, President Franklin D.
Roosevelt proclaimed a limited national emergency and authorized
increases in regular Army and National Guard enlisted strengths to
227,000 and 235,000 respectively. At his urging Congress soon gave indirect
support to the western democracies by ending the prohibition on sales of
munitions to nations at war. British and French orders for munitions
helped to prepare American industry for the large-scale war production that
was to come.
Expansion of the Army
2-109. Under the leadership of the Chief of Staff of the Army, General
George C. Marshall, in the summer of 1940 the Army began a large
expansion designed to protect the United States and the rest of the Western
Hemisphere against any hostile forces from Europe. To fill the ranks of the
newly expanded Army, Congress approved induction of the National Guard
into federal service and the calling up of the Organized Reserves. Then it
approved the first peacetime draft of untrained civilian manpower in the
Nation's history in the Selective Service and Training Act of 14 September
1940. Units of the National Guard, draftees and the Reserve officers to
train them, entered service as rapidly as the Army could build camps to
house them. During the last six months of 1940 the active Army more than
doubled in strength, and by mid-1941 it achieved its planned strength of
one and a half million officers and men. The increase in ground units and in
the Army Air Corps laid the foundation for even larger expansion when war
came the following year.
2-110. On the eve of France's defeat in June 1940 President Roosevelt had
directed the transfer or diversion of large stocks of Army World War I
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weapons, and of ammunition and aircraft, to both France and Great

Britain. The foreign aid program culminated in the Lend-Lease Act of
March 1941, which openly avowed the intention of the United States to
become an "arsenal of democracy" against aggression. Prewar foreign aid
was a measure of self defense; its basic purpose was to help contain the
military might of the Axis powers until the United States could complete its
own protective mobilization.
2-111. The Nazis invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941. Three days
later US Army troops landed in Greenland to protect it against German
attack and to build bases for the air route across the North Atlantic. The
President also decided that Americans should relieve British troops
guarding Iceland. The initial contingent of American forces reached there in
early July followed by a sizable Army expeditionary force in September. In
August the President and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met in
Newfoundland and drafted the Atlantic Charter, which defined the general
terms of a just peace for the world. The overt American moves in 1941
toward involvement in the war against Germany had solid backing in
public opinion, but Americans were still not in favor of a declaration of war.
2-112. As the United States prepared for war in the Atlantic, American
policy toward Japan toughened. Although the United States wanted to
avoid a two-front war, it would not do so by surrendering vital areas or
interests to the Japanese as the price for peace. When in late July 1941 the
Japanese moved large forces into former French colonies in southern
Indochina (now Vietnam), the United States responded by freezing
Japanese assets and cutting off oil and steel shipments to Japan. The US
demanded Japanese withdrawal from the occupied areas. Although the
Japanese were unwilling to give up their newly acquired territory, they
could not maintain operations for long without US oil and steel. They
continued to negotiate with the United States but tentatively decided in
September to embark on a war of conquest in Southeast Asia and the Indies
as soon as possible. To enable this they would attack the great American
naval base of Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. When intensive last-minute
negotiations in November failed to produce any accommodation, the
Japanese made their decision for war irrevocable.
The United States Enters World War II
2-113. The Japanese attack of December 7, 1941 on Pearl Harbor and the
Philippines at once ended any division of American opinion toward
participation in the war. America went to war with popular support that
was unprecedented in the military history of the United States. This was
also the first time in its history that the United States had entered a war
with a large Army in being and an industrial system partially retooled for
war. The Army numbered 1,643,477 and was ready to defend the Western
Hemisphere against invasion. But it was not ready to take part in largescale operations across the oceans. Many months would pass before the
United States could launch even limited offensives. Still, General Marshall
had overseen a huge expansion of the Army and ensured its soldiers
received the best training possible to prepare them for war.
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Once again, the destiny of our country is in the hands of the

individual soldier. Upon your courage and efficiency depends
the salvation of all that we hold dear. Prepare yourselves,
then, to become good soldiers. For you will strike the mighty
blows that will surely destroy the evil tyrants who menace our
freedom, our homes, and our loved ones.
Message from President Franklin D. Roosevelt, The Army and You, 1941

2-114. During the first year after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in
December 1941, the Armys major task was to prevent disaster and
preserve American morale while building strength for the eventual
counteroffensive. Cut off from relief, American and Philippine soldiers
under General Douglas MacArthur held out for over four months against
superior Japanese air, naval, and ground power before they were forced to
surrender. MacArthur obeyed President Roosevelts orders to evacuate to
Australia prior to the final capitulation. But he vowed to return to the
Philippines, a promise which, combined with the heroism of the American
and Philippine defenders, gave the Nation a needed symbol of defiance.
2-115. In India Lieutenant General Joseph W. "Vinegar Joe" Stilwell
surveyed the remnants of his Chinese army after an arduous retreat from
Burma and frankly admitted, "We got a hell of a beating I think we ought
to find out what caused it, go back, and retake it." The bombing raid on
Tokyo in April 1942 led by Colonel James H. Doolittle gave American
morale a boost. The US Navys victory in the Battle of Midway helped to
seize the initiative away from the Japanese forces. But it was not until
November 1942 that American soldiers could take the offensive on a large
scale, with the invasion of North Africa and the campaigns on Guadalcanal
and New Guinea. When they did so, they learned hard lessons in the
demands of modern combat. At Buna they bogged down in the jungle
against strong Japanese positions. After having overrun Morocco and
Algeria against little opposition, they took heavy losses at the hands of the
German Afrika Korps near Kasserine Pass in Tunisia.
2-116. During 1943 and early 1944, the Army overcame its early mistakes
and helped turn the tide against the Axis. In Tunisia, American troops
recovered from the defeat at Kasserine Pass to participate in an offensive
that forced the surrender of Axis forces in North Africa. Under the
leadership of General Dwight D. Eisenhower and Lieutenant General
George S. Patton, Jr., they joined with Allied forces to drive the Germans
and Italians from the island of Sicily. American and Allied troops then
landed on the Italian mainland and, against fierce German opposition,
slowly advanced up the peninsula to Rome by early June 1944. As early as
1942, US Army Air Force bombers took the war to the German heartland
and began preparing the way for the invasion of France.

A veteran of the last war pretty well summed up the two wars
when he said, this is just like the last war, only the holes are
bigger.
Ernie Pyle
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2-117. In the Pacific, MacArthurs forces captured Buna and leapfrogged

their way along the northern New Guinea coastline. Soldiers, marines and
sailors advanced through the Solomon and Marshall Islands of the South
and Central Pacific. In northern Burma Stilwells Chinese army, aided by a
specially trained force of Americans known as Merrills Marauders, drove
back Japanese defenders and laid siege to the key crossroads city of
Myitkyina. By restoring land communications with China, Stilwell hoped to
supply the Chinese with the means to defeat the Japanese on the Asian
mainland while American forces converged on Japan from the Pacific.

Tip of the Avalanche.

The 36th Infantry Division Lands at Salerno, Italy on 9 September 1943.
2-118. The immense mobilization of resources and the long drive back from
initial defeat led ultimately to the advance into the Axis homelands. In mid
1944, Allied forces everywhere were advancing. In the Pacific, US forces
continued a methodical island-hopping campaign and prepared for the
liberation of the Philippines. Allied forces in Italy struggled with the
terrain, weather, and the German army, but made progress anyway,
capturing Rome on 4 June 1944. In Great Britain, the Allies were ready to
spring across the English Channel to the coast of Normandy.
2-119. On D-Day, 6 June 1944, General Dwight D. Eisenhowers Allied
armies landed in France. The 82d and 101st Airborne Divisions parachuted
into Normandy in the early morning darkness. Just after dawn, the 1st,
4th, and 29th Infantry Divisions assaulted the beaches codenamed Utah
and Omaha. At the same time, British and Canadian soldiers were landing
further east on the beaches known as Gold, Juno and Sword.
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2-120. The US sirborne drops scattered soldiers inland from Utah beach,
causing extreme confusion among the enemy. The 4th Infantry Division got
ashore at Utah with few losses. On Omaha beach the 1st and 29th Infantry
Divisions had more difficulty. Veteran German soldiers occupied strong
fortifications on bluffs overlooking the beaches. Their heavy fire at first put
the success of the landings in jeopardy. But the personal courage and
adaptability of individual soldiers allowed them to eventually get across the
beach, up the bluffs, and inland. The cost of gaining the foothold in France
was high. Over 6,000 Americans were killed, wounded, or missing.

A Company, 116th Infantry on D-Day

Many soldiers of the 116th Infantry Regiment were National Guardsmen
who had originally signed on with units in Virginia and Maryland. They
th
were part of the 29 Infantry Division and their regiment was in the first
wave of the landing on Omaha beach. 200 soldiers of A Company, 116th
Infantry were in seven of the first landing craft to hit the beach that
morning. Many of them came from Bedford, Virginia.
Strong currents had pushed many landing craft off target that morning,
but A Company was right on targetthe sector codenamed Dog Green.
These soldiers landed almost alone as adjacent units landed further
east. With no other Americans in sight, German defenders there
concentrated all their fire on those seven landing craft.
One of the landing craft exploded after hitting a mine or being struck by
a German artillery shell. Another dropped its ramp right in front of a
German machine gun nest that killed every soldier before he could get
off the boat. In ten minutes, every officer and every noncommissioned
officer were dead or wounded. As A Company struggled ashore,
German fire eventually hit all but a few dozen soldiers.
But their sacrifice brought weapons, explosives, and ammunition
ashore, even if strewn across the beach, which was critical to the
following waves of soldiers coming ashore. As the tide rose, these
soldiers would abandon their equipment in the deep water but retrieved
and used what A Company soldiers had died to bring to the beach.
Bedford, at the time a town of a little over 3,000, lost 19 of her sons on
D-Day and 4 more before the war was won.
2-121. Also in June 1944 American soldiers and marines came ashore on
the Mariana Islands, part of the inner ring of Japans Pacific defenses.
After two months of near stalemate in the hedgerows of Normandy,
American troops under Lieutenant Generals Omar N. Bradley and Patton
broke through the German lines and raced across France. In little over a
month following the breakout, Allied armies had liberated nearly the whole
country. A second invasion near Toulon on 15 August sealed the German
armys fate in France.
2-122. The Allied advance slowed in September due to gasoline shortages
brought on by the lack of a large, nearby port and the high tempo of
operations. The respite gave the Germans time to reorganize their defenses
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along the French-German border. By stripping units and reinforcements

from the Russian front, Hitler gambled on a surprise counteroffensive in
the Ardennes in December that became known as the Battle of the Bulge.
2-123. The German attack in the Ardennes on 16 December 1944 was a
surprise for the Allies because it fell on a sector that General Eisenhower
thought was poorly suited for decisive offensive operations. In defensive
positions early that morning were units that were brand new to the
European Theater of Operations (ETO) or those that were recovering from
extended duty on the line. The German attack also surprised these soldiers.
But it wasnt long before they began to resist, slowing the German attack.

Krinkelt-Rocherath during the Battle of the Bulge

Krinkelt-Rocherath was the name of two adjacent villages on the
northern shoulder of the Ardennes attack. Defending these villages
were a patchwork of units, including parts of the 2d Infantry Division.
On 19 December 1944 Technician Fourth Grade (Tech/4) Truman
Kimbro, Company C, 2d Engineer Combat Battalion, led a squad to
emplace mines on a crossroads near Rocherath. Nearing the objective,
he and his squad were driven back under withering fire from an enemy
tank and at least 20 infantrymen. All approaches to the crossroads were
covered by intense enemy fire. Tech/4 Kimbro left his squad in a
covered position and crawled alone, with mines, toward the crossroads.
Close to his objective he was severely wounded, but continued to drag
himself forward and placed his mines across the road. As he tried to
return to his squad he was killed by enemy fire. The mines laid by
Tech/4 Kimbro delayed the enemy armor and prevented attacks on
withdrawing columns. He received the Medal of Honor posthumously.
Even though Americans would soon withdraw from Krinkelt-Rocherath,
soldiers were fighting hard and delaying the enemy at nearly every
crossroad and village. The northern shoulder would hold.
2-124. The Ardennes battle ended 31 January 1945 and cost over 80,000
American casualties, but the Allies ultimately prevailed due to the courage
and skill of US Army soldiers. While very difficult fighting remained,
German offensive power was seriously weakened. The fighting near
Colmar, France, was as difficult as any thus far in the war. At nearby
Holtzwihr 2LT Audie Murphy performed the actions for which he would
receive the Medal of Honor.
2-125. In the east, the Soviet Army was within reach of Berlin while in
Italy the Allies were steadily moving north to the Po River Valley. In
Germany itself, US and British forces were poised to cross the Rhine River.
On 7 March 1945 soldiers of the 9th Armored Division found an intact
bridge at Remagen, Germany. Realizing the importance of the opportunity,
they stormed across without hesitation, the first Allied soldiers to cross the
Rhine. Other crossings followed on 22 and 23 March 1945.
2-126. Once across the Rhine, German resistance soon crumbled and the
Army raced across Germany, into Czechoslovakia and Austria, linking up
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with Allied units coming up from Italy and with the Soviet Army at Torgau,
Germany on 25 April 1945. The war in Europe ended 8 May 1945.
2-127. In Burma, the fall of Myitkyina in August 1944 and further Chinese
and American advances to the south finally reopened the Burma Road in
February 1945. In the Pacific, American soldiers and marines captured the
Marianas in July 1944, bringing US Army Air Force B-29 bombers within
range of the Japanese home islands. General MacArthurs forces landed at
Leyte in October, fulfilling his promise to return to the Philippines. By
February 1945 the US Sixth Army had recaptured Manila after bitter
house-to-house fighting and was securing the main Philippine island of
Luzon. The campaign would take a total of seven months and cost 40,000
American casualties.

A squad leader of the 25th Infantry Division points out a suspected enemy
position near Baugio, Luzon on 23 March 1945.
2-128. Soldiers and marines invaded the island of Okinawa, part of Japan
itself, on 1 April 1945. Defending the island were 120,000 Japanese soldiers
and sailors, occupying strong fortifications inland. Capturing the island
took nearly three months of bitter fighting. All but 7,000 enemy soldiers
died, as did tens of thousands of Okinawan civilians caught in the terrible
battle. Over 7,000 American soldiers and marines were killed at Okinawa.
Army and Marine divisions suffered a 35% casualty rate. The US Navy was
under near constant Kamikaze attack as the battle wore on and 5,000
American sailors also lost their lives.

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Private First Class Desmond T. Doss at Okinawa

Private First Class Doss was a company medic with the 307th Infantry
Regiment in the 77th Infantry Division near Urasoe Mura, Okinawa. On
29 April 1945, the 1st Battalion assaulted a high escarpment. As our
soldiers reached the top, enemy artillery, mortar, and machinegun fire
inflicted about 75 casualties and drove the others back. PFC Doss
refused to seek cover and remained in the fire-swept area with the
wounded, carrying them one by one to the edge of the escarpment.
There he lowered them on a rope-supported litter down the face of a cliff
to friendly hands.
On 4 May PFC Doss treated four men who had been cut down while
assaulting a strongly defended cave. He advanced through a shower of
grenades to within 8 yards of the enemy in the cave's mouth, where he
treated the wounded before making four separate trips under fire to
evacuate them to safety.
On 5 May, when an American was severely wounded by fire from a
cave, PFC Doss crawled to him where he had fallen 25 feet from the
enemy position, rendered aid, and carried him 100 yards to safety while
continually exposed to enemy fire.
During a night attack on 21 May, PFC Doss remained exposed while the
rest of his company took cover, giving aid to the injured until he was
himself seriously wounded in the legs by the explosion of a grenade.
Rather than call another medic from cover, he cared for his own injuries
and waited 5 hours before litter bearers reached him and started
carrying him to cover. PFC Doss, seeing a more critically wounded man
nearby, crawled off the litter and insisted the bearers give their first
attention to the other man. Awaiting the litter bearers' return, he was
again struck, this time suffering a compound fracture of an arm. He
bound a rifle stock to his shattered arm as a splint and then crawled 300
yards over rough terrain to the aid station.
PFC Doss received the Medal of Honor from President Harry S. Truman
on 12 October 1945.
2-129. When American soldiers and marines completed the campaign on
Okinawa in June, they had closed the ring around Japan. This effectively
isolated it from its conquered territories in Asia and continued bombing by
Army Air Force B-29s crippled its industry. But since the Japanese
government continued to ignore Allied demands for surrender, an invasion
of Japan seemed necessary. The Battle of Okinawa showed what the cost
might be if the United States had to invade the Japanese home islands.
Estimates of total American casualties in an invasion of Japan ran from
100,000 to as high as one million. Japanese casualties, both combatant and
noncombatant, would have been far heavier.
2-130. With this knowledge, President Truman authorized the use of two
atomic bombs against Japan, destroying Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 and
Nagasaki on 9 August 1945. Faced with the prospect of utter destruction of
his country and people, Japans Emperor Hirohito ordered his armed forces
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to cease resistance. In Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945, Japan and the

Allies signed the document that ended the most destructive war in history.
Over 405,000 Americans had died, including 235,000 soldiers killed in
action.
COLD WAR
2-131. The Army was the principal occupation force in Europe and in
Japan after the war ended. As after all of Americas wars, the Nation
demobilized rapidly, so that by 1950 the active Army had a total of 591,000
soldiers in 10 Divisions in Japan, Europe, and the US. The reserve
component included 730,000 soldiers and 27 divisions.

The 7th Infantry Division Band on the capital grounds in Seoul in 1945.
2-132. The end of WWII left the United States and the Soviet Union as the
greatest military powers in the world. Within two years after Hiroshima,
Americans found themselves in a "Cold War," a long-term global struggle of
power and ideology against the Soviet Union and international
communism. Aware that technology and changes in world politics had
ended the age of free security, the nation could no longer afford to leave to
others the task of fending off aggressors while it belatedly mobilized.
Americans gradually came to accept alliance commitments, such as the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a sizable professional military
establishment that stressed readiness and even a peacetime draft.

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Equipment of the US Army Constabulary.

Army units occupying Germany in the years after World War II were called
constabulary units. Shown here are vehicles used by the Constabulary in
1946from left to right: M8 armored car, M24 Chaffee light tank, 1/4-ton
jeep. Overhead is an L-5 Sentinel observation aircraft.
2-133. The National Security Act of 1947 was a sweeping reorganization of
the US military. It established the Department of Defense and separate
military departments of the Army, Navy, and a new, separate United
States Air Force made up of the former Army Air Force. The US Air Force
today cherishes as its own the traditions and stalwart service of the Air
Service, Army Air Corps, and Army Air Force.
2-134. The United States had demobilized after WWII but nonetheless
attempted to contain Soviet expansion. Eastern Europe was inextricably
under communist control, but the western Allies did help Greece avoid
falling under communist domination. In 1949 the Soviet Union successfully
tested an atomic bomb, an event that possibly emboldened communist
expansion. While the next 40 years were free of direct conflict between the
US and USSR, a number of smaller wars erupted as the US and western
Allies attempted to contain this expansion.
KOREA
2-135. The first major test of the US resolve to contain communist
expansion came on 25 June 1950 when seven infantry divisions and a tank
brigade of the North Korean Peoples Army (NKPA) struck south across the
38th parallel. That was the line that in the last days of WWII the US and
USSR agreed would be the demarcation line between the occupation forces
of those two countries as they moved onto the Korean peninsula. The NKPA

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invasion was, at the time, thought to be part of a grand plan by the USSR
to achieve world domination through force of arms.
2-136. The North Korean forces quickly overran the poorly equipped army
of the Republic of Korea (ROK), and North Korean troops entered Seoul on
28 June. President Truman decided that the United States, with the United
Nations (UN), had to assist with military forces if the ROK was to remain a
free and independent nation. The United States alerted and deployed Army
forces from occupation duty in Japan, and a task force first met the enemy
north of Osan on 5 July 1950. Task Force Smith was overwhelmed by
NKPA forces in that first engagement, but despite the loss, America
continued to help South Korea resist the aggression.

Task Force Smith

The first ground combat unit in Korea was a task force built from the 1st
Battalion, 21st Infantry of the 24th Infantry Division, then on occupation
duty in Japan. Commanded by LTC Charles Smith, the task force
arrived in Pusan without two of its companies. The mission was to move
to Taejon and block the enemy as far north as possible. On 4 July 1950
a battery of 105-mm artillery joined the task force. The infantry dug in
north of Osan on high ground that had visibility all the way to the next
town of Suwon, and the artillery emplaced a mile back. The road on
which any NKPA force must advance led right through the task force.
Despite the excellent position, the task force had serious
disadvantages. It was alone, with no support on the left or right. It was
armed with few anti-tank weapons and most of these would not
penetrate the frontal armor of an enemy T-34 tank, and no anti-tank
mines were available.
At 0730 on 5 July 1950, a column of T-34 tanks approached from
Suwon. The soldiers of the task force stayed at their posts while 33
tanks bore down on them. The artillery, recoilless rifles, and bazooka
teams engaged these tanks but most of them passed through the task
forces positions undamaged. They kept moving south, cutting
comunications with the artillery.
About an hour after the tanks had passed through, LTC Smith saw
trucks and over 1000 infantry approaching from Suwon. The task force
repelled all attempts at frontal attacks, but soon the enemy was moving
on the flanks. Without artillery support, low on ammunition, and with
more and more enemy infantry moving around his force, LTC Smith
decided at 1430 to disengage and head toward Ansong, east of Osan.
Most of the task forces casualties occurred while withdrawing, but the
whole force might have been lost had they stayed any longer. The task
force lost its cohesion and small units and even individual soldiers made
their way to friendly lines. By 7 July LTC Smith could account for only
250 of his 400 soldiers. It was a rough start in a long war.
2-137. Two years before the Korean War started, President Truman had
directed the Armed Forces to integrate, that is, to end the practice of
segregating African-Americans into separate units. But the Army had not
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fully implemented that executive order when fighting began in Korea. As

casualties mounted and manpower needs increased, large numbers of
replacements, including African-American soldiers, came into the Korean
Theater of Operations. It became clear that to be effective and efficient, the
Army in Korea had to accelerate integration. The Army began to assign
soldiersto units regardless of race. By mid-1951 no segregated units
remained in Korea.

Artillery gun crew waits for the order to fire on the enemy, 25 July 1950.
2-138. During the first few months of the war the US Army and UN forces
fought a series of defensive actions to buy time to bring sufficient combat
power into Korea to attack. By the end of August 1950, the UN was
entrenched in the southeastern tip of the Korean peninsula called the
Pusan Perimeter. Air and ground action had reduced NKPA forces to the
point where the UN could counterattack. In conjunction with a US Army
and Marine amphibious assault on 15 September 1950 at Inchon, west of
Seoul, the UN forces broke out of the Pusan perimeter. The NKPA was soon
in full retreat and the UN began a pursuit. On 26 October 1950 the ROK
Army 6th Division reached the Yalu River, along the Chinese border and
the US 7th Infantry Division did so on 21 November 1950.
2-139. As the US led UN forces passed the 38th Parallel on 7 October 1950,
The Peoples Republic of China (PRC) warned the UN through
intermediaries that it would not allow an approach to the Chinese border.
The UN Command ignored these warnings, as well as subsequent evidence
of Chinese intervention in Korea. The UN advance was halted by
Communist Chinese Forces (CCF) along the ChongChon River and around
the Changjin (Chosin) Reservoir. UN forces transitioned to the defense as
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300,000 CCF soldiers poured into, around, and through UN lines. The UN
retreated through the fierce winter of 1950-1951. But soldiers regained
their confidence with a series of offensives beginning in January 1951 that
led to the recapture of Seoul, stabilizing the situation.

Chaplain Emil J. Kapaun in Korea

On 2 November 1950 the 8th Regiment of the 1st Cavalry Division,
especially the 3d Battalion, suffered heavy losses in fighting with
Chinese forces. Chaplain (CPT) Emil J. Kapaun, a veteran of the
Burma-India Theater in World War II, was with them.
The battalion was nearly destroyed in the battle. Enemy soldiers
captured Chaplain Kapaun while he was with a group of over 50
wounded he had helped gather in an old dugout. Ordered to leave many
of those for whom he had risked his life, Kapaun and a few ambulatory
wounded eventually reached a prison camp. For 6 months, under the
most deprived conditions, he fought Communist indoctrination among
the men, ministered to the sick and dying, and stole food from the
enemy in trying to keep his fellow soldiers alive. Eventually, suffering
from a blood clot, pneumonia, and dysentery, he died there on 23 May
1951. Chaplain Kapaun received the Legion of Merit posthumously.
At a memorial service for Chaplain Kapaun in 1954, Chief of Chaplains
Patrick J. Ryan relayed the feelings of former prisoners, Men said of
him that for a few minutes he could invest a seething hut with the
grandeur of a cathedral he was able to inspire others so that they
could go on livingwhen it would have been easier for them to die.
2-140. The United States and South Korea provided the vast majority of
the manpower and America provided most of the materiel to fight the
Korean War. Great Britain, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Turkey, and
other nations also provided cobat forces. In addition, the US Army could not
have succeeded without the National Guard and US Army Reserve units
that mobilized and went to Korea.
2-141. While both sides had indicated willingness to end the war roughly
along the current front lines, they would continue to fight it out for 2
more years as negotiators attempted to find a formula for peace. This period
was marked by offensives on each side that tried to gain concessions in the
negotiations with pressure on the battlefield. Some of the bloodiest actions
of the war occurred in these battles that tested the will of the UN or the
Chinese to continue the war. The problem at the truce negotiations rested
primarily on the issue of the return of prisoners of war (POW). The
communists wanted all POWs returned without qualification while the UN,
recognizing that many enemy soldiers had been forced into service, wanted
to allow those who wished to stay in South Korea to do so.
2-142. When Dwight D. Eisenhower became President of the United States
and Stalin died in the Soviet Union, uncertainty enveloped the communist
cause. In addition, Chinese leader Mao Zedong began to see that the war in
Korea was detracting from his ability to address issues inside China. These
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factors contributed to a new commitment to end the war. As peace became

closer and closer a reality, so too did both sides desire to gain as favorable
terrain as possible. This led to a number of battles in the last days before
the truce was signed. The Armistice became effective on 27 July 1953.

Corporal Gilbert G. Collier, the Last Army Medal of Honor

Recipient of the Korean War
Corporal Collier was assigned to F Company, 2d Battalion, 223d
Infantry Regiment, 40th Infantry Division. On 20 July 1953, Corporal
Collier was point man and assistant leader of a night combat patrol
when he and his commanding officer slipped and fell from a sixty-foot
cliff. The leader, incapacitated by a badly sprained ankle, ordered the
patrol to return to the safety of friendly lines. Although suffering from a
painful back injury, Corporal Collier voluntarily remained with his leader.
The two managed to crawl over the ridgeline to the next valley, where
they waited until the next nightfall to continue toward their companys
position. Shortly after leaving their hideout, they were ambushed and in
the ensuring firefight, Corporal Collier killed two of the enemy but was
wounded and separated from his companion. Ammunition expended, he
closed with four of the enemy, killing, wounding, and routing them with
his bayonet. Mortally wounded in this fight, he died while trying to reach
and assist his leader. He was posthumously promoted to sergeant and
then received the 130th Medal of Honor of the Korean War.
The Armistice that ended the Korean War went into effect 7 days later
on 27 July 1953.
VIETNAM
2-143. The containment policy, drawing a line against communism
throughout the world, led the Army to the Republic of Vietnam. In 1950 the
United States began aiding the French colonial rulers of Indochina, who
were attempting to suppress a revolt by the Communist-dominated Viet
Minh. When the French withdrew from Indochina in 1954, the former
colony became the nations of Laos, Cambodia, and North and South
Vietnam. US Army personnel played a key role in American assistance to
the fledgling South Vietnamese state. This aid increased in the early 1960s
as the Kennedy administration came to view Vietnam as a test case of
American ability to resist Communist wars of national liberation. Army
Special Forces teams formed paramilitary forces and established camps
along the border to cut down the infiltration of men and materiel from
North Vietnam, and other Army personnel trained South Vietnamese
troops and accompanied them as advisers in field operations.
2-144. Despite American efforts, the South Vietnamese government
seemed near to collapse through late 1963 and 1964, as repeated coups and
ongoing Communist infiltration and subversion undermined the regimes
stability. In early 1965 President Johnson began a process of escalation
that put 184,000 American troops in South Vietnam by years end.

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Landing Zone (LZ) X-Ray in the Ia Drang Valley

On 14 November 1965, the 1st Battalion, 7th Cavalry, an understrength
infantry battalion of the 1st Cavalry Division, conducted an air assault to
find and destroy enemy forces suspected to be on the Chu Pong
Mountain near the Ia Drang Valley. What they found was a reinforced
North Vietnamese regiment of 2000 soldiers fresh off the Ho Chi Minh
trail who were aggressively motivated to kill Americans.
The first helicopter touched down at 1048 hours. Shortly after that, while
the rest of the battalion was still flying in, the enemy struck. Over the
next three days the 450 soldiers of 1-7 Cav fought waves of North
Vietnamese infantry who were determined to wipe out the Americans.
Alternately attacking and plugging gaps to prevent the enemy from
closing the LZ, soldiers fought with what they had available. SPC
Willard Parish was a mortar gunner in C Company. But at LZ X-Ray, he
took up an M60 machinegun. On the second morning the enemy had
brought hundreds of soldiers right up to the battalions lines. When they
attacked, SPC Parishs training took over and, unaware of time, fought
until he ran out of 7.62 mm ammunition. Then he stood up and kept
firing at the enemy with a pistol in each hand. When all was quiet later,
there were over 100 enemy bodies in front of his position. SPC Parish
received the Silver Star for his actions.
The battalion had suffered over 100 killed and wounded and the enemy
was close to overrunning the LZ which would isolate the battalion. The
commander LTC Harold G. Moore committed his last reserve, the
reconnaissance platoon, to counterattack and stabilize the C and D
Company sectors. Then, after his soldiers marked their units positions,
he ordered strikes by over two dozen aircraft and called on the fires of
four batteries of artillery. That ended the immediate threat long enough
for reinforcements from the 2d Battalion, 5th Cavalry to arrive, having
moved cross-country from another LZ.
Some of these fresh troops took part in an attack that rescued a platoon
from B Company, 1-7 which had been cut off since shortly after the
battle began. Those soldiers, after being pinned down and isolated from
the rest of their company, had drawn up a tight perimeter and expertly
used artillery fires to defeat numerous enemy attacks. SGT Ernie
Savage had not lost another soldier since he took command of the
platoon after its other leaders had been killed.
Early the next morning, the North Vietnamese attacked with 300
soldiers against B Company, 2-7 Cavalry, reinforcements who had
arrived late the first day. Three times they attacked and three times the
B Company troopers threw them back with heavy casualties. Just after
daylight the North Vietnamese tried again. In less than 15 minutes, the
field was piled with enemy dead, but B Company had only 6 wounded.
The enemy had had enough in this fight. 1-7 Cav and the attached units
had lost 79 soldiers killed and 121 wounded in the three days of combat
but had inflicted over 1,300 casualties on the enemy.
2-145. From 1965 to 1969 American troop strength in Vietnam rose to
550,000. The Johnson administration sought to force the North Vietnamese
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and their Viet Cong allies in the South to either negotiate or abandon their
attempts to reunify Vietnam by force. Barred by policy from invading North
Vietnam, General William C. Westmoreland adopted a strategy of attrition,
seeking to inflict enough casualties on the enemy in the South to make him
more amenable to American objectives. In the mountains of the Central
Highlands, the jungles of the coastal lowlands, and the plains near the
South Vietnamese capital of Saigon, American forces attempted to locate
the elusive enemy and bring him to battle on favorable terms. As the North
Vietnamese admitted after the war, these operations inflicted significant
losses but never forced the communists to abandon their efforts.

Specialist Fifth Class Dwight H. Johnson

Specialist Fifth Class (SP5) Johnson, a tank driver with B Company, 1st
Battalion, 69th Armor, was a member of a reaction force near Dak To,
Vietnam on 15 January 1968. The force was moving to aid other
elements of his platoon, which was in contact with a battalion size North
Vietnamese force. SP5 Johnson's tank, upon reaching the battle, threw
a track and became immobilized. He climbed out of the vehicle armed
only with a .45 caliber pistol. Despite intense hostile fire, SP5 Johnson
killed several enemy soldiers before he had expended his ammunition.
Returning to his tank through a heavy volume of antitank rocket, small
arms and automatic weapons fire, he obtained a submachinegun with
which to continue his fight against the advancing enemy. Armed with
this weapon, SP5 Johnson again braved deadly enemy fire to return to
the center of the ambush site where he eliminated more of the
determined foe. When the last of his ammunition was expended, he
killed an enemy soldier with the stock end of his submachinegun. Now
weaponless, SP5 Johnson ignored the enemy fire around him, climbed
into his platoon sergeant's tank, extricated a wounded crewmember,
and carried him to an armored personnel carrier. He then returned to
the same tank and assisted in firing the main gun until it jammed.
In a magnificent display of courage, SP5 Johnson exited the tank and
again armed only with a .45 caliber pistol, engaged several North
Vietnamese troops in close proximity to the vehicle. Fighting his way
through devastating fire and remounting his own immobilized tank, he
remained fully exposed to the enemy as he engaged them with the
tank's externally-mounted .50 caliber machinegun until the situation was
brought under control. SP5 Johnson received the Medal of Honor.
The Tet Offensive
2-146. On 29 January 1968 the Allies began the Tet-lunar new year
expecting the usual 36-hour peaceful holiday truce. Instead, determined
enemy assaults began in the northern and central provinces before daylight
on 30 January and in Saigon and the Mekong Delta regions that night.
About 84,000 VC and North Vietnamese soldiers attacked or fired upon 36
of 44 provincial capitals, 5 of 6 autonomous cities, 64 of 242 district capitals
and 50 hamlets. In addition, the enemy raided a number of military
installations including almost every airfield.
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2-147. The attack in Saigon began with an assault against the US

Embassy. Other assaults were directed against the Presidential Palace, the
compound of the Vietnamese Joint General Staff, and nearby Ton San Nhut
air base. At Hue, eight enemy battalions infiltrated and fortified the city. It
took three US Army, three US Marine Corps, and eleven South Vietnamese
battalions to expel the enemy in fighting that lasted a month. American
and South Vietnamese units lost over 500 killed in recapturing Hue, while
enemy battle deaths may have been nearly 5,000. Among civilian casualties
were over 3,000 civic leaders executed by the communists. Heavy fighting
also occurred around the Special Forces camp at Dak To in the central
highlands and around the US Marine Corps base at Khe Sanh. In both
areas, the Allies defeated all attempts to dislodge them.
2-148. In tactical and operational terms, Tet proved a major defeat for the
communists. Instead of gathering support from the South Vietnamese, it
further alienated the people of the South and in fact pushed them toward
greater cooperation with their government. The soldiers of the Army of the
Republic of Vietnam performed professionally and inflicted heavy casualties
on the enemy. All told, the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese suffered over
40,000 casualties in the month-long battle. But strategically, images of
dead Americans in the US Embassy and the unexpected fury of the
offensive discouraged the US public and eroded support for seeing the war
through to victory.
2-149. Over the next five years, the Army slowly withdrew from Vietnam
while carrying out a policy of "Vietnamization" that transferred
responsibility for the battlefield to the South Vietnamese. Throughout the
process, President Richard M. Nixon sought to balance the need to respond
to domestic pressure for troop withdrawals with diplomatic and military
efforts to preserve American honor and ensure the survival of South
Vietnam. While some American units departed, other formations continued
operations in South Vietnam and even expanded the war into neighboring
Cambodia and Laos.

It's time that we recognized that ours was in truth a noble

cause.
President Ronald Reagan

2-150. By the end of 1971, the American military presence in Vietnam had
declined to a level of 157,000, and a year later it had decreased to 24,000. In
the spring of 1972, Army advisers played a key role in defeating the Easter
offensive, an all-out conventional attack by the North Vietnamese Army.
But within two years of the Paris Peace Accords of 1973, Saigon fell in April
1975 to the North Vietnamese communists.
WOMEN'S EXPANDED ROLE
2-151. Although women had long served proudly as nurses, clerks, and
telephone operators and in other supporting roles, they only officially
become part of the Army with the Army Nurse Corps' formation in 1901.
They achieved full military status only with the creation of the Women's
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Army Corps (WAC) in 1943. Even after World War II, WACs faced
numerous restrictions. They could not constitute over 2 percent of the
Army, serve in the combat arms, or obtain promotion to general officer
rank. They also faced discharge if they married or became pregnant. With
the reexamination of the role of women in American society during the
1960s and 1970s, and given the Armys need for qualified recruits for the
post-Vietnam all-volunteer Army, these restrictions began to dissolve.

A female soldier assigned to the 725th Ordnance Company (Explosive

Ordnance Disposal) removes missiles and rocket-propelled-grenades from an
Iraqi armored vehicle during Operation Iraqi Freedom.
2-152. In 1967 President Lyndon B. Johnson eliminated the restrictions on
percentages of women and promotions, opening the door to the first female
generals in the Army in 1970. During the 1970s the Army expanded the
number of military occupational specialties (MOSs) open to women and
moved to ensure equal opportunity within those MOSs. The Army abolished
involuntary separation for parenthood, allowed women to command men in
noncombat units, and established innovative programs to assist military
couples with assignments, schooling, and dependent care. In 1972 women
first entered ROTC, and in 1976 they entered the US Military Academy.

POST-VIETNAM AND THE VOLUNTEER ARMY

2-153. The end of the draft and the advent of the all-volunteer Army soon
followed the end of the Vietnam War. While the Army struggled with the
same problems as the rest of American society, it built an enlisted
education system that helped overcome those problems. The NCO
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Education System is not only the envy of the world; it has produced a
professional, competent and dedicated corps of noncommissioned officers.
2-154. The Army maintained readiness to defend Americas interests
throughout the 1970s and 1980s, opposite Soviet-led Warsaw Pact forces in
Europe. It demonstrated that readiness in annual REFORGER (REturn of
FORces to GERmany) exercises and constant training at Hohenfels,
Grafenwohr and other training areas. The vigilance of the Army and
hundreds of thousands of soldiers over decades along the German border
was rewarded in 1989 when the Berlin Wall was dismantled. Soon
thereafter the Soviet Union itself unraveled and the Cold War ended.
2-155. US Army soldiers serving in the Republic of Korea have deterred
aggression on that peninsula since the end of the Korean War. Despite
periodic clashes and incidents along the DMZ soldiers have helped prevent
another outbreak of war.
URGENT FURY AND JUST CAUSE
2-156. Both Operations Urgent Fury (Grenada, 1983) and Just Cause
(Panama, 1989) were US interventions to protect American citizens in those
countries. The murder of Grenadas prime minister in October 1983 created
a breakdown in civil order that threatened the lives of American medical
students living on the island. At the request of allied Caribbean nations,
the United States invaded the island to safeguard the Americans there.
Operation Urgent Fury included Army Rangers and paratroopers from the
82d Airborne Division. This action succeeded in the eventual
reestablishment of a representative form of government in Grenada at the
cost of 18 soldiers, sailors, and marines killed in action (KIA).
2-157. Manuel Noriega took control of Panama in 1983. Corruption in the
Panamanian government became widespread and eventually Noriega
threatened the security of the United States by cooperating with Colombian
drug producers. Harassment of American personnel increased and after a
US marine was shot in December 1989, the US launched Operation Just
Cause. This invasion, including over 25,000 soldiers, quickly secured its
objectives although 23 Americans were KIA. Noriega surrendered on 3
January 1990 and was later convicted on drug trafficking charges.
THE PERSIAN GULF WAR
2-158. Saddam Husseins armies overran Kuwait in August 1990 and
appeared poised for a further advance on Saudi Arabia. Rapid deployment
by the US XVIII Airborne Corps and US Marine Corps, as well as air and
sea power, deterred an Iraqi attack and bought time for the US VII Corps
and allied forces to take position along the Saudi-Kuwaiti border. By
January 1991 logisticians had built an enormous infrastructure in the
desert to support a force of 500,000 troops.

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On the move during Operation Desert Storm.

2-159. After negotiations failed to dislodge Iraqi forces from Kuwait and an
overwhelming bombing offensive softened the enemy defenses, General H.
Norman Schwarzkopf and his Saudi counterpart Lieutenant General
Khalid ibn Sultan sent their multinational ground forces across the border
in late February 1991. Within 100 hours, the coalition destroyed almost
4,000 Iraqi tanks, captured an estimated 60,000 Iraqis, and ruined 36 Iraqi
divisions at the cost of 148 American KIA. Although Saddam Hussein
remained in power in Iraq, Operation Desert Storm liberated Kuwait and
destroyed much of the offensive capability of the Iraqi army.
RELIEF IN AFRICA
2-160. In the early 1990s Somalia was in the worst drought in over a
century and its people were starving. The international community
responded with humanitarian aid but clan violence threatened
international relief efforts. As a result the United Nations formed a US-led
coalition, Operation Restore Hope, to protect relief workers so aid could
continue to flow into the country and end the starvation of the Somali
people. US soldiers also assisted in civic projects that built and repaired
roads, schools, hospitals, and orphanages.
2-161. On 5 June 1993, Pakistani forces operating under UN command
were ambushed during a mission to find and destroy arms caches, killing 24
soldiers. The UN resolved to capture all those responsible for their deaths,
including Mohammed Aideed, leader of the powerful Somali National
Alliance (SNA). In August, US Special Operations Forces (Task Force
Ranger) deployed to Somalia to assist in the manhunt. As the search
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intensified, increasing violence caused the various national contingents on

the UN force to curtail or even withdraw from operations entirely. But Task
Force (TF) Ranger successfully captured several SNA leaders on a number
of missions.

Task Force Ranger

On 3 October 1993 TF Ranger descended on the Olympic Hotel in
Mogadishu to capture key members of Aideeds group. As Rangers
established security around the hotel, helicopters loitered to provide
support. Other US Special Operations soldiers entered the building and
took custody of Aideed's operatives. Soon small arms fire began,
wounding several members of the security team. The SNA had reacted
a few minutes faster than in previous raids. At that moment the US
ground convoy pulled up, ready to extract the team and its prisoners.
Then SNA forces shot down one of the hovering helicopters. Rangers
and Air Force personnel secured the crash site only 300 meters away
from the hotel. But when a second helicopter was hit by a rocketpropelled grenade (RPG) it crashed 3 kilometers away. A ground rescue
attempt of this crew failed but two US Special Operations soldiers in
another helicopter saw growing numbers of SNA approaching the crash
site and volunteered to attempt a rescue. They landed near the downed
helicopter but the aircraft that inserted them was itself hit by RPG fire
and had to withdraw. With no air cover and little hope of rescue, MSG
Gary Gordon and SFC Randall Shughart defended the downed crew
against overwhelming numbers of SNA gunmen. They were killed, but
the pilot survived. MSG Gordon and SFC Shughart received the Medal
of Honor posthumously.
As darkness fell, TF Ranger soldiers near the hotel and the first crash
site were under constant attack by SNA forces. Ammunition, water and
medical supplies were running dangerously low and there were many
wounded. Pakistani and Malaysian armor joined American infantry and
Rangers in forming two relief columns to break through to the
surrounded Task Force Ranger soldiers. After fighting street by street
for two hours, the relief forces found and evacuated the soldiers from
the raid and first crash site, but found no one at the second crash site.
The mission succeeded in capturing a number of SNA leaders; 18
Americans died and 84 were wounded. But those who fought there
refused to leave any of their fellow soldiers behind.
2-162. America withdrew completely from Somalia in 1994. That same
year, ethnic hatred in Rwanda led to murder on a genocidal scale. Up to a
million Rwandans were killed and two million Rwandans fled and settled in
refugee camps in several central African locations. Appalling conditions,
starvation, and disease took even more lives. The international community
responded with one of the largest humanitarian relief efforts ever mounted.
The US military quickly established an atmosphere of collaboration and
coordination setting up the necessary infrastructure to complement and
support the humanitarian response community. In Operation Support
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Hope, US Army soldiers provided clean water, assisted in burying the dead,
and integrated the transportation and distribution of relief supplies.
HAITI
2-163. In December 1990 Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected President of
Haiti in an election that international observers deemed largely free and
fair. However, once Aristide took office in February 1991 Haitian military
officers deposed him and he fled the country. The human rights climate
deteriorated as the military and the de facto government allowed atrocities
in defiance of the international community's condemnation. Large numbers
of Haitians attempted to flee by boat to the United States, many losing
their lives in the process. The United States led a Multinational Force to
return the previously elected Aristide regime to power, ensure security,
assist with the rehabilitation of civil administration, train a police force,
help prepare for elections, and turn over responsibility to the UN.
Operation Uphold Democracy succeeded both in restoring the
democratically elected government of Haiti and in stemming emigration. In
March 1995 the United States transferred the peacekeeping responsibilities
to the United Nations.
THE BALKANS
2-164. During the mid-1990s Yugoslavia was in a state of unrest as various
ethnic groups tried to create separate states for themselves. Serbia
attempted through military force to prevent any group from gaining
autonomy from the central government. After four years of conflict, the
warring parties reached a negotiated settlement in 1995. NATO forces,
including US Army units, bridged the Sava River and moved into Bosnia to
keep the peace intact in Operation Joint Endeavor. Army soldiers continue
to help maintain stability in the region and by so doing have saved many
thousands of lives in Bosnia because of their service.
2-165. In 1999 it became evident to the world that Serbian forces brutally
suppressed the separatist movement of ethnic Albanian Muslims in the
province of Kosovo, leaving hundreds dead and over 200,000 homeless. The
refusal of Serbia to negotiate peace and strong evidence of mass murder by
Serbian forces resulted in the commencement of Operation Allied Force. Air
strikes against Serbian military targets continued for 78 days in an effort to
bring an end to the atrocities that continued to be waged by the Serbs.
Serbian forces withdrew and NATO deployed a peacekeeping force,
including US Army soldiers, to restore stability to the region and assist in
the repair of the civilian infrastructure.

THE WAR ON TERRORISM

AFGHANISTAN
2-166. Terrorists of the al-Qaeda network attacked the United States on 11
September 2001, killing nearly 3000 people, damaging the Pentagon, and
destroying the World Trade Center in New York City. The United States,
with enormous support from the global community, responded 7 October
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2001 with attacks on the al-Qaeda network and the Taliban-controlled

government of Afghanistan that was supporting it. In Operation Enduring
Freedom, US and allied forces quickly toppled the Taliban regime and
severely damaged the al-Qaeda forces in Afghanistan. Special Operations
Forces led the way in ground operations and conventional Army units
began arriving in Afghanistan 4 December 2001. On 2 March 2002,
Operation Anaconda began, in which US Army and allied units began
assaults on Taliban and al-Qaeda forces still remaining in southeastern
Afghanistan. Enemy forces that stood and fought were destroyed and the
rest scattered.

Soldiers assigned to the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), fold the
American Flag during a retreat ceremony at Kandahar International
Airport, Afghanistan.
2-167. The Army, through its continuing operations in Afghanistan,
provides support to its fledgling democracy and continues to seek out
remnants of the al-Qaeda network remaining in that nation. The goal is to
help Afghanis rebuild their country and give their people the benefits of a
truly representative government while at the same time reducing the
threat of terrorism to the US.
IRAQ
2-168. After the Persian Gulf War, Saddam Hussein had retained power in
Iraq. In defiance of numerous resolutions in the United Nations, despite the
presence of inspection teams, and ignoring the worlds demands that Iraq
disarm, Saddam Hussein continued to build weapons of mass destruction
(WMD). By late 2002 it had become evident to the United States that the
Baathist regime of Saddam Hussein was providing weapons, training and
other support to terrorists around the world. Intense diplomatic efforts by
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the United States were unable to remove of Hussein and his regime. The
United States deployed its Armed Forces to the Gulf and prepared for
Operation Iraqi Freedom.
2-169. With a coalition that included Great Britain, Australia, Poland and
44 other nations, the United States on 20 March 2003 began offensive
military operations to remove Saddam Hussein from power and liberate
Iraq. US Army, US Marine Corps and British forces entered Iraq and in
only two weeks of simultaneous air and ground attacks had defeated most
organized Iraqi forces and were on the outskirts of Baghdad.

Soldiers from the 3d Infantry Division (Mechanized) in firing positions

during Operation Iraqi Freedom.
2-170. The 3d Infantry Division seized the main airport of Baghdad and
began powerful armored incursions into the city itself. The 101st Airborne
Division and US marines likewise closed in on Baghdad. In northern Iraq,
the 173d Airborne Brigade and Special Operations Forces alongside free
Iraqi forces from Kurdish areas defeated enemy units and liberated most of
the northern area of the country. In the west, Special Operations Forces
neutralized enemy units while searching for sites containing WMD.
Throughout the country, Special Operations Forces provided intelligence
and targeting data. In numerous, sharp engagements, Army units
performed with bravery and great skill in defeating enemy regular and
irregular forces while limiting US and civilian casualties. Operation Iraqi
Freedom succeeded in liberating Iraq from a despot and bringing the hope
for peace to the troubled Mideast. By the time major combat ended on 1
May 2003, 115 Americans had been killed in action, including 53 soldiers.
2-171. Despite continued attacks by remnants of Husseins regime, the
Army has helped create a secure environment for providing increased
humanitarian assistance to impoverished areas. Stability and support
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operations continue to eliminate remaining pockets of Baathist resistance,

restore utilities and services to the Iraqi people and create the conditions in
which the people of Iraq can form a new and peaceful government.
2-172. US Army soldiers play a leading role in the war on terrorism and
providing security to the Nation. Make no mistake about it: you are
defending not only the Constitution and our way of life, but the very lives of
our people and your own loved ones. Our enemies will try to strike us again.
But the Army and all the Armed Forces, working with civilian branches of
government and our allies, will make every effort to prevent such attacks.
2-173. The Army performs a long list of missions in support of American
foreign policy and in response to domestic needs. The collapse of the
Warsaw Pact in the early 1990s shifted the main focus of the Armys
activities since World War II. Ancient hatreds and old rivalries have
created conflict and chaos in many parts of the world. In Korea the Army
still helps defend an armed border against a powerful enemy dedicated to
the forced reunification of the country under Communist rule. The Army
also has supported American foreign policy with peacekeeping or support
operations in Macedonia, the Sinai and East Timor, and it has worked
extensively with foreign and domestic agencies to curb terrorism. Since the
1980s the Army has worked closely with the Drug Enforcement Agency, the
US Customs Service, and foreign agencies to halt the flow of illicit drugs
into the United States. Initially, the Army merely loaned equipment; now it
also trains and transports personnel and shares intelligence.
2-174. From California and Florida to Kurdistan and Somalia, the Army
has aided victims of floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, war, famine, forest
fires, and other natural and man-made disasters. It has helped with toxic
waste removal as part of the Superfund cleanup program. It has provided
helicopters and paramedics to communities lacking the resources to
respond to medical emergencies. Americas Army has given hope to
oppressed peoples around the world. While performing all these
contemporary missions, the Army has sought to anticipate and prepare for
the future.
2-175. The more activist role of the federal government in American life
since 1900 has resulted in the Army responding more often to such
challenges as disaster relief, international terrorism, and organized crime.
Still, a review of American history makes clear that the missions of the
Army have always included a number of tasks beyond warfighting. The
precise character of the Armys missions has varied depending on the needs
of the nation at a particular time, whether fighting a war for survival,
developing a transportation network and skilled engineers to support it,
providing disaster relief, keeping the peace, or supporting American
diplomacy. Throughout our long history, one can truly say of the Army,
When we were needed, we were there.

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HISTORY
2-176. To fully understand the events of history, how battles unfolded, and
why things occurred the way they did, it is often helpful to walk the ground
on which they happened. If you have the opportunity, go see the Gettysburg
Battlefield. You may be surprised at how big the overall battlefield is or
what a small area the 20th Maine fought in at the Little Round Top. If you
see Pointe du Hoc near Omaha Beach in Normandy, France, you can better
appreciate why Allied planners thought it had to be taken. Verdun, France
was the scene of a bitter struggle between France and Germany in the First
World War. There you can begin to understand some of the terrible and
heroic sacrifices of both sides. Some battlefields, like Antietam near
Sharpsburg, Maryland are well preserved and maintained by the National
Park Service. Volunteers or state agencies maintain other battlefields, such
as Mine Creek near Pleasonton, Kansas. Still others are on private property
and you need permission to enter, like the fields near Varennes, France
where the 3d Infantry Division and its 38th Infantry Regiment earned the
nickname Rock of the Marne.
2-177. But history isnt just about battlefields, of course. The Grand
Canyon will take your breath away the first time you see it. Riding to the
top of the Gateway Arch in St. Louis is worth the trip. You cant help but
feel pride and awe visiting the Smithsonian in Washington, DC. The
contrast between the roar of Niagara Falls and the quiet isolation of the
Badlands is amazing. It is no less amazing than the diversity of our people.
We Americans have our differences; in origin, in appearance, in priorities
and in how to get things done. But still we are one nation, and when
something is important enough, we unite to accomplish a task like no other
nation on earth can. Go see for yourself. You are defending America, go see
what she is all about.

SECTION II - THE OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENT

2-178. The operational environment is the composite of the conditions,
circumstances, and influences that affect the employment of military forces
and bear on the decisions of the unit commander (Joint Pub 1-02). The
operational environment that exists today and in the near future (out to the
year 2020) includes threats that extend from small, lower-technology
opponents using more adaptive, guerrilla or terrorist type methods to large,
modernized forces able to engage deployed US forces in more conventional
ways. In some possible conflicts combinations of these types of threats could
be present.
2-179. Although we may sense dangerous trends and potential threats,
there is little certainty about how these threats may be used against
America. Uncertainty marks the global war on terrorism, and soldiers will
continue to operate in small scale contingencies and conflicts. These may
require small, dispersed teams of junior officers, NCOs and junior enlisted
soldiers and even civilians or contractors. Yet large scale conventional
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combat operations will also be possible. Victory in battle will require

versatile units and agile soldiers, who can deploy rapidly, undertake a
number of different missions, operate continuously over extended distances
without large logistics bases, and quickly maneuver with precision to gain
positional advantage. Soldiers must be capable of conducting prompt and
sustained land operations at varying intensity resulting in decisive victory.
2-180. The operational environment now and in the near future has the
following characteristics:
Constant, high intensity, close combat.
No rear areas, no sanctuary.
Information operations effects down to the tactical level.
Constantly changing rules of engagement (ROE) and tactics.
Combatant and non-combatant roles blurred.
Extreme stress, leader fatigue.
2-181. Soldiers in the operational environment must understand the
following:
All soldiers, regardless of battlefield location, must be fully prepared
to engage in close combat.
Rapid changes will require quick and accurate assessment of combat
situations.
Rapid individual judgment and decision-making function at lower
levels.
Dispersed distances will challenge discipline, motivation, and
confidence in self and team.
Presence of media will test soldiers
understanding of commanders intent.

poise,

bearing,

and

Increased physical and psychological stress over longer time frame.

2-182. Soldiers who succeed in the operational environment are imbued
with the warrior ethos and are physically and mentally tough. They are
also confident, decisive, and exercise sound judgment in their decisions.
Successful soldiers are self-disciplined and capable of taking the intiative in
a disciplined manner that helps the team accomplish the mission. Such
soldiers are also self-motivated and take active roles in their teams.
2-183. Soldiers who succeed in the operational environment are expert in
both warfighting and in the use of emerging technology. In the operational
environment soldiers will have to be versatile, taking on new tasks and able
to learn quickly to adapt to changes in the environment. Because of the
probability of operating in dispersed, small teams, successful soldiers have
leader potential and can step up to the challenge of leading other soldiers
when required. Above all, soldiers in the operational environment know
their own strengths, weaknesses, and take action to improve themselves.

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FULL SPECTRUM OPERATIONS

2-184. The Army operates in war or military operations other than war
(MOOTW) by conducting offense, defense, and stability and support
operations. These make up the full spectrum of military operations and
may occur in a variety of missions extending from humanitarian assistance
to disaster relief to peacekeeping and peacemaking to major theaters of
war. These missions could occur simultaneously or transition from one to
another. For example, a unit may be conducting an operation to destroy a
cache of weapons while only a few kilometers away other soldiers are
providing medical services to some of the local population. Full spectrum
operations require skillful assessment, planning, preparation and
execution. In order to successfully accomplish these missions, commanders
focus their mission essential task list (METL), training time, and resources
on combat tasks and conduct battle-focused training (for more on training
see Chapter 5).
2-185. The challenge soldiers face in full spectrum operation means that
you should conduct good training and always reach or surpass the
standard. Effective training is the cornerstone of success on the battlefield
or in other missions. Training to high standards is essential because the
Army cannot predict every operation it deploys to. Battle-focused training
on combat tasks prepares soldiers, units and leaders to deploy, fight and
win. Upon alert, initial-entry Army forces deploy immediately, conduct
operations and complete any needed mission-specific training in country.
Follow-on forces conduct pre- or post-deployment mission rehearsal
exercises, abbreviated if necessary, based on available time and resources.

HOMELAND SECURITY
2-186. Homeland security is the sum total of operations intended to
prepare for, prevent, deter, preempt, defend against, and respond to threats
and aggressions directed towards US territory, sovereignty, domestic
population and infrastructure. It also includes crisis management,
consequence management, and other domestic civil support. It encompasses
five distinct missions: domestic preparedness and civil support in case of
attacks on civilians, continuity of government, continuity of military
operations, border and coastal defense, and national missile defense. The
objectives of Homeland Security are to prevent terrorist attacks within the
United States, reduce America's vulnerability to terrorism, minimize the
damage, and recover from attacks that do occur. The Armys role in
Homeland Security falls within Homeland Defense or Civil Support.

Your value to the fight is not determined by your proximity to

the target.
GEN Peter J. Schoomaker

2-187. Under homeland defense the Army has requirements in four areas:
defense of US territory, air and missile defense, information assurance and
weapons of mass destruction (WMD) defense and response. The Army
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supports civil authorities with disaster response, civil disturbance response,

and support to special events. Examples of these areas are the National
Guard support to airport security and the WMD Civil Support Teams
(CST). These WMD-CSTs support civil authorities in incidents involving
chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear or high-yield explosive devices.
Both of these National Guard missions illustrate the importance of the
reserve component in the Armys role in homeland defense.

ARMY TRANSFORMATION
2-188. Change is a constant. People, organizations, cultures and even
geography change with time. Change is necessary to remain competitive
and relevant. The Army is no different. Periodic modernization has been
required throughout the Armys history.
2-189. The Army is transforming itself into a force that is more
strategically responsive and dominant at every point on the spectrum of
military operations. Transformation is about changing the way we fight so
we can continue to decisively win our Nation's wars. The 21st century
operational environment and the potential of emerging technologies require
Army Transformation. The global war on terrorism reinforces the need for a
transformed Army that is more deployable, lethal, agile, versatile,
survivable, and sustainable than current forces.
2-190. The Army is implementing change across its doctrine, training,
leader development, organization, materiel, and soldier systems, as well as
across all of its components. Transformation will result in a different Army,
not just a modernized version of the current Army.
2-191. Transformation consists of three related partsthe Future Force,
the Stryker Force, and the Current Force. We will develop concepts and
technologies for the Future Force while fielding the Stryker Force to meet
the near-term requirement to bridge the operational gap between our heavy
and light forces. The third element of transformation is the modernization
of existing systems in the Current Force to provide these systems with
enhanced capabilities through the application of information technologies.
2-192. As the Army transforms, the Current Force will remain ready to
provide the Nation with the warfighting capability needed to keep America
strong and free. Through selective modernization the Current Force allows
the Army to meet today's challenges and provides the time and flexibility to
get transformation right. The Army is focusing resources on systems and
units that are essential to both sustaining near-term readiness and fielding
the Future Force while taking prudent risk with the remainder of the force.
In this the Army will rebuild or selectively upgrade existing weapons
systems and tactical vehicles, while also developing and procuring new
systems with improved warfighting capabilities.

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A Stryker Infantry Carrier Vehicle squad follows their vehicle out of an Air
Force C130 Hercules aircraft after landing at Bicycle Lake Army Airfield at
the National Training Center, Fort Irwin, California.
2-193. The Stryker Force is a transition force that bridges the near-term
capability gap between our heavy and light forces. It combines the best
characteristics of current heavy, light and special operations forces.
Organized in Stryker Brigade Combat Teams (SBCT), it combines today's
technology with selected capabilities of the Current Force to serve as a link
to the Future Force. Most importantly, the Stryker Force allows exploration
of new operational concepts relevant to the Future Force.

One thing some soldiers may not fully understand yet is that
transformation involves a lot more than two brigades up at
Fort Lewis - its about the future and what kind of Army well
have for decades to come. We will continue to man, modernize
and train our current forces throughout the transformation.
We will continue to need sharp, quick-thinking leaders. The
variety of missions and volume of information theyll be given
will place a lot of responsibility on them.
Transformation could cause as many changes in training and
developing leaders in our schools as tactics and equipment.
The result will be a future that lets us put a more powerful
force on the ground faster and that will save a lot of lives
SMA Jack L. Tilley

2-194. The end result of transformation is a new, more effective, and more
efficient Army with a new fighting structurethe Future Force. It will
provide our Nation with an increased range of options for crisis response,
engagement, or sustained land force operations. The Future Force will have
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the capability to fight in a dispersed and non-linear manner if that provides

a military advantage over its opponent. Future Force units will be highly
responsive, deploy rapidly because of reduced platform weight and smaller
logistical footprints, and arrive early to a crisis to deter conflict. These
forces will be capable of moving by air and descending upon multiple points
of entry. By applying their judgment to a detailed and accurate common
operational picture, Future Force soldiers will identify and attack critical
enemy capabilities and key vulnerabilities throughout the depth of the
battle area.
2-195. Transformation is not something the Army is doing alone. The Army
is coordinating transformation efforts with similar efforts by the other
Services, business and industry, and science and technology partners.

SECTION III - HOW THE US GOVERNMENT WORKS

2-196. The Declaration of Independence is an important document in US
history. It says that all people have rights that no government may deny.
This document signified the colonies separation from England and the rule
of George III. When the Second Continental Congress formed a committee
to write the Declaration, the Committee thought it would be better for only
one person to write itThomas Jefferson. It took Jefferson seventeen days
to write the Declaration of Independence. On 2 July 1776 the Congress
voted to declare independence from England. After two days of debate and
some changes to the document, the Congress voted to accept the
Declaration of Independence. This is why we celebrate the 4th of July as our
Independence Day.

You have rights antecedent to all earthly governments, rights

that cannot be repealed or restrained by human law.
President John Adams

THE CONSTITUTION
2-197. The Declaration of Independence is an important document, but the
foundation of our American government and its purpose, form, and
structure are found in the Constitution of the United States. We didnt
always have the Constitution. During the Revolutionary War, the states
formed a league of friendship under the Articles of Confederation, which
was ratified in 1781. The Articles provided for a national legislature but
little else because the states feared a strong central government like the
one they lived with under England's rule. Americans soon discovered that
this weak form of government could not effectively respond to outside
threats and so they called for a convention in 1787 to revise the Articles.
Discussions and debate led the participants to draft an entirely new
document and government.
2-198. The Constitution was adopted 17 September 1787 and ratified 21
June 1788. It is the supreme law of the land because no law may be passed
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that contradicts its principles and no person or government is exempt from

following it. Members of the Armed Forces all promise to support and
defend the Constitution in recognition of its importance. Without the
Constitution, there would be no United States of America.

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more

perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility,
provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare,
and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our
Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the
United States of America.
Preamble to the Constitution of the United States

2-199. The Preamble of the Constitution describes the purpose of the

Constitution and, by extension, our Federal, that is, national Government.
In order to achieve this purpose the writers of the Constitution established
three main principles on which our Government is based:
Inherent rights: Rights of all persons living in the United States.
Self-government: Government by the people; citizens selected by
fellow citizens to govern.
Separation of powers: Branches of government with different powers
that provide checks and balances to the other branches.
2-200. The United States Constitution is a remarkable document. In about
4,500 words it lays out the framework of our system of government and in
another 3,000 (the Amendments) enumerates individual rights and changes
to the basic document. It provides us with a firm foundation and yet also,
with effort, can change as our country changes. The Constitution
establishes a republic, an indivisible union of 50 sovereign States. In our
Nation, we the people, govern ourselves. We do this by choosing elected
officials through free and secret ballot at regular intervalselections. In
this way, our Government derives its power from the people. The
Constitution
Defines and limits the power of the national government.
Defines the relationship between the national government and
individual state governments.
Describes some of the rights of the citizens of the United States.
2-201. The Constitution specifies the powers of the federal government,
and all other power remains with the people or the states. This government
system based on federalism shares power given by the people between the
national and state (local) governments. Issues like defense are at the
federal level where sufficient resources are available to accomplish the
tasks required to defend our Nation. On the other hand, local issues like
licensing, building codes or zoning laws have been left up to the individual
states to decide based upon its peoples needs and philosophies.

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2-202. The Constitution can be changed through amendments to the

document. It is a difficult process that requires a 2/3 majority of Congress
agree to any proposed amendment and further that 3/4 of all the states also
ratify (agree to) the amendment. The Constitution may also be amended in
a Constitutional Convention if 2/3 of the states call for it but any changes
and amendments must still be ratified by 3/4 of the states. Currently there
are 27 amendments to the Constitution. The first ten amendments,
accepted at the same time as the Constitution itself, are also called the Bill
of Rights.

BRANCHES OF GOVERNMENT
2-203. The delegates to the Constitutional Convention wanted to ensure a
strong, cohesive central government, yet they also wanted to ensure that no
individual or small group in the government would become too powerful.
Under the Articles of Confederation, the national government lacked
authority and the delegates didnt want to have that problem again. To
solve these problems, the delegates to the Constitutional Convention
created a government with separate branches, each with its own distinct
powers. This system would establish a strong central government, while
insuring a balance of power.

The liberties and heritage of the United States are priceless.

The Noncoms Guide, 1957

2-204. Governmental power and functions in the United States rest in

three branches of government: the legislative, judicial, and executive.
Article I of the Constitution defines the legislative branch and gives power
to make laws to the Congress of the United States. The executive powers of
the President are defined in Article 2. Article 3 places judicial power in the
hands of one Supreme Court and any lower courts Congress establishes.
2-205. In this system each branch operates independently of the othersa
separation of powers. However, there are built in checks and balances to
prevent concentration of power in any one branch and to protect the rights
and liberties of citizens. For example, the President can veto (disapprove)
bills approved by Congress, and the President nominates individuals to
serve in the Federal courts. The Supreme Court rules on the
constitutionality of a law enacted by Congress or an action by the President.
Congress approves whether tax dollars may be spent on a particular action
or program and can impeach and remove the President and Federal court
justices and judges. See the organization of the government of the United
States in Figure 2-1.

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The Constitution
Legislative Branch
Senate
House
GAO, GPO, LOC, CBO

Executive Branch
The President
The Vice President
NSC, OMB

Judicial Branch
The Supreme Court of the United States
Courts of Appeals, District Courts
US Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces

Dept of Agriculture

Dept of Commerce

Dept of Defense

Dept of Education

Dept of Energy

Dept of Health & Human Svcs

Dept of Housing & Urban Devlp

Dept of the Interior

Dept of Justice

Dept of Labor

Dept of State

Dept of Transportation

Dept of the Treasury

Dept of Veterans Affairs

Dept of Homeland Security

GAO - General Accounting Office

GPO - Government Printing Office
LOC - Library of Congress

NSC - National Security Council

OMB -Office of Management and Budget
CBO - Congressional Budget Office

Figure 2-1. Organization of the US Government

LEGISLATIVE BRANCH
2-206. After much debate the delegates to the Constitutional Convention
agreed on the creation of the House of Representatives and the Senate. A
major issue involved how to determine representation in the legislative
body. The delegates from larger and more populated states argued that only
the size of a states population should determine congressional
representation. Fearing domination, delegates from smaller states were just
as adamant for equal representation. A delegate from Connecticut, Roger
Sherman, resolved the issue when he proposed a two-part (bicameral)
legislature, with representation based on population in one (the House of
Representatives) and with equal representation in the other (the Senate).
2-207. Congress refers many measures that may become law to various
committees of legislators in each chamber. These committees consider each
measure and select which will be actually brought to a vote and debated.
The vast majority of issues are not brought for a vote and no other action
occurs. An issue or bill that reaches the floor of the two chambers may not
become law until both House and Senate pass it with a majority vote in
each chamber. Then the bill is sent to the President for his signature,
making it law. The President may also exercise his veto power,
disapproving the bill and sending it back to the legislature with his reasons
why it should not become law. Congress may override the veto if 2/3 of both
House and Senate approve the bill. If the President takes no action, the bill
becomes law after 10 days.
2-208. The Constitution specifies certain powers of Congress with respect
to the military. Congress has the power to declare war and to set and collect
taxes (which pay for soldiers salaries, weapons, training, etc.). Congress
determines the strength (number of people) of the Armed Forces and how
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much money the Armed Forces may spend. Congress also makes the basic
rules for the Armed Forces and the Uniform Code of Military Justice.
Congress established the US Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces based
on its power to regulate the armed forces and to establish courts lower than
the Supreme Court.
EXECUTIVE BRANCH
2-209. When the delegates to the Constitutional Convention created the
executive branch of government, they were afraid of putting too much
power in the hands of one person and intensely debated the concept. In the
end, with the checks and balances included in the Constitution, the
delegates provided for a single President with a limited term of office to
manage the executive branch of government. This limited term was
different from any form of government in Europe at the time.
2-210. The executive branch of the government is responsible for enforcing
the laws of the land. The Vice President, department heads (Cabinet
members), and heads of independent agencies assist in this capacity. Unlike
the powers of the President, their responsibilities are not defined in the
Constitution but each has special powers and functions. The Cabinet
includes the Vice President and, by law, the heads of 15 executive
departments as shown in Figure 2-1. The National Security Council (NSC)
supports the President, as commander-in-chief, with the integration of
domestic, foreign, and military policies on National security.
2-211. The Constitution specifies that the President is the Commander-inChief of the US Armed Forces. Presidents have initiated military activities
abroad over 200 times in our history, though Congress has declared war
only five times. The Presidents signature on a bill is required before it can
become law, unless 2/3 of Congress vote for its passage. The President
nominates the Department of Defense and service secretaries (and other
cabinet chiefs), the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the service
Chiefs of Staff. He also nominates the judges of the Supreme Court and
those who sit on the US Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces. Each of
these nominations requires confirmation by a majority of the Senate. The
President commissions the officers of the Armed Forces. The President may
also veto bills of Congress.
JUDICIAL BRANCH
2-212. Article III of the Constitution established the judicial branch of
government with the creation of the Supreme Court. It is the highest court
in the country and vested with the judicial powers of the government. There
are lower Federal courts that Congress deemed necessary and established
using power granted in the Constitution, such as the US Court of Appeals
for the Armed Forces.
2-213. Courts decide arguments about the meaning of laws and how they
are applied. The Supreme Court also has the authority to declare acts of
Congress, and by implication acts of the president, unconstitutional if they
exceeded the powers granted by the Constitution. The latter power is
known as judicial review and it is this process that the judiciary uses to
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provide checks and balances on the legislative and executive branches.

Judicial review is not specified in the Constitution but it is an implied
power, explained in a landmark Supreme Court decision, Marbury versus
Madison (1803). Most courts dont rule on the constitutionality of laws but
rather decide matters of guilt or innocence in criminal proceedings or
adjudicate differences between civil parties.

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE
2-214. Among the departments within the executive branch of the federal
government is the Department of Defense. The National Security Act
Amendments of 1949 designated the National Military Establishment as
the Department of Defense with the Secretary of Defense as its head. The
Department of Defense is composed of the following
Office of the Secretary of Defense.
The military departments and the military services within those
departments.
The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Joint Staff.
The unified combatant commands.
The defense agencies and DOD field activities.
Other organizations as may be established or designated by law, the
President or the Secretary of Defense.
2-215. The Secretary of Defense is the principal defense policy adviser to
the President and is responsible for the formulation of general defense
policy and policy related to DOD, and for the execution of approved policy.
Under the direction of the President, the Secretary exercises authority,
direction, and control over the Department of Defense.
2-216. Each military department is separately organized under its own
secretary and functions under the authority, direction, and control of the
Secretary of Defense. The Secretary of each military department is
responsible to the Secretary of Defense for the operation and efficiency of
that department. Orders to the military departments are issued through
the secretaries of these departments or their designees, by the Secretary of
Defense, or under authority specifically delegated in writing by the
Secretary of Defense, or provided by law. The organization of the
Department of Defense is shown in Figure 2-2.

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Secretary of Defense
Deputy Secretary of Defense
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
The Joint Staff

Dept of Homeland Security

US Coast Guard

Dept of the Air Force

US Central Command

US European Command

Dept of the Army

US Northern Command

US Southern Command

Dept of the Navy

US Marine Corps

US Pacific Command

US Transportation Cmd

US Special Operations Cmd

US Strategic Command

US Joint Forces Command

Figure 2-2. Organization of the Department of Defense

JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF
2-217. The Joint Chiefs of Staff consist of the Chairman; the Vice
Chairman; the Chief of Staff of the Army; the Chief of Naval Operations;
the Chief of Staff of the Air Force; and the Commandant of the Marine
Corps. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is the principal military
adviser to the President, the National Security Council, and the Secretary
of Defense. The other members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff are military
advisers who may provide additional information upon request from the
President, the National Security Council, or the Secretary of Defense. They
may also submit their advice when it does not agree with that of the
Chairman. Subject to the authority of the President and the Secretary of
Defense, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is responsible for
Assisting the President and the Secretary of Defense in providing for
the strategic direction and planning of the Armed Forces and
allocating resources to fulfill strategic plans.
Making recommendations for the assignment of responsibilities
within the Armed Forces in accordance with and in support of those
logistic and mobility plans.
Comparing the capabilities of American and allied Armed Forces
with those of potential adversaries.
Preparing and reviewing contingency plans that conform to policy
guidance from the President and the Secretary of Defense.
Preparing joint logistic and mobility plans to support contingency
plans.
Recommending assignment of logistic and mobility responsibilities to
the Armed Forces to fulfill logistic and mobility plans.

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UNIFIED COMMANDS
2-218. The Unified Commands are geographically (like Central Command)
or functionally (like Transportation Command) oriented. The commanders
of the unified commands are responsible to the President and the Secretary
of Defense for accomplishing the military missions assigned to them and
exercising command authority over forces assigned to them. The
operational chain of command runs from the President to the Secretary of
Defense to these commanders. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
functions within the chain of command by transmitting the orders of the
President or the Secretary of Defense to the commanders of the unified
commands.
2-219. Within each unified command is an Army component command.
These Army component commands provide command and control to Army
units that are or become part of the Unified Command. Army units may be
assigned to the command; for example, the 35th Supply and Services
Battalion, assigned to the 10th Area Support Group, part of US Army,
Japan and 9th Theater Support Command. US Army, Japan and 9th TSC is
further assigned to US Army, Pacific Command: the Army component of
Pacific Command. Army units may also be temporarily part of a Unified
Command for a specific mission. For example, Army Forces, Central
Command (ARCENT) exerts operational control over Army units deployed
to Iraq supporting Operation Iraqi Freedom.

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

2-220. In our Constitution we read, We the people provide for the
common Defence, that the Congress raises the Army, and that the
President is the Commander-in-Chief. The United States Army exists to
serve the American people, protect enduring national interests, and fulfill
national military responsibilities. The Army performs this by deterring and,
when deterrence fails, by achieving quick, decisive victory anywhere in the
world and under virtually any conditions as part of a joint team.
2-221. The institution of the Army is its essence, traditions, history, and
lineage. It includes leader development, doctrine, training, professionalism,
integrity, and the Army's tradition of responsibility to the nation. The
Army's enduring values flow from the American ideals embodied in the
Constitution and Declaration of Independence. And serve to guide the
actions of soldiers as individuals and groups. Throughout American
military history, these values have provided a firm foundation for military
leaders and soldiers. They provide all soldiers with principles of conduct
and standards of behavior that exemplify those ideals and values.
2-222. The Army maintains a relationship between the institutional Army,
with its enduring values, and the organizational Army, the strategic force
capable of decisive victory. Institutional changes occur slowly through
deliberate evolution and are indistinguishable to the public at large. The
organization changes more rapidly and visibly to meet requirements
presented by national and international realities. In maintaining the
balance between capabilities and requirements in the organization, the
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institution must not lose its enduring values. They are the foundation
during periods of change and uncertainty. The challenge is to manage
change, increase capability, maintain stability, and foster innovation.
2-223. The objective of Army forces is to dominate land operations by
defeating enemy land forces, seizing and controlling terrain and destroying
the enemys will to resist. Supported by the Air Force and Navy, the Army
can forcibly enter an area and conduct land operations anywhere in the
world. The Army also can achieve quick and sustained land dominance
across the spectrum of conflict. Its capabilities help achieve national
political and military objectives.
2-224. The Army tailors forces with unique capabilities to achieve military
objectives during major theater wars or smaller-scale operations. Army
forces are assigned to a joint force commander under the direct command of
an Army component commander or a joint force land component
commander. In a joint force, a single commander exercises command
authority or operational control over elements of two or more services.
Within a joint force, service forces may work under subordinate joint
commands or single service commands. Each military department (Army,
Navy, and Air Force) retains responsibility for administration and logistic
support of those forces it has allocated. You can see the organization of the
Department of the Army in Figure 2-3.
Secretary of The Army
Deputy Secretary of The Army
Inspector General
Chief of Staff of The Army
Vice Chief of Staff
Army G1

Sergeant Major of The Army

Army G2

Chief of Public Affairs

Assistant Secretaries of
The Army
Civil Works
Financial Management & Comptroller

Army G3

Army G4

Installations & Environment

Chief of Engineers

Army G6

Manpower & Reserve Affairs

National Guard Bureau

Judge Advocate General
Surgeon General

Chief of The Army Reserve

Acquisition, Logistics, & Technology

Provost Marshal General

Chief of Chaplains

Army Major Commands

US Army Europe
US Army Forces Command
US Army Materiel Command
US Army Training & Doctrine Command
United States Eighth US Army, Korea
US Army Corps of Engineers
US Army Medical Command
US Army Pacific Command
US Army Space & Missile Defense Command
US Army Special Operations Command
Military Surface Deployment & Distribution Command
US Army Military District of Washington
US Army South
US Army Intelligence & Security Command
US Army Criminal Investigation Command

Figure 2-3. Organization of the Department of the Army

2-225. The Army is composed of two distinct and equally important
components: the active component and the reserve components. The reserve
components are the United States Army Reserve and the Army National
Guard. The active component is a federal force of full-time soldiers and
Department of the Army civilians. They make up the operational and
institutional organizations engaged in the day-to-day missions of the Army.
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_____________________________________________________________ Chapter 2

Congress annually determines the number of soldiers that the Army may
maintain in the active component.
2-226. Department of the Army civilians perform critical technical and
administrative tasks that release soldiers for training and performance of
other operational and institutional missions. In addition, many contractors
work for the Army to support our forces at home and deployed around the
world. While not members of the Army, these contractors provide vital
services that sustain and enhance the Army's service to the Nation.
2-227. The US Army Reserve is the active component's primary federal
reserve force. The US Army Reserve is made up of soldiers in the Selected
Reserve, Individual Ready Reserve (IRR), and Retired Reserve, totaling
over 1,000,000 soldiers. In the Selected Reserve you find soldiers in troop
program units (TPU), active guard and reserve (AGR) soldiers, and
Individual Mobilization Augmentees (IMA). The troop program units are
made up of highly trained combat support and combat service support
soldiers that can move on short notice. The US Army Reserve gives the
Army the resources it needs to deploy overseas and sustain combat troops
during wartime, contingencies, or other operations. It is the Army's main
source of transportation, medical, logistic, and other combat support and
combat service support units and it is the Army's only source of trained
individual soldiers readily available to augment headquarters staffs and fill
vacancies in units.
2-228. The Army National Guard has a unique, dual mission that consists
of both federal and state roles. Although its primary mission is to serve as a
federal reserve force, the Guard has an equally important role supporting
the states. Until mobilized for a federal mission, their state executive
(usually the governor) commands Army National Guard units. In the state
role, the Army National Guard must maintain trained and disciplined
forces for domestic emergencies or other missions that state law may
require. In this capacity, they serve as the first military responders within
states during emergencies; in their federal role, Army National Guard units
must maintain trained and ready forces, available for prompt mobilization
for war, national emergency, or other missions.

Our guardsmen, those who live and work within all of our
nations communities, are the Armys greatest link to the
American people.
Former Secretary of the Army Thomas E. White

2-229. Regardless of component, the Army conducts both operational and

institutional missions. The operational Army consists of numbered armies,
corps, divisions, brigades, and battalions that conduct full spectrum
operations around the world. They include the combat arms, combat
support and combat service support units that deploy and operate to
accomplish missions that support the overall objectives of the Nation. Both
active and reserve component units take part in operational missions.
Institutional missions include recruiting and training new soldiers,
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developing, acquiring and maintaining equipment, and managing the force,

just to name a few. Regardless of where you are, you are part of a team that
has important functions to support the Armys overall tasks. Your job is
important. You are important to the Army whether you are active or
reserve, combat arms, combat support or combat service support, infantry
division or training brigade.
2-230. The active component of the Army has nearly 480,000 soldiers. The
active component has 10 combat divisions, three cavalry regiments and two
separate maneuver brigades. The Selected Reserve of the US Army Reserve
consists of about 205,000 soldiers. It fields a large portion of the Armys
support units, especially in civil affairs, engineering, transportation, and
maintenance. The Army National Guard (ARNG) has approximately
350,000 soldiers. Upon mobilization, the Army National Guard can provide
up to eight combat divisions, two Special Forces groups, and 15 enhanced
Separate Brigades. Figure 2-4 below shows about what percentage of the
Armys soldiers are in the active component, USAR Selected Reserve (SR),
and ARNG.

The Army of One

USAR
(SR)
20%

ARNG
34%
Active
46%

Figure 2-4. Make up of The Army of One

2-231. The Major Commands of the Army and the Army components of the
Unified commands are in the active component. The Army provides units to
the unified commands for specific purposes and duration. The Army
component commanders of each unified command have command and
control over these units. For example, Central Command normally has no
Army combat units assigned to it. In the case of Operation Enduring
Freedom, since 2001 a number of different divisions and smaller units have
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deployed to Southwest Asia (SWA) under US Army Central Command. The

largest Army component is the US Army Forces Command (FORSCOM),
which executes the land defense of the US. It also provides military support
to civil authorities and trains, sustains, mobilizes and protects strategic
land forces worldwide.
2-232. The teams and units of the Army are generally built upon the
squad, the basic unit in the army structure. Squads are made up of 8 to 11
soldiers and are normally led by a staff sergeant. In some types of units, the
crew is the basic element, as in armor units. Crews are made up of the
soldiers who operate a particular weapon system. Tanks, for example, have
a crew of four soldiers usually led by a SSG (though some crews may
include higher ranking soldiers). Squads and crews combine to build nearly
every MTOE unit in the Army, as follows
The platoon usually consists of two to four squads or crews. A
lieutenant usually leads platoons, with a sergeant first class as
second in command.
Company, battery (in the artillery) or troop (in the cavalry) is made
up of three to five platoons and is typically commanded by a captain.
It usually has a first sergeant as the senior noncommissioned officer.
The battalion or squadron (cavalry) is composed of four to six
companies/batteries/troops and is commanded by a lieutenant colonel
with a command sergeant major as the senior NCO. The battalion is
tactically and administratively self-sufficient and can conduct
independent operations of a limited scope. A cavalry unit of similar
size to a battalion is called a squadron.
The brigade, regiment or group is made up of two to five battalions
under the command of a colonel with a command sergeant major as
the senior NCO. Armored cavalry and ranger units of similar size
and organization are called regiments, while Special Forces and some
other units are known as groups.
The division is typically made up of three maneuver brigades, as well
combat support brigades. A division is commanded by a major
general. The division performs major tactical operations for the corps
and is capable of sustained operations. A command sergeant major is
the senior NCO of the division.
A corps is made of two or more divisions commanded by a lieutenant
general with a command sergeant major as the senior NCO. Corps
bring additional support assets and can comand and control large
operations over great distances.
Armies contain corps and other supporting assets. For example, the
Third United States Army (TUSA) is also known as Army Forces,
Central Command (ARCENT) and provides command and control for
Army forces deployed in SWA.
2-233. We look to the past for lessons, we analyze the operational
environment, and we adapt to win our Nations wars. We remember that
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our purpose is to serve the Nation, defend the Constitution, and our way of
life. But throughout all this, the Armypast, present, and futureis
people.
2-234. Soldiers have made the US Army the worlds most respected land
force. That respect is a direct result of the values that soldiers embrace. As
FM 1, The Army points out, there is no moral comparison between
American Soldiers and their adversaries in wars throughout our history.
Thus, it is easy for Soldiers to believe in what they do.

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Chapter 3

Duties, Responsibilities, and Authority of the

Soldier
Being an effective part of a team as a soldier means knowing your
role and the rules for that team. This chapter explains the meaning
of duty, responsibility, and authority and how these apply to every
soldier in the Army. You'll find a quick reference to some of the
rules soldiers live by in the sections on wear, appearance, and fit
and standards of conduct. The discussion of the Uniform Code of
Military Justice (UCMJ) explains some of the procedures in the
use of military justice. This chapter provides brief overviews of
these topics and for additional detailed information refer to the
appropriate manuals.
Section I - Duties, Responsibilities, and Authority ........................ 3-3
Duties ............................................................................................. 3-3
Responsibilities ............................................................................... 3-5
Authority .......................................................................................... 3-8
The Chain Of Command and NCO Support Channel .................. 3-10
Inspections and Corrections ......................................................... 3-12
Section II - Wear and Appearance .................................................. 3-15
Personal Appearance Policies ...................................................... 3-15
Uniform Appearance and Fit ......................................................... 3-21
Section III - Uniform Code of Military Justice ............................... 3-30
Articles Of The Manual for Courts-Martial .................................... 3-31
Article 15 ....................................................................................... 3-33
Administrative Tools ...................................................................... 3-34
Law of Land Warfare ..................................................................... 3-36
*Section IV - Standards of Conduct ............................................... 3-38
Relationships Between Soldiers of Different Rank ....................... 3-38
Extremist Organizations and Activities ......................................... 3-41
Hazing ........................................................................................... 3-42
Code of Conduct ........................................................................... 3-43
Gifts and Donations ...................................................................... 3-45
Fund-Raising ................................................................................. 3-47
Lautenberg Amendment ............................................................... 3-47

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FM 7-21.13, C1____________________________________________________________

For more information on duties, responsibilities and authority see AR 600-20, Army
Command Policy, FM 6-0, Command and Control, FM 6-22 (22-100), Army Leadership,
and FM 7-22.7, The Army Noncommissioned Officer Guide.
For more information on the wear and appearance of Army uniforms and insignia, see
AR 670-1, Wear and Appearance of Army Uniforms and Insignia.
For more information on the Uniform Code of Military Justice, see FM 1-04.14 (27-14).
Legal Guide for Soldiers, AR 27-10, Military Justice, AR 27-3, The Army Legal
Assistance Program, and the Manual for Courts-Martial.
For more information on the law of land warfare, see FM 1-04.10 (27-10), The Law of
Land Warfare.
For more information on Army standards of conduct, see AR 600-20 and DOD
5500.7-R, Joint Ethics Regulation (JER).
For more information on the Code of Conduct, see AR 350- 30, Code of Conduct/
Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE) Training and DA Pam 360-512,
Code of the US Fighting Force.

Every soldier has a specific job to do and makes a

unique contribution to the Army. But always
remember you are a soldier first.

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_____________________________________________________________ Chapter 3

SECTION I - DUTIES, RESPONSIBILITIES, AND AUTHORITY

3-1.
Every soldier has certain duties, responsibilities, and most have
some level of authority. You should know what these are and how they
apply to you. One of your obligations as a soldier is to carry out your duties
to standard and the best of your ability. Bear your responsibilities knowing
that you are part of a great team that only works well when each of its
members do their best. If you are in a leadership position, exert authority to
build the team and develop your soldiers. Your fellow soldiers are
depending on you each and every day to make tough decisions based on
your rank and duty position.

Serving my country is the best thing I can do with my life.

1SG Isaac Guest

DUTIES
3-2.
Duties are general requirements to be performed. Duty begins with
everything required of you by law, regulation, and orders; but it includes
much more than that. A duty is a legal or moral obligation. For example,
soldiers have a legal duty to obey the lawful orders of their leaders.
Likewise, all officers and NCOs have a duty to Take care of their soldiers.
3-3.
Professionals do their work not just to the minimum standard, but
to the very best of their ability. Soldiers and Department of the Army
civilians (DAC) commit to excellence in all aspects of their professional
responsibility so that when the job is done they can look back and honestly
say, I have given my all each and every day. Duty also means being able
to accomplish tasks as part of a team. You must fulfill your obligations as a
part of your unit. That means, for example, voluntarily assuming your
share of the workload, willingly serving as a member of a team, or
assuming a leadership role when appropriate.
3-4.
Commissioned officers are direct representatives of the President.
The President uses commissions as legal instruments to appoint and
exercise direct control over qualified people who act as his legal agents and
help him carry out duties. The Army retains this direct-agent relationship
with the President through its commissioned officers. The commission
serves as the basis for a commissioned officers legal authority.
Commissioned officers command, establish policy, and manage Army
resources.
3-5.
Warrant officers are highly specialized, single-track specialty
officers who receive their authority from the Secretary of the Army upon
their initial appointment. However, Title 10 USC authorizes the
commissioning of warrant officers (WO1) upon promotion to chief warrant
officer (CW2). These commissioned warrant officers are direct
representatives of the President of the United States. They derive their
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FM 7-21.13 ____________________________________________________________

authority from the same source as commissioned officers, but remain

specialists in their field. Warrant officers can and do command
detachments, units, activities, and vessels as well as lead, coach, train and
counsel subordinates. As leaders and technical experts, they provide
valuable skills, guidance, and expertise to commanders and organizations
in their particular field.
3-6.
Noncommissioned officers, the backbone of the Army, train, lead,
and take care of enlisted soldiers. They also provide advice to officers in
every aspect of unit operations. NCOs often represent officers and DAC
leaders in their absence. They ensure their soldiers, along with their
personal equipment, are prepared to function as effective unit and team
members. While commissioned officers command, establish policy, and
manage resources, NCOs conduct the Armys daily business.
3-7.
Junior enlisted soldiers are where the rubber meets the road. Junior
enlisted soldiers perform their duties to standard AND to the best of their
ability. This means perfroming individual tasks identified by first line
supervisors based on the units mission essential task list (METL). All
soldiers must be able to do those individual tasks to standard because that
is where every successful operation beginsat the individual task level.
Junior enlisted soldiers can seek help from first-line supervisors for
problems they are unable to solve. Like every soldier in the Army, junior
enlisted soldiers have a duty to obey the lawful orders of superiors. Even
junior enlisted soldiers can make on-the-spot correctionsthey shouldnt
walk by a deficiency without tactfully correcting the problem. Thats
professionalism.
3-8.
Department of the Army civilians are members of the executive
branch of the federal government and are a vital part of the Army. DACs
fill positions in staff and base sustaining operations that might otherwise
have to be filled by officers and NCOs. Senior DACs establish policy and
manage Army resources, but they do not have the authority to command.
The complementary relationship and mutual respect between the military
and civilian members of the Army is a long-standing tradition. Since the
Armys beginning in 1775, military and civilian roles have stayed separate,
yet necessarily related. Taken in combination, traditions, functions, and
laws also help clarify duties of military and civilian members of the Army.
SPECIFIED DUTIES
3-9.
Specified duties are those related to jobs and positions. Directives
such as Army regulations, Department of the Army (DA) general orders,
the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ), soldiers manuals, Army
Training and Evaluation Program (ARTEP) or Mission Training Plan
(MTP) publications, and Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) job
descriptions specify the duties. They spell out what soldiers must do and
the standards they must meet.

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_____________________________________________________________ Chapter 3

DIRECTED DUTIES
3-10.
Directed duties are not specified as part of a job position or MOS or
other directive. A superior gives them orally or in writing. Directed duties
include being in charge of quarters (CQ) or serving as sergeant of the guard,
staff duty officer, company training NCO, and nuclear, biological and
chemical (NBC) NCO where these duties are not found in the units
organizational charts.
IMPLIED DUTIES
3-11. Implied duties often support specified duties, but in some cases they
may not be related to the military occupational specialty (MOS) job
position. These duties may not be written but implied in the instructions.
Theyre duties that improve the quality of the job and help keep the unit
functioning at an optimum level. In most cases, these duties depend on
individual initiative. They improve the work environment and motivate
soldiers to perform because they want to, not because they have to.

RESPONSIBILITIES
3-12. Responsibility is the legally established and moral obligation a
soldier assumes for his own actions, accomplishments and failures. Leaders
also assume responsibility for the actions, accomplishments, and failures of
their units and decisions. Above all, the leader is responsible for
accomplishing his assigned missions. Then, he is responsible for his
soldiers health, welfare, morale, and discipline. The leader is responsible
for maintaining and employing the resources of his force. In most cases,
these responsibilities do not conflict. But sometimes they do. For example,
SPC Hull has requested a three day pass, Friday through Sunday, because
an old friend is visiting for the weekend. But Friday the company is going to
the range to qualify on individual weapons. There is no other range time
scheduled for the next three months. If such a conflict cannot be resolved,
accomplishing the mission must come first. In the example, SPC Hulls
commander disapproves the pass.
3-13. Related to responsibility is accountability. This is the requirement
to answer to superiors (and ultimately the American people) for mission
accomplishment, for the lives and care of assigned soldiers, and for
effectively and efficiently using Army resources. It also includes an
obligation to answer for properly using delegated authority. Leaders are
accountable for what they do or fail to do. For example, SSG Calhoun must
explain to the platoon leader and platoon sergeant why three tires on one of
her squads vehicles are not inflated to the air pressure specified in the
technical manual. Soldiers account for their actions to their fellow soldiers
or organization, their leaders, the Army and the American people.
3-14. Officers, NCOs, and DACs lead other officers, NCOs, junior enlisted
soldiers, and DACs and help them carry out their responsibilities.
Commanders set overall policies and standards, but all leaders guide,
assist, and supervise subordinates, who assist and advise their leaders.
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FM 7-21.13 ____________________________________________________________

Mission accomplishment demands that officers, NCOs and DACs work

together to advise, assist and learn from each other.

Responsibility is a unique concept. It can only reside and

inhere in a single individual. You may share it with others,
but your portion is not diminished Even if you do not
recognize it or admit its presence, you cannot escape it. If
responsibility is rightfully yours, no evasion, or ignorance, or
passing the blame can shift the burden to someone else.
Admiral Hyman G. Rickover

INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY
3-15. Every soldier is responsible for performing his duty to the very best
of his abilityand for trying to improve his performance. You are also
responsible for your personal conduct and appearance. You and every other
soldier in the Army assumed this personal responsibility when you took
your enlistment oath or oath as an officer. For example, every soldier is
responsible for his own physical fitness. Commanders set aside time on the
training schedule for physical training (PT), designate soldiers to lead PT
and even ensure all soldiers complete unit runs. But only you can make
yourself physically fit.
3-16. Every soldier is responsible for treating other people with dignity
and respect. You may not engage in nor tolerate sexual, racial or other
types of discrimination or harassment. Such behavior is morally wrong in
both modern society and our Army of values. In addition, it rapidly destroys
unit cohesion and team integrity. That could result in lives unnecessarily
lost in combat or failure to accomplish assigned missions. Neither of these
possible results is acceptable. .
3-17. Soldiers also have unique responsibilities based on rank, duty
position and even geographical location. This manual wont go into all those
unique jobs soldiers of different MOSs have. The next few paragraphs
describe some of the more general responsibilities of all soldiers. Just
remember thisregardless of rank or MOS or specialtyyou are a soldier
first.
3-18. The general roles and responsibilities of the commissioned officer
are as follows:
Commands, establishes policy, and manages Army resources.
Integrates collective, leader, and soldier training to accomplish
mission.
Deals primarily with units and unit operations.
Concentrates on unit effectiveness and readiness.

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3-19. The general roles and responsibilities of the warrant officer are as
follows:
Provides quality advice, counsels and solutions to support the
command.
Executes policy and manages the Armys system.
Commands special-purpose units and task-organized operational
elements.
Focuses on collective, leader, and individual training.
Operates, maintains, administers, and manages
equipment, support activities, and technical systems.

the

Armys

Concentrates on unit effectiveness and readiness.

3-20. The general roles and responsibilities of the noncommissioned
officer are as follows:
Trains soldiers and conducts the daily business of the Army within
established policy.
Focuses on individual soldier and small unit collective training.
Deals primarily with individual soldier training and team leading.
Ensures that subordinate teams, NCOs, and soldiers are prepared to
function as effective unit and team members.
3-21. The general roles and responsibilities of the junior enlisted soldier
are as follows:
Obeys the lawful orders of NCOs and officers.
Completes each task to the very best degree possible and not just to
standard.
Maintains a military appearance.
Maintains individual physical fitness standards and readiness.
Maintains individual equipment and clothing to standard.
3-22. As members of the executive branch of the federal government,
Department of the Army civilians (DAC) are part of the Army team. The
DAC provides unique skills that are essential to victory. The general roles
and responsibilities of the DAC are as follows:
Fills positions in staff and base sustaining operations that otherwise
would have to be filled by soldiers.
Provides specialized skills that are difficult to maintain in uniformed
components.
Provides continuity in organizations where soldiers are not available
or regularly rotate.

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Applies technical, conceptual, and interpersonal skills to operate,

maintain, and administer Army equipment and support, research,
and technical activitiesin a combat theater, if necessary.
In addition, the DAC leader also
Establishes and executes policy, leads other DACs, and manages
programs, projects, and Army systems.
Concentrates on DAC individual and organizational effectiveness
and readiness.

AUTHORITY
3-23. Authority is the legitimate power of leaders to direct subordinates
or to take action within the scope of their position. Military authority
begins with the Constitution, which divides it between Congress and the
President. Congress has the authority to make laws that govern the Army.
The President, as Commander in Chief, commands the Armed Forces,
including the Army. Two types of military authority exist: command and
general military.
COMMAND AUTHORITY
3-24. Command authority originates with the President and may be
supplemented by law or regulation. It is the authority that a leader
exercises over subordinates by virtue of rank and assignment to a position
of leadership. Command authority is exercised when a member of the Army
is assigned to or assumes a position requiring the direction and control of
other members of the Army.
3-25. Command authority is not necessarily limited to commissioned
(including warrant) officers. Any soldier assigned to a leadership position
has the authority inherent in the position to issue orders necessary to
accomplish his mission or for the welfare of his soldiers, unless contrary to
law or regulation. A tank commander, squad leader, section or platoon
sergeant uses this authority to direct and control his soldiers. In these
cases, the authority the leader exercises is restricted to the soldiers and
facilities that make up that leader's unit.

A colonel does not just command 3,000 men, a battalion

commander 1,000, and a captain 250. A colonel commands
three battalions, a battalion commander four companies, a
captain four platoons, and a platoon leader four squads. Let us
not forget that.
Instruct your subordinates directly; do not command their
people. Above all, do not do their jobs, or you will not do yours.
Colonel Louis de MaudHuy

3-26. Dont confuse command authority with Command. Except in

emergency situations, only commissioned and warrant officers may
command Army units and installations. Army regulations define
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Command as a military organization or prescribed territory that is

recognized as a command under official directives. DA civilians may
exercise general supervision over an Army installation or activity, but they
act under the authority of a military supervisor; they do not command.
GENERAL MILITARY AUTHORITY
3-27. General military authority originates in oaths of office and
enlistment, law, rank structure, traditions, and regulations. This broadbased authority allows leaders to take appropriate corrective actions
whenever a member of any armed service, anywhere, commits an act
involving a breach of good order or discipline. Army Regulation 600-20,
Army Command Policy, states this specifically, giving commissioned,
warrant, and noncommissioned officers authority to quell all quarrels,
frays, and disorders among persons subject to military law. The purpose of
this authority is to maintain good order and discipline.
3-28. For NCOs, another source of general military authority stems from
the combination of the chain of command and the NCO support channel.
The chain of command passes orders and policies through the NCO support
channel to provide authority for NCOs to do their job.
DELEGATION OF AUTHORITY
3-29. Just as Congress and the President cannot personally direct every
aspect of Armed Forces operations, commanders at all levels cannot directly
handle every action. To meet the organizations goals, these officers must
delegate authority to subordinate commissioned and noncommissioned
officers and, when appropriate, to DACs. These subordinate leaders, in
turn, may further delegate that authority.
3-30. Unless restricted by law, regulation, or a superior, leaders may
delegate any or all of their authority to their subordinate leaders. However,
such delegation must fall within the leaders scope of authority. Leaders
cannot delegate authority they do not have and subordinate leaders may
not assume authority that their superiors do not have, cannot delegate, or
have retained. The task or duty to be performed limits the authority of the
leader to whom it is assigned.
3-31. When a leader assigns a subordinate a task, he delegates the
requisite authority to accomplish the task as well. The subordinate accepts
both the responsibility for accomplishing the task and the authority
necessary to make it happen. The leader, however, always retains overall
responsibility for the tasks outcome, being ready to answer for all actions
or omissions related to the outcome.
3-32. For example, lets say the first sergeant told the 1st platoon sergeant
to have a detail police an area outside the orderly room, and the platoon
sergeant further assigns the task to SPC Green and two PFCs. The platoon
sergeant delegates to SPC Green the authority to direct the two PFCs. In
this way, SPC Green has the authority to complete the task and is
accountable to the platoon sergeant for accomplishing it to standard.
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THE CHAIN OF COMMAND AND NCO SUPPORT CHANNEL

3-33. Communication among soldiers, teams, units, and organizations is
essential to efficient and effective mission accomplishment. Two-way
communication is more effective than one-way communication. Mission
accomplishment depends on information passing accurately to and from
subordinates and leaders, up and down the chain of command and NCO
support channel, and laterally among adjacent organizations or activities.
In garrison operations, organizations working on the same mission or
project should be considered adjacent.
CHAIN OF COMMAND
3-34. The Army has only one chain of command. Through this chain of
command, leaders issue orders and instructions and convey policies. An
effective chain of command is a two-way communication channel. Its
members do more than transmit orders; they carry information from within
the unit or organization back up to its leader. They furnish information
about how things are developing, notify the leader of problems, and provide
request for clarification and help. Leaders at all levels use the chain of
commandtheir subordinate leadersto keep their people informed and
render assistance. They continually facilitate the process of gaining the
necessary clarification and solving problems.
3-35. Beyond conducting their normal duties, NCOs train soldiers and
advises commanders on individual soldier readiness and the training
needed to ensure unit readiness. Officers and DAC leaders should consult
their command sergeant major, first sergeant, or NCOIC, before
implementing policy. Leaders must continually communicate to avoid
duplicating instructions or issuing conflicting orders. Continuous and open
lines of communication enable leaders to freely plan, make decisions, and
program future training and operations.
NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICER SUPPORT CHANNEL
3-36. The NCO support channel parallels and reinforces the chain of
command. NCO leaders work with and support the commissioned and
warrant officers of their chain of command. For the chain of command to
work efficiently, the NCO support channel must operate effectively. At
battalion level and higher, the NCO support channel begins with the
command sergeant major, extends through first sergeants, platoon
sergeants and ends with section chiefs, squad leaders or team leaders.

The NCO support channelis used for exchanging

information; providing reports; issuing instructions, which are
directive in nature; accomplishing routine but important
activities in accordance with command policies and directives.
Most often, it is used to execute established policies,
procedures, and standards involving the performance,
training, appearance, and conduct of enlisted personnel. Its
power rests with the chain of command.
FM 22-600-20, The Duties, Responsibilities, and Authority of NCOs, 1977
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3-37. The connection between the chain of command and the NCO
support channel is the senior NCO. Commanders issue orders through the
chain of command, but senior NCOs must know and understand the orders
to issue effective implementing instructions through the NCO support
channel. Although the first sergeant and command sergeant major are not
part of the formal chain of command, leaders should consult them on all
enlisted soldier matters and individual training.
3-38. Successful leaders have good relationships with their senior NCOs.
Successful commanders have a good leader-NCO relationship with their
first sergeants and command sergeant major. The need for such a
relationship applies to platoon leaders and platoon sergeants as well as to
staff officers and NCOs. Senior NCOs have extensive experience in
successfully completing missions and dealing with enlisted soldier issues.
Also, senior NCOs can monitor organizational activities at all levels, take
corrective action to keep the organization within the boundaries of the
commanders intent, or report situations that require the attention of the
officer leadership. A positive relationship between officers and NCOs
creates conditions for success.
3-39. The NCO support channel assists the chain of command in
accomplishing the following:
Transmitting, instilling and ensuring the efficacy of the Army ethic.
Planning and conducting the day-to-day unit operations within
prescribed policies and directives.
Training enlisted soldiers in their MOS as well as in the basic skills
and attributes of a soldier.
Supervising unit physical fitness training and ensuring that soldiers
comply with the height/weight and appearance standards in AR 6009, The Army Weight Control Program, and AR 670-1, Wear and
Appearance of Army Uniforms and Insignia.
Teaching soldiers the history of the Army, to include military
customs, courtesies, and traditions.
Caring for individual soldiers and their families both on and off duty.
Teaching soldiers the mission of the unit and developing individual
training programs to support the mission.
Accounting for and maintaining individual arms and equipment of
enlisted soldiers and unit equipment under their control.
Administrating and monitoring the NCO professional development
program and other unit training programs.
Achieving and maintaining Army values.
Advising the commander on rewards and punishment for enlisted
soldiers.

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3-40. Soldiers should use the chain of command or the NCO support
channel (as appropriate) to help solve problems, whether small or large.
The chain of command and the NCO support channel are also effective and
efficient means of communication from where the rubber meets the road to
the very highest echelons of the Army. Whether you have a problem,
suggestion, complaint or commendation the chain and the channel are the
means to communicate to the leaders who need to know.

INSPECTIONS AND CORRECTIONS

3-41. Why do we have inspections? From long experience, the Army has
found that some soldiers, if allowed to, will become careless and lax in the
performance of minor barracks, office, and work area maintenance. They
become accustomed to conditions in their immediate surroundings and
overlook minor deficiencies. Should a soldier fall below the Army standard
of performance someone will notice those deficiencies immediately. All
soldiers have the responsibility to uphold the Army standard.
3-42. Your supervisors will order inspections to see that soldiers have all
the equipment and clothing issued to them and that it is serviceable.
Inspections serve this practical purpose; they are not harassment. You will
probably agree that inspections often correct small problems before they
become big problems. Sharp appearance, efficient performance, and
excellent maintenance are important considerations that affect you directly.
They are the visible signs of a good organization in which any soldier would
be a proud member. First-line leaders should inspect their soldiers daily
and should regularly check soldiers rooms, common areas, offices and work
areas of their soldiers. First-line leaders should also make arrangements
with soldiers who live in quarters (on or off post) to ensure the soldier
maintains a healthy and safe environment for himself and his family.
TYPES OF INSPECTIONS
3-43. There are two categories of inspections for determining the status of
individual soldiers and their equipment: in-ranks and in-quarters. An inranks inspection is of personnel and equipment in a unit formation. The
leader examines each soldier individually, noticing their general
appearance and the condition of their clothing and equipment. When
inspecting crew-served weapons and vehicles, the soldiers are normally
positioned to the rear of the formation with the operators standing by their
vehicle or weapon. Leaders may conduct an in-quarters (barracks)
inspection to include personal appearance, individual weapons, field
equipment, displays, maintenance, and sanitary conditions. Organizations
will have inspection programs that will help determine the status and
mission readiness of the unit and its components. These include command
inspections, staff inspections, and Inspector General inspections.
On-the-Spot Corrections
3-44. One of the most effective administrative corrective measures is the
on-the-spot correction. Use this tool for making the quickest and often most
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effective corrections to deficiencies in training or standards. Generally, a

soldier requires an on-the-spot correction for one of two reasons. Either the
soldier you are correcting does not know what the standard is or does not
care what the standard is. If the soldier was aware of the standard but
chose not to adhere to it, this may indicate a larger problem that his chain
of command should address. In such a situation you might follow up an onthe-spot correction with a call to the soldiers first sergeant or commander.
Figure 3-1 shows the steps in properly making an on-the-spot correction.
Correct the soldier.
Attack the performance, never the person.
Give one correction at a time. Do not dump.
Dont keep bringing it up. When the correction is over, it is over.
Figure 3-1. On-the-Spot Correction Steps
3-45. Keeping a soldier on track is the key element in solving performance
problems. Motivated soldiers keep the group functioning and training
productive. Ultimately soldiers accomplish the training objectives, and most
importantly, the mission. Some leaders believe that soldiers work as
expected simply because that is their job. That may be true, but soldiers
and leaders also need a simple pat-on-the-back once in a while, for a job
well done. Good leaders praise their soldiers and care about the job they are
doing. Soldiers not performing to standard need correction.

Making an On-the-Spot Correction

PFC Bucher returned to the battery area after PT and got out of his car
to go to formation. He noticed CPL Mays had arrived and waited for him
to walk up to the unit together. CPL Mays locked his car and said hello
to PFC Bucher but still hadnt put his beret on. PFC Bucher was unsure
what to do but knew that he wasnt supposed to walk by a deficiency.
PFC Bucher said, Good morning, CPL Mays. He looked around to
ensure no one could hear him and went on, You really should put your
headgear on, Corporal. An impressionable young troop like me might
get the wrong idea and think its okay to walk around without cover.
CPL Mays wasnt amused but took the hint. Thanks, Bucher, I forgot,
he said, pulling his beret out of his cargo pocket. And thanks for not
making a big deal out of it. Lets go to formation before were late.
3-46. Often the on-the-spot correction is the best tool to get soldiers back
on track. But even after making an on-the-spot correction, additional
training may be necessary. Figure 3-2 shows the guidelines in using
corrective training.

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FM 7-21.13 ____________________________________________________________

The training, instruction or correction given to a soldier to correct

deficiencies must be directly related to the deficiency.
Orient the corrective action to improving the soldiers performance in
their problem area.
You may take corrective measures after normal duty hours. Such
measures assume the nature of the training or instruction, not
punishment.
Corrective training should continue only until the training deficiency is
overcome.
All levels of command should take care to ensure that training and
instruction are not used in an oppressive manner to evade the
procedural safeguards in imposing nonjudical punishment.

Do not make notes in soldiers official records of deficiencies

satisfactorily corrected by means of training and instruction.
Figure 3-2. Corrective Training Guidelines
3-47. More often than not, soldiers do good things that deserve some
recognition. In the same way as on-the-spot corrections (but obviously for
different reasons), leaders praise soldiers good work by telling them the
specific action or result observed and why it was good. This will tend to
encourage soldiers to continue doing those good things and motivate other
soldiers to reach that standard, too.
3-48. Making an informal, unscheduled check of equipment, soldiers, or
quarters is called an on-the-spot inspection. Stopping to check the tag on a
fire extinguisher as you walk through a maintenance bay is an example of
an on-the-spot inspection. Another example is checking the condition of the
trash dumpster area in back of the orderly room. For any inspection, the
steps are the same: preparation, conduct, and follow-up.
PCCs / PCIs
3-49. Pre-combat checks (PCCs), Pre-combat inspections (PCIs) and Preexecution checks are key to ensuring leaders, trainers, and soldiers are
adequately prepared to execute operations and training to Army standard.
PCC/PCIs are the bridge between pre-execution checks and execution of
training. They are also detailed final checks that all units conduct before
and during execution of training and combat operations. Conduct PCC/PCIs
at the beginning of each event or exercise as part of troop leading
procedures to check soldiers, equipment, vehicles, and mission knowledge.
3-50. The chain of command is responsible for developing, validating, and
verifying all PCC/PCIs. Pre-execution checks ensure that all planning and
prerequisite training (soldier, leader, and collective) are complete prior to
the execution of training. They systematically prepare soldiers, trainers,
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and resources to ensure training execution starts properly. Pre-execution

checks provide the attention to detail needed to use resources efficiently.

In no other profession are the penalties for employing

untrained personnel so appalling or so irrevocable as in the
military.
General of the Army Douglas MacArthur

SECTION II - WEAR AND APPEARANCE

3-51. This section provides an overview of Army Regulation 670-1, Wear
and Appearance of Army Uniforms and Insignia. It is a quick reference to
personal appearance policies and uniform appearance and fit. For details
refer to the regulation.

PERSONAL APPEARANCE POLICIES

3-52. In the Army discipline is judged, in part, by the manner in which a
soldier wears the uniform, as well as by the soldiers personal appearance.
Therefore, a neat and well-groomed appearance by all soldiers is
fundamental to the Army and contributes to building the pride and esprit
essential to an effective military force. A part of the Armys strength and
military effectiveness is the pride and self-discipline that American soldiers
display in their appearance.
3-53. Commanders ensure that military personnel under their command
present a neat and soldierly appearance. In the absence of specific
procedures or guidelines, commanders must determine a soldiers
appearance complies with standards in AR 670-1. Soldiers must take pride
in their appearance at all times, in or out of uniform, on and off duty. Pride
in appearance includes soldiers physical fitness and adherence to
acceptable weight standards in accordance with AR 600-9, The Army
Weight Control Program.
RELIGIOUS ITEMS
3-54. Soldiers may wear religious apparel, articles, or jewelry subject to
some limitations based on mission or other requirements. The term
religious apparel applies to articles of clothing worn as part of the
observance of the religious faith practiced by the soldier. These religious
articles include, but are not limited to, medallions, small booklets, pictures,
or copies of religious symbols or writing carried by the individual in wallets
or pockets. See AR 600-20, Army Command Policy, paragraph 5-6g for more
information on accommodating religious practices.
3-55. Soldiers may wear religious apparel, articles, or jewelry with the
uniform, to include the physical fitness uniform, if they are neat,
conservative, and discreet. Neat, conservative, and discreet means it
meets the uniform criteria of AR 670-1. In other words, when religious
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jewelry is worn, the uniform must meet the same standards of wear as if
the religious jewelry were not worn. For example, a religious item worn on
a chain may not be visible when worn with the utility, service, dress or
mess uniforms. When worn with the physical fitness uniform, the item
should be no more visible than identification (ID) tags would be in the same
uniform. The width of chains worn with religious items should be
approximately the same size as the width of the ID tag chain.
3-56. Soldiers may not wear these items when doing so would interfere
with the performance of their duties or cause a safety problem. Soldiers
may not be prohibited, however, from wearing religious apparel, articles or
jewelry meeting the criteria of AR 670-1 simply because they are religious
in nature if wear is permitted of similar items of a nonreligious nature. A
specific example would be wearing a ring with a religious symbol. If the
ring meets the uniform standards for jewelry and is not worn in a work
area where rings are prohibited because of safety concerns, then wear is
allowed and may not be prohibited simply because the ring bears a religious
symbol.
3-57. During a worship service, rite, or ritual, soldiers may wear visible or
apparent religious articles, symbols, jewelry, and apparel that do not meet
normal uniform standards. Commanders, however, may place reasonable
limits on the wear of non-subdued items of religious apparel during worship
services, rites, or rituals conducted in the field for operational or safety
reasons. When soldiers in uniform wear visible religious articles on such
occasions, they must ensure that these articles are not permanently affixed
or appended to any prescribed article of the uniform.
3-58. Chaplains may wear religious attire as described in AR 670-1, CTA
50-909, Field and Garrison Furnishings and Equipment, and AR 165-1,
Chaplain Activities in the United States Army, in the performance of
religious services and other official duties, as required. Commanders may
not prohibit chaplains from wearing religious symbols that are part of the
chaplains duty uniform.
3-59. Soldiers may wear religious headgear while in uniform if the
headgear meets the following criteria:
It must be subdued in color (black, brown, green, dark or navy blue,
or a combination of these colors).
It must be of a style and size that can be completely covered by
standard military headgear and it cannot interfere with the proper
wear or functioning of protective clothing or equipment.
The headgear cannot bear any writing, symbols or pictures.
Soldiers will not wear religious headgear in place of military
headgear when military headgear is required (outdoors or indoors
when required for duties or ceremonies).
HAIR STANDARDS
3-60. Army Regulation 670-1 governs hair and grooming practices or
accommodations based on religious practices. Exceptions based on religious
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practices that were given to soldiers in accordance with AR 600-20 on or

prior to 1 January 1986 remain in effect as long as the soldier remains
otherwise qualified for retention.
3-61. The requirement for hair grooming standards is necessary to
maintain uniformity within a military population. Many hairstyles are
acceptable, as long as they are neat and conservative. It is not possible to
address every acceptable hairstyle, or what constitutes eccentric or
conservative grooming. It is the responsibility of leaders at all levels to
exercise good judgment in the enforcement of Army policy. All soldiers will
comply with the hair, fingernail, and grooming policies while in any
military uniform or while in civilian clothes on duty.
3-62. Leaders judge the appropriateness of a particular hairstyle by the
appearance of headgear when worn. Soldiers will wear headgear as
described in the applicable chapters of AR 670-1. Headgear will fit snugly
and comfortably, without distorted or excessive gaps. Soldiers may not wear
hairstyles that do not allow proper wear of headgear, or that interfere with
the proper wear of the protective mask or other protective equipment.
3-63. Extreme, eccentric, or trendy haircuts or hairstyles are not
authorized. If soldiers use dyes, tints, or bleaches, they must choose those
that result in natural hair colors. Colors that detract from a professional
military appearance are prohibited. Soldiers should avoid using colors that
result in an extreme appearance. Applied hair colors that are prohibited
include, but are not limited to purple, blue, pink, green, orange, bright (fireengine) red, and fluorescent or neon colors. It is the responsibility of leaders
to use good judgment in determining if applied colors are acceptable, based
upon the overall effect on the soldiers appearance.
3-64. Soldiers who have a texture of hair that does not part naturally may
cut a part into the hair. The part will be one straight line, not slanted or
curved, and will fall in the area where the soldier would normally part the
hair. Soldiers will not cut designs into their hair or scalp.
3-65. Soldiers may not wear hairnets unless they are required for health,
safety, or duty performance (such as a cook). No other type of hair covering
is authorized in lieu of the hairnet. The commander will provide the hairnet
to the soldier at no cost.
Male Hair Standards
3-66. Male haircuts will conform to certain standards. The hair on top of
the head must be neatly groomed. The length and bulk of the hair may not
be excessive or present a ragged, unkempt, or extreme appearance. The
hair must present a tapered appearance. A tapered appearance is one
where the outline of the soldiers hair conforms to the shape of the head,
curving inward to the natural termination point at the base of the neck.
The hair will not fall over the ears or eyebrows, or touch the collar, except
for the closely cut hair at the back of the neck. The block-cut fullness in the
back is permitted to a moderate degree, as long as the tapered look is
maintained.
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3-67. In all cases, the bulk or length of hair may not interfere with the
normal wear of headgear, protective masks, or equipment. Males are not
authorized to wear braids, cornrows, or dreadlocks (unkempt, twisted,
matted, individual parts of hair) while in uniform or in civilian clothes on
duty. Hair that is clipped closely or shaved to the scalp is authorized.
3-68. Males will keep sideburns neatly trimmed. Sideburns may not be
flared; the base of the sideburn will be a clean-shaven, horizontal line.
Sideburns will not extend below the lowest part of the exterior ear opening.
3-69. Males will keep their face clean-shaven when in uniform or in
civilian clothes on duty. Mustaches are permitted. If mustaches are worn,
they will be neatly trimmed, tapered, and tidy. Mustaches will not present
a chopped off or bushy appearance, and no portion of the mustache will
cover the upper lip line or extend sideways beyond a vertical line drawn
upward from the corners of the mouth. Handlebar mustaches, goatees, and
beards are not authorized. If appropriate medical authority prescribes
beard growth, the length required for treatment must be specified. For
example, The length of the beard will not exceed inch. Soldiers will
keep the growth trimmed to the level specified by appropriate medical
authority, but they are not authorized to shape the growth into goatees, or
Fu Manchu or handlebar mustaches.
3-70. Males are prohibited from wearing wigs or hairpieces while in
uniform or in civilian clothes on duty, except to cover natural baldness or
physical disfiguration caused by accident or medical procedure. When worn,
wigs or hairpieces will conform to the standard haircut criteria.
Female Hair Standards
3-71. Female soldiers will ensure their hair is neatly groomed, that the
length and bulk of the hair are not excessive, and that the hair does not
present a ragged, unkempt, or extreme appearance. Likewise, trendy styles
that result in shaved portions of the scalp (other than the neckline) or
designs cut into the hair are prohibited. Females may wear braids and
cornrows as long as the braided style is conservative, the braids and
cornrows lie snugly on the head, and any holding devices comply with the
standards. Dreadlocks (unkempt, twisted, matted individual parts of hair)
are prohibited in uniform or in civilian clothes on duty. Hair will not fall
over the eyebrows or extend below the bottom edge of the collar at any time
during normal activity or when standing in formation. Long hair that falls
naturally below the bottom edge of the collar, to include braids, will be
neatly and inconspicuously fastened or pinned, so no free-hanging hair is
visible. This includes styles worn with the improved physical fitness
uniform (IPFU).
3-72. Styles that are lopsided or distinctly unbalanced are prohibited.
Ponytails, pigtails, or braids that are not secured to the head (allowing hair
to hang freely), widely spaced individual hanging locks, and other extreme
styles that protrude from the head are prohibited. Extensions, weaves,
wigs, and hairpieces are authorized only if these additions have the same
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general appearance as the individuals natural hair. Additionally, any wigs,

extensions, hairpieces, or weaves must comply with grooming policies.
3-73. Females will ensure that hairstyles do not interfere with proper
wear of military headgear, protective masks, or equipment at any time.
When headgear is worn, the hair will not extend below the bottom edge of
the front of the headgear or below the bottom edge of the collar.
3-74. Hair-holding devices may be used only for securing the hair.
Soldiers will not place hair-holding devices in the hair for decorative
purposes. All hair-holding devices must be plain and of a color as close to
the soldiers hair as is possible or clear. Authorized devices include, but are
not limited to, small, plain scrunchies (elastic hair bands covered with
material), barrettes, combs, pins, clips, rubber bands, and hair bands.
Devices that are conspicuous, excessive or decorative are prohibited. Some
examples of prohibited devices include, but are not limited to, large, lacy
scrunchies; beads, bows, or claw clips; clips, pins, or barrettes with
butterflies, flowers, sparkles, gems, or scalloped edges; and bows made from
hairpieces.
COSMETICS
3-75. As with hairstyles, the requirement for standards regarding
cosmetics is necessary to maintain uniformity and to avoid an extreme or
unmilitary appearance. Males are prohibited from wearing cosmetics, to
include nail polish. Females are authorized to wear cosmetics with all
uniforms, provided they are applied conservatively and in good taste and
complement the uniform. Leaders at all levels must exercise good judgment
in the enforcement of this policy.
3-76. Females may wear cosmetics if they are conservative and
complement the uniform and their complexion. Eccentric, exaggerated, or
trendy cosmetic styles and colors, to include makeup covering tattoos, are
inappropriate with the uniform and are prohibited. Permanent makeup,
such as eyebrow or eyeliner, is authorized if it conforms to standards.
3-77. Females will not wear shades of lipstick and nail polish that
contrast with their complexion, detract from the uniform, or that are
extreme. Some examples of extreme colors include, but are not limited to,
purple, gold, blue, black, white, bright (fire-engine) red, khaki, camouflage
colors and fluorescent colors. Soldiers will not apply designs to nails or
apply two-tone colors to nails. Females will comply with the cosmetics
policy while in any military uniform or while in civilian clothes on duty.
FINGERNAILS
3-78. All soldiers will keep fingernails clean and neatly trimmed. Males
will keep nails trimmed so as not to extend beyond the fingertip. Females
will not exceed a nail length of inch, as measured from the tip of the
finger. Females will trim nails shorter if the commander determines that
the longer length detracts from the military image, presents a safety
concern, or interferes with the performance of duties.
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HYGIENE AND BODY GROOMING

3-79. Soldiers will maintain good personal hygiene and grooming on a
daily basis. Not only is this an indicator of a disciplined soldier, but also
demonstrates respect for others and for the uniform.
TATTOOS
3-80. Tattoos or brands that are visible in a class A uniform (worn with
slacks/trousers) are prohibited (see exception in paragraph 3-84 below).
Tattoos or brands that are extremist, indecent, sexist or racist are
prohibited, regardless of location on the body, as they are prejudicial to
good order and discipline within units. Extremist tattoos or brands are
those affiliated with, depicting, or symbolizing extremist philosophies,
organizations or activities.
3-81. Indecent tattoos or brands are those that are grossly offensive to
modesty, decency, or propriety; shock the moral sense because of their
vulgar, filthy, or disgusting nature or tendency to incite lustful thought; or
tend reasonably to corrupt morals or incite libidinous thoughts. Sexist
tattoos or brands are those that advocate a philosophy that degrades or
demeans a person based on race, ethnicity, or national origin. Racist tattoos
or brands are those that advocate a philosophy that degrades or demeans a
person based on race, ethnicity, or national origin.
3-82. Commanders must ensure soldiers understand the tattoo policy. For
soldiers who are not in compliance, commanders may not order the removal
of a tattoo or brand. However, the commander must counsel soldiers, and
afford them the opportunity to seek medical advice about removal or
alteration of the tattoo or brand.
3-83. If soldiers are not in compliance with the policy, and refuse to
remove or alter the tattoos or brands, commanders
Ensure the soldier understands the policy.
Ensure the soldier has been afforded the opportunity to seek medical
advice about the removal or alteration.
Counsel the soldier in writing. The counseling form will state that
the soldiers refusal to remove extremist, indecent, sexist, or racist
tattoos or brands anywhere on the body, or refusal to remove any
type of tattoo or brand visible in the class A uniform (worn with
slacks/trousers) will result in discharge.
Existing tattoos or brands on the hands that are not extremist,
indecent, sexist, or racist, but are visible in the class A uniform are
authorized for soldiers who entered the Army before 1 July 2002.
Soldiers who entered the Army 1 July 2002 and later may not have
tattoos that are visible in the Class A uniform.
Soldiers may not cover tattoos or brands in order to comply with the
tattoo policy.
3-84. Unit commanders or executive officers make determinations on the
appropriateness of tattoos for soldiers currently on active duty. This
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authority cannot be further delegated. Any such determination must be

fully documented in writing and include a description of existing tattoos or
brands and their location on the body. The soldier will receive a copy of the
determination.

UNIFORM APPEARANCE AND FIT

3-85. All soldiers must maintain a high standard of dress and
appearance. Uniforms will fit properly; trousers, pants, or skirts should not
fit tightly; and soldiers must keep uniforms clean and serviceable and press
them as necessary.
APPEARANCE
3-86. Soldiers must project a military image that leaves no doubt that
they live by a common military standard and are responsible to military
order and discipline. Soldiers will ensure that articles carried in pockets do
not protrude from the pocket or present a bulky appearance.

That uniform stood for something to meand it still does,

something pretty grand and fine.
SGT Henry Giles

3-87. When required and prescribed by the commander, soldiers may

attach keys or key chains to the uniform when performing duties such as
charge of quarters, armorer, duty officer/NCO, or other duties as prescribed
by the commander. Keys or key chains will be attached to the uniform on
the belt, belt loops, or waistband.
3-88. At the discretion of the commander and when required in the
performance of duties soldiers may wear an electronic device on the belt,
belt loops, or waistband of the uniform. Only one electronic device may be
worn. It may be either a pager or a cell phone. The body of the device may
not exceed 4x2x1 inches, and the device and carrying case must be black; no
other colors are authorized. If security cords or chains are attached to the
device, soldiers will conceal the cord or chain from view. Other types of
electronic devices are not authorized for wear on the uniform. If the
commander issues and requires the use of other electronic devices in the
performance of duties, the soldier will carry them in the hand, pocket,
briefcase, purse, bag, or in some other carrying container.
3-89. Soldiers will not wear keys, key chains, or electronic devices on the
uniform when the commander determines such wear is inappropriate, such
as in formation, or during parades or ceremonies. Soldiers will not wear
items or devices on the uniform when not performing required duties.
3-90. While in uniform, soldiers will not place their hands in their
pockets, except momentarily to place or retrieve objects. Soldiers will keep
uniforms buttoned, zipped, and snapped. They will ensure metallic devices
such as metal insignia, belt buckles, and belt tips are free of scratches and
corrosion and are in proper luster or remain properly subdued, as
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applicable; and that all medals and ribbons are clean and not frayed.
Soldiers will keep shoes and boots cleaned and shined. Soldiers will replace
the rank insignia, name and US Army distinguishing tapes (nametapes),
nameplates, unit patches, and combat and skill badges when unserviceable
or no longer conform to standards.
3-91. Lapels and sleeves of service, dress, and mess coats and jackets will
be roll-pressed, without creasing. Skirts will not be creased. Trousers,
slacks, and the sleeves of shirts and blouses will be creased. Soldiers may
add military creases to the AG shade 415 shirt and the battle dress uniform
(BDU) coat (not the field jacket). Soldiers will center the front creases on
each side of the shirt, centered on the pockets, for those garments that have
front pockets. Soldiers may press a horizontal crease across the upper back
of the shirt or coat (not necessary on the male shirt due to the yoke seam),
and they may press three equally spaced vertical creases down the back,
beginning at the yoke seam or horizontal crease. Additionally, soldiers may
crease the sleeves of the BDU coat. Soldiers are not authorized to sew
military creases into the uniform.
3-92. Although some uniform items are made of wash-and-wear materials
or are treated with a permanent-press finish, soldiers may need to press
these items to maintain a neat, military appearance. However, before
pressing uniform items, soldiers should read and comply with care
instruction labels attached to the items. Soldiers may starch BDUs and the
maternity work uniform, at their option. Commanders will not require
soldiers to starch these uniforms, and soldiers will not receive an increase
in their clothing replacement allowance to compensate for potential
premature wear that may be caused by starching uniforms.
THE BERET
3-93. The beret is the basic headgear for utility uniforms in garrison
environments. The beret is not worn in the field, in training environments,
or in environments where the wear of the beret is impractical, as
determined by the commander. Additionally, the beret is not worn on
deployments unless authorized by the commander. Soldiers being
transferred from one organization to another may continue to wear the
beret and flash of the former unit until they report for duty at the new
organization.

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Figure 3-3. Wear of the Beret, Male and Female

3-94. The beret is worn so that the headband (edge binding) is straight
across the forehead, one (1) inch above the eyebrows. The flash is positioned
over the left eye, and the excess material is draped over to the right ear,
extending to at least the top of the ear, and no lower than the middle of the
ear. Soldiers will cut off the ends of the adjusting ribbon and secure the
ribbon knot inside the edge binding at the back of the beret. When worn
properly, the beret is formed to the shape of the head; therefore, soldiers
may not wear hairstyles that cause distortion of the beret. See Figure 3-3,
Wear of the Beret, Male and Female.
3-95. Soldiers who are not assigned to units or positions authorized wear
of the tan, green, or maroon berets will wear the black beret. This includes
senior and junior Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) instructors,
unless otherwise indicated. Soldiers are issued the black beret upon
assignment to their first permanent duty assignment after the completion
of initial entry training or officer/warrant officer basic courses. Cadets and
officer/warrant officer candidates will not wear the black beret. Split-option
soldiers or soldiers in the simultaneous membership program will wear the
black beret only when performing duties with their units, and they will
wear the patrol cap with the BDU, when in a cadet or trainee status.
3-96. Soldiers who have not been issued or who do not wear the black
beret will wear the patrol cap with the BDU. In those cases where beret
sustainment levels are not sufficient for turn-in and reissue of
unserviceable berets, the commander can authorize the temporary wear of
the patrol cap until the beret can be replaced. The Army flash is the only
flash authorized for wear on the black beret, unless authorization for
another flash was granted before the implementation of the black beret as
the standard Army headgear (for example, Opposing Forces elements).
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Ranger Tan Beret

3-97. Soldiers assigned to the following units are authorized wear of the
Ranger tan beret. Soldiers will wear the approved flash of the unit to which
they are assigned:
75th Ranger Regiment.
Ranger Training Brigade.
Ranger-qualified soldiers in the following units or positions, if they
previously served in the 75th Ranger Regiment.
US Special Operations Command.
US Army Special Operations Command.
US Special Operations Command Joint Task Force.
Theater Special Operations Command.
Green Beret
3-98. If approved by local commanders, all Special Forces-qualified
soldiers (those carrying the Special Forces MOSs of 18A or 180A, CMF 18,
and CSMs reclassified from 18Z to 00Z) are authorized to wear the Green
Beret. This includes ROTC instructors and those attending training at an
Army service school in a student status. Special Forces (SF) soldiers will
wear the approved flash of the unit to which they are assigned. Special
Forces soldiers who are assigned to an organization without an approved
flash will wear the generic SF flash (the flash approved for soldiers
assigned to SF positions, but not assigned to SF units).
Maroon Beret
3-99. All soldiers assigned to airborne units whose primary missions are
airborne operations wear the maroon beret. The airborne designation for a
unit is found in the unit modification table of organization and equipment
(MTOE). Other soldiers authorized to wear the maroon beret are as follows:
Active Army advisors to reserve airborne units on jump status.
Soldiers assigned to the airborne departments of the US Army
Infantry School and the US Army Quartermaster School.
Soldiers assigned to long-range surveillance detachments designated
as airborne.
Soldiers assigned to the airborne/airlift action office.
Recruiters of the Special Operations Recruiting Company (SORC),
US Army Recruiting Command, will wear the USASOC flash.
Soldiers assigned to the airborne procurement team.
Soldiers assigned to 55th Signal Company Airborne Combat Camera
Documentation Team.
Soldiers assigned to 982d Combat Signal Company airborne platoons.
Soldiers assigned to rigger detachments.
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FIT
3-100. Fitting instructions and alterations of uniforms will be made in
accordance with AR 700-84, Issue and Sale of Personal Clothing, and TM
10-227, Fitting of Army Uniforms and Footwear. The following is a
summary of general fitting guidelines:
Black all-weather coat. The length of the sleeves of the all-weather
coat will be inch longer than the service coat.
Males. The bottom of the black all-weather coat will reach to a
point 1 inches below the center of the knee.
Females. The bottom of the coat will reach a point at least 1 inch
below the skirt hem, but not less than 1- inches below the center
of the knee.
Uniform coats and jackets (male and female). The sleeve length will
be 1 inch below the bottom of the wrist bone.
Trousers will be fitted and worn with the lower edge of the waistband
at the top of the hipbone, plus or minus inch. The front crease of
the trousers will reach the top of the instep, touching the top of the
shoe at the shoelaces.
Trousers will be cut on a diagonal line to reach a point approximately
midway between the top of the heel and the top of the standard shoe
in the back. The trousers may have a slight break in the front.
Knee-length skirts. Skirts lengths will be no more than 1 inch above
or 2 inches below the center of the knee.
Long-sleeved shirts. The sleeve length will extend to the center of the
wrist bone.
Soldiers will wear appropriate undergarments with all uniforms.
WHEN THE WEAR OF THE ARMY UNIFORM IS REQUIRED OR
PROHIBITED
3-101. All soldiers will wear the Army uniform when on duty, unless
granted an exception to wear civilian clothes. The following personnel may
grant exceptions:
Commanders of major Army commands (MACOMs).
Assistant Secretaries, the Secretary of Defense or his designee, or
Secretary of the Army.
Heads of Department of Defense agencies.
Heads of Department of the Army Staff agencies.
3-102. Soldiers traveling on Air Mobility Command (AMC) and non-AMC
flights on permanent change of station (PCS) orders, temporary duty (TDY),
emergency leave, or space-available flights, are authorized to wear civilian
clothes. Soldiers must ensure clothing worn is appropriate for the occasion
and reflects positively on the Army. Travel to certain countries requires
wear of civilian clothing. For up-to-date information concerning mandatory
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wear of civilian clothing in foreign countries, see DOD 4500.54G, The

Department of Defense Foreign Clearance Guide (available online at
http://www.fcg.pentagon.mil/fcg/fcg.htm). The individuals travel orders will
reflect information authorizing the wear of civilian clothing.
3-103. Soldiers may wear the BDU when deploying as part of a unit move
and the mode of transportation is for the exclusive use of the military.
Embarkation and debarkation points will be in military-controlled areas.
3-104. Army National Guard technicians who are also members of the
Army National Guard will wear the appropriate Army duty uniform while
engaged in their civil service status.
3-105. Wearing Army uniforms is prohibited in the following situations:
In connection with the furtherance of any political or commercial
interest, or when engaged in off duty civilian employment.
When participating in public speeches, interviews, picket lines,
marches, rallies, or public demonstrations, except as authorized by
competent authority.
When attending any meeting or event that is a function of, or is
sponsored by, an extremist organization.
When wearing the uniform would bring discredit upon the Army.
When specifically prohibited by Army regulations.
3-106. Soldiers will wear headgear with the Army uniform, except under
the following circumstances:
Headgear is not required if it would interfere with the safe operation
of military vehicles.
The wear of military headgear is not required while in or on a
privately owned vehicle (POV), a commercial vehicle, or on public
conveyance (such as a subway, train, plane or bus).
Soldiers will not wear headgear indoors unless under arms in an
official capacity or when directed by the commander, such as for
indoor ceremonial activities.
Soldiers will carry their headgear, when it is not worn, in their hand
while wearing service, dress, and mess uniforms.
Soldiers are not required to wear headgear to evening social events
(after Retreat) when wearing the Army blue and white uniforms, the
enlisted green dress uniform, the Army green maternity dress
uniform, or the mess and evening mess uniforms.
Soldiers are authorized storage of the headgear, when it is not worn,
in the BDU cargo pockets. Soldiers must fold the headgear neatly as
not to present a bulky appearance.
Soldiers will not attach the headgear to the uniform, or hang it from
the belt.
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3-107. Soldiers may continue to wear uniform items changed in design or

material as long as the item remains in serviceable condition, unless
specifically prohibited. See Appendix D, Mandatory Possession and Wearout Dates, of AR 670-1.
WEAR OF MILITARY AND CIVILIAN ITEMS
3-108. Generally speaking, the wear of a combination of civilian and
military clothing is prohibited. However, when local commanders have
authorized it, some uniform items, like the IPFU and the Army black allweather coat may be worn with civilian clothing (provided rank insignia is
removed). Wear of other items such as black oxford shoes (low quarters),
combat boots, belts or gloves with civilian clothing are also allowed.
Civilian Bags
3-109. Soldiers may carry civilian gym bags, civilian rucksacks, or other
similar civilian bags while in uniform. Soldiers may carry these bags by
hand, on one shoulder using a shoulder strap, or over both shoulders using
both shoulder straps. If the soldier opts to carry a bag over one shoulder,
the bag must be carried on the same side of the body as the shoulder strap.
Soldiers may not carry the bag slung across the body with the strap over
the opposite shoulder.
3-110. If soldiers choose to carry a shoulder bag while in uniform, the bag
must be black with no other colors and may not have any logos. The
contents of the bag may not be visible; therefore, see-through plastic or
mesh bags are not authorized. There is no restriction on the color of civilian
bags carried in the hand. Commanders govern the wear of organizational
issue rucksacks in garrison and field environments.
Handbags
3-111. Female soldiers may carry black handbags in the hand or over one
shoulder. Soldiers may not wear the shoulder bag in such a manner that
the strap is draped diagonally across the body with the purse resting on the
hip opposite the shoulder holding the strap.
3-112. Civilian clothing is considered appropriate attire for individuals
who are participating in civilian outdoor activities such as hikes or
volksmarches, orienteering, or similar activities. Soldiers who are
spectators at these activities may wear utility or field uniforms. However,
commanders of participating units that provide support personnel, such as
medical and traffic control personnel, may prescribe appropriate uniforms,
to include utility or organizational uniforms, if warranted by the occasion,
weather conditions, or activity.
3-113. Soldiers may wear experimental uniform items while actively
engaged in an experimental uniform test program approved by HQ, US
Army training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC), HQ, US Army Materiel
Command (AMC), or the Army Uniform Board, HQDA. Soldiers will not
wear experimental items after completion of the test unless such wear is
approved by HQDA.
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FM 7-21.13 ____________________________________________________________

UNIFORMITY OF MATERIAL
3-114. When soldiers exercise their option to choose among various fabrics
authorized for uniforms, they must ensure that all garments (coats,
trousers, skirts and slacks) are made of the same material. When gold lace
(sleeve or trouser ornamentation) or gold bullion is prescribed for wear with
uniforms, soldiers may substitute gold-colored nylon, rayon, or synthetic
metallic gold. If trouser and sleeve ornamentation is gold bullion, the cap
ornamentation and shoulder strap insignia must also be gold bullion.
Anodized aluminum white-gold colored buttons are not authorized for wear.
WEAR OF JEWELRY AND ACCESSORIES
3-115. Soldiers may wear a wristwatch, a wrist identification bracelet, and
a total of two rings (a wedding set is considered one ring) with Army
uniforms, unless prohibited by the commander for safety or health reasons.
Any jewelry soldiers wear must be conservative and in good taste.
Identification bracelets are limited to medical alert bracelets and missing in
action/prisoner of war (MIA/POW) bracelets. Soldiers may wear only one
item on each wrist.
3-116. No other jewelry will appear exposed while wearing the uniform;
this includes watch chains or similar items, pens, and pencils. The only
authorized exceptions are religious items described at the beginning of this
section. Other exceptions are a conservative tie tack or tie clasp that male
soldiers may wear with the black four-in-hand necktie and a pen or pencil
that may appear exposed on the hospital duty, food service, combat vehicle
crewman (CVC), or flight uniforms.
Body Piercing
3-117. When on any Army installation or other places under Army control,
soldiers may not attach, affix, or display objects, articles, jewelry, or
ornamentation to or through the skin while they are in uniform, in civilian
clothes on duty, or in civilian clothes off duty (this includes earrings for
male soldiers). The only exception is for female soldiers as follows (the term
skin is not confined to external skin, but includes the tongue, lips, inside
the mouth, and other surfaces of the body not readily visible):
Females are authorized to wear prescribed earrings with the service,
dress, and mess uniforms, or while on duty in civilian attire.
Earrings may be screw-on, clip-on, or post-type earrings, in gold,
silver, white pearl, or diamond. The earrings will not exceed six-mm
or inch in diameter, and they must be unadorned and spherical.
When worn, the earrings will fit snugly against the ear. Females may
wear earrings only as a matched pair, with only one earring per ear.
Females are not authorized to wear earrings with any Class C
(utility) uniform (BDU, hospital duty, food service, physical fitness,
and field or organizational).
When females are off duty, there are no restrictions on the wear of
earrings.
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3-118. Ankle bracelets, necklaces, faddish (trendy) devices, medallions,

amulets, and personal talismans or icons are not authorized for wear in any
military uniform, or in civilian clothes on duty. Soldiers may not wear these
items when doing so would interfere with the performance of their duties or
present a safety concern. Soldiers may not be prohibited, however, from
wearing religious apparel, articles, or jewelry meeting the criteria of AR
670-1 simply because they are religious in nature, if wear is permitted of
similar items of a nonreligious nature. A specific example would be wearing
a ring with a religious symbol. If the ring meets the uniform standards for
jewelry and is not worn in a work area where rings are prohibited because
of safety concerns, then wear is allowed and may not be prohibited simply
because the ring bears a religious symbol.
Eyeglasses and Sunglasses
3-119. Soldiers may wear conservative civilian prescription eyeglasses with
all uniforms. Conservative prescription and nonprescription sunglasses are
authorized for wear when in a garrison environment, except when in
formation and while indoors. Individuals who are required by medical
authority to wear sunglasses for medical reasons other than refractive error
may wear them, except when health or safety considerations apply. Soldiers
may not wear sunglasses in the field unless required by the commander for
safety reasons in high-glare field environments.
3-120. Eyeglasses or sunglasses that are trendy, or have lenses or frames
with initials, designs, or other adornments are not authorized for wear.
Soldiers may not wear lenses with extreme or trendy colors, which include
but are not limited to red, yellow, blue, purple, bright green, or orange.
Lens colors must be traditional gray, brown, or dark green shades. Soldiers
will not wear lenses or frames that are so large or so small that they detract
from the appearance of the uniform. Soldiers will not attach chains, bands,
or ribbons to eyeglasses. Eyeglass restraints are authorized only when
required for safety purposes. Soldiers will not hang eyeglasses or eyeglass
cases on the uniform, and may not let glasses hang from eyeglass restraints
down the front of the uniform.
Contact Lenses
3-121. Tinted or colored contact lenses are not authorized for wear with the
uniform. The only exception is for opaque lenses medically prescribed for
eye injuries. Additionally, clear lenses that have designs on them that
change the contour of the iris are not authorized for wear with the uniform.
IDENTIFICATION TAGS AND SECURITY BADGES
3-122. Soldiers will wear ID tags at all times when in a field environment,
while traveling in aircraft, and when outside the continental United States
(OCONUS). Soldiers will wear ID tags around the neck, except when safety
considerations apply. See AR 600-8-14, Identification Cards for Members of

the Uniformed Services, Their Family Members, and Other Eligible

Personnel, for more information on the wear of ID tags.
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FM 7-21.13 ____________________________________________________________

3-123. In restricted areas, commanders may prescribe the wear of security

identification badges, in accordance with AR 600-8-14 and other applicable
regulations. Soldiers will not wear security identification badges outside the
area for which they are required. Soldiers will not hang other items from
the security badge(s). The manner of wear will be determined by the
organization that requires wear of the badges.
WEAR OF PERSONAL PROTECTIVE OR REFLECTIVE CLOTHING
3-124. Soldiers are authorized to wear commercially designed, protective
headgear with the uniform when operating motorcycles, bicycles or other
like vehicles, and are required to do so when installation regulations
mandate such wear. Soldiers will remove protective headgear and don
authorized Army headgear upon dismounting from the vehicle.
3-125. Soldiers may wear protective/reflective oute