Module 1: An Overview of Engine Emissions and Air Pollution Lecture 1: Introduction to IC Engines and Air Pollution

Historical Overview of IC Engine Development

The modern reciprocating internal combustion engines have their origin in the Otto and Diesel Engines invented in the later part of 19th century. The main engine components comprising of piston, cylinder, crank-slider crankshaft, connecting road, valves and valve train, intake and exhaust system remain functionally overall similar since those in the early engines although great advancements in their design and materials have taken place during the last 100 years or so. An historical overview of IC engine development with important milestones since their first production models were built, is presented in Table 1.1

Table 1.1 Historical Overview and Milestones in IC Engine Development

Year

Milestone
J. E. E. Lenoir and Nikolaus Otto developed atmospheric engine wherein combustion of fuel-air charge during first half of outward stroke of a free piston accelerating the piston which was connected to a rack assembly. The free piston would produce work during second half of the stroke creating vacuum in the cylinder and the atmospheric pressure then would push back the piston. Nikolaus Otto developed 4-stroke SI engine where in the fuel-air charge was compressed before being ignited. Dougald Clerk developed the first 2-stroke engine Atkinson develops an engine having lower expansion stroke than the compression stroke for improvement in engine thermal efficiency at cost of specific engine power. The Atkinson cycle is finding application in the modern hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) Rudolf Diesel takes patent on engine having combustion by direct injection of fuel in the cylinder air heated solely by compression , the process now known as compression ignition (CI) Henry Ford develops first automobile powered by the IC engine Rudolph Diesel developed CI engine prototype, also called as the Diesel engine Antiknock additive tetra ethyl lead discovered by the General Motors became commercially available which provided boost to development of high compression ratio SI engines Felix Wankel developed rotary internal combustion engine Multipoint port fuel injection introduced on production gasoline cars Variable valve timing and lift control introduced on gasoline cars

18601867

1876 1878 1882

1892 1896 1897 1923 1957 1981 1988

19891990 1990 1994

Electronic fuel injection on heavy duty diesel introduced Carburettor was replaced by port fuel injection on all US production cars Direct injection stratified charge (DISC) engine powered cars came in production by Mitsubishi and Toyota

IC Engine Classification based on Combustion Process

IC Engines may be classified based on the state of air-fuel mixture present at the time of ignition in the engine cycle, the type of ignition employed and the nature of combustion process subsequent to ignition of the air-fuel mixture. A. Physical State of Mixture o Homogeneous Charge Premixed outside( conventional gasoline and gas engines with fuel inducted in the intake manifold) Premixed in-cylinder: In- cylinder direct injection and port fuel injection o Heterogeneous Charge B. Ignition Type o Positive source of Ignition e.g., spark ignition o Compression ignition C. Mode of Combustion o Flame propagation o Spray combustion This course primarily deals with combustion generated engine emissions and approaches the subject from the point of fundamentals of engine combustion processes. The engines are therefore, categorized based on the mode of ignition employed viz., Spark Ignition (SI) Engines and Compression Ignition (CI) Engines. Method of ignition has been adopted as the main criterion of classification as in the conventional type IC engines it governs Fuel type Mixture preparation methods Progression of combustion process Combustion chamber design Engine load control, and Operating and emission characteristics

More advanced and newer combustion systems are dealt as special variations of the IC engines. For

example the direct injection stratified charge (DISC) engine is taken as a special variant of SI engine. The homogeneous charge compression ignition engines are being developed around the conventional SI and CI engines and are discussed accordingly.

Main Events in Four-Stroke SI Engine Cycle

Figure 1.1 shows typical pressure crank angle (P-) history for a four-stroke SI engine cycle. The sequence of main events in the cycle are given in Table 1.2

Figure 1.1

Sequence of Events in 4-Stroke SI Engine Cycles

Table 1.2
Sequence of Events in 4-Stroke SI Engine Cycle
Event Time of Occurrence, Crank angle

Intake valve opens (IO)

20 - 5 CA bTDC at the end of exhaust stroke

Exhaust valve closes (EC)

8 to 20 CA aTDC in the beginning of intake stroke

Intake valve closes (IC)

60 -40 CA aBDC in the beginning of compression stroke 45 -15 CA bTDC towards the end of compression stroke

Spark ignition

Combustion by flame propagation

turbulent Begins shortly after ignition up to 15 to 30 CA aTDC Early in the expansion stroke

Exhaust valve opens (EC)

50 -30 CA bBDC Shortly before the end of expansion stroke

CA: Crank Angle, ATDC: After Top Dead Centre; BTDC: Before Top Dead Centre; ABDC: After Bottom Dead Centre; BBDC:Before Bottom Dead Centre;

Main Events in Four-Stroke CI Engine Cycle

Figure 1.2 shows typical pressure crank angle (P-) history for a four-stroke CI engine cycle. The sequence of main events in the cycle are given in Table 1.3

Figure 1.2

Main Events in Four-Stroke CI Engine Cycle

Table 1.3
Sequence of Events in 4-Stroke CI Engine Cycle
Event Time of occurrence, Crank angle

Intake valve opens 5 -20 CA bTDC at the end of exhaust stroke (IO) Exhaust closes (EC) valve 8 to 20 CA aTDC in the beginning of intake stroke

Intake valve closes 40 -20 CA aBDC in the beginning of compression stroke (IC) Start (SOI) of Injection 15-5 CA bTDC towards the end of compression stroke. Injection duration at full engine load about 15 to 25 CA

Start of combustion 5 -0 CA bTDC, (considering ignition delay after injection) (SOC) End of combustion 20 to 30 CA aTDC in expansion stroke

(EOC) Exhaust valve opens 40 to 30 CA bBDC Shortly before the end of expansion stroke (EC)

Lecture 2: Engine Emissions and Air Pollution

Principal Engine Emissions

SI Engines CI Engines CO, HC and NOx CO, HC, NOx and PM

CO = Carbon monoxide, HC = Unburned hydrocarbons, NO x = Nitrogen oxides mainly mixture of NO and NO2 , PM = Particulate matter Other engine emissions include aldehydes such as formaldehyde and acetaldehyde primarily from the alcohol fuelled engines, benzene and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH).

Sources of Engine/Vehicle Emissions

Figure 1.3 shows the sources of emissions from a gasoline fuelled SI engine viz., exhaust, crankcase blow by and fuel evaporation from fuel tank and fuel system

Figure. 1.3 Emission sources in a gasoline fuelled car

From a diesel engine powered vehicle the emission sources are shown in Fig. 1.4.

Figure 1.4

Emission sources in a diesel engine powered bus.

Emissions and Pollutants

Engine emissions undergo chemical reactions in atmosphere known largely as photochemical reactions and give rise to other chemical species which are hazardous to health and environment. Linkage of engine emissions and air pollutants is shown in Fig. 1.5.

TSP = Total suspended particulate matter in air PAN = Peroxy- acetyl nitrate
Figure. 1.5

Air pollutants resulting from engine emissions

Photochemical Smog
Photochemical smog is a brownish-gray haze resulting from the reactions caused by solar ultraviolet radiations between hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen in the atmosphere. The air pollutants such as ozone, nitric acid, organic compounds like peroxy- acetylnitrates or PAN ( CH3CO-OO-NO2) are trapped near the ground by temperature inversion experienced especially during winter months. These chemical substances can effect human health and cause damage to plants. The photochemical reactions are initiated by nitrogen oxides emitted by vehicles into atmosphere. A simple set of reactions leading to photochemical smog formation is as follows:

is energy of a photon and UV is ultraviolet light radiations .

he above reactions form NO2 photolytic cycle. However, if only these reactions are involved then, NO2concentration in the atmosphere would remain constant. But, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that include unburned hydrocarbons and their volatile derivatives also react with NO and O2 to form NO2 . The reactions between HC and NO do not necessarily involve ozone and provide another route to form NO2 and thus, the concentration of ozone and NO2 in the urban air rises. The most reactive VOCs in atmosphere are olefins i.e., the hydrocarbons with C=C bond. The general reaction between hydrocarbons (RH) and NO may be written as

The overall global reaction is

Main processes in photochemical smog formation are shown in Fig. 1.6.

Figure1.6

Main processes in photochemical smog formation (adapted from [Link]

The harmful constituents of photochemical smog are, NO 2, O3, PAN and aldehydes. The PAN and aldehydes cause eye irritation. NO2 and ozone are strong oxidants and cause damage to elastomeric/ rubber materials and plants.

Photochemical Reactivity of Hydrocarbons

The exhaust gases of gasoline engines contain more than 150 different hydrocarbons and their derivatives. Some hydrocarbons are more reactive than the others. The photochemical reactivity of hydrocarbons has been measured in terms of the rate at which the specific hydrocarbon causes oxidation of NO to NO2. To determine the rate of photo-oxidation, NO in presence of the specific hydrocarbon is irradiated by ultra violet radiations in a reaction chamber and the buildup of NO 2 in terms parts per billion/per minute is recorded. Another photochemical reactivity scale has been defined in terms of ozone formation. Reactivity of different classes of hydrocarbons based on formation of NO2 is given in Table 1.4 It has been noted that the reactivity of a given hydrocarbon depends also on the initial concentrations of pollutants in the environment in which a particular hydrocarbon is added when emitted. A reactivity termed as incremental activity has been determined in terms of ozone formed. It is defined as the change in ozone formation rate when specific VOC is added to the base reactive organic gas mixture in the environment divided by the amount of the specific VOC added. This reactivity is considered to bge of more practical relevance.

Table 1.4
Photochemical Reactivity of Hydrocarbons (General Motor Scale)

Hydrocarbon C1-C4 paraffins AcetyleneBenzene C4 and higher paraffins Monoalkyl benzenes Ortho- andparadialkyl benzenes Cyclic paraffins Ethylene Meta- dialkyl benzenes Aldehydes

Relative Reactivity* 0 2 7

1-olefins (except ethylene) Diolefins Tri- and tetraalkyl benzenes

10

Internally bonded olefins Internally bonded olefins with substitution at double bondCycloolefins

30

100

*based on NO2 formation rate for the specific hydrocarbon relative to that for 2,3 dimethyl-2-benzene

Health Effects of Air Pollutants The effect of pollutants on human health depends on pollutant concentration in the ambient air and the duration to which the human beings are exposed. Adverse health effects of different pollutants on human health are given in Table 1.5 for short term and long term exposures. Carbon monoxide on inhalation is known to combine with haemoglobin at a rate 200 to 240 times faster than oxygen thus reducing oxygen supply to body tissues and results in CO intoxication. Nitrogen oxides get dissolved in mucous forming nitrous and nitric acids causing irritation of nose throat and respiratory tract. Long term exposure causes nitrogen oxides to combine with haemoglobin and destruction of red blood cells. Long term exposure resulting in more than 10% of haemoglobin to combine with nitrogen oxides causes bluish colouration of skin, lips fingers etc

Table 1.5
Adverse Health Effects of IC Engine Generated Air Pollutants

Pollutants

Short-term health effects

Headache, shortness of breath, dizziness, impaired judgment, lack of motor coordination

Long-term health effects

Effects on brain and central nervous system, nausea, vomiting, cardiac and pulmonary functional changes, loss of consciousness and death

Carbon monoxide

Nitrogen dioxide

Development of cyanosis especially at lips, Soreness, coughing, chest fingers and toes, adverse changes in cell discomfort, eye irritation structure of lung wall Difficulty in breathing, chest Impaired lung function, increased tightness, eye irritation susceptibility to respiratory function Similar to those of NO2 but at a Development of emphysema, pulmonary lower concentration edema Increased asthma attacks Reduced lung function when oxidants are present to Many constituents especially poly-organic matter are toxic and carcinogenic, contribute to silicosis, brown lung

Oxidants

Ozone

Sulfates TSP/Respirable suspended particulate

Increased susceptibility other pollutants

Historical Overview: Engine and Vehicle Emission Control

Beginning with the identification during early 1950s that mainly the unburned hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides emitted by vehicles are responsible for formation of photochemical smog in Los-Angeles region in the US, the initiatives and milestones in pursuit of vehicle/ engine emission control are given in Table 1.6

Table 1.6
Engine Emission Control A Historical Perspective

Year
1952

Event and Milestone

Prof A. J. Haagen- Smit of Univ. of California demonstrated that the photochemical reactions between unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are responsible for smog (brown haze) observed in Los- Angeles basin The first vehicle exhaust emissions standards were set in California, USA The exhaust emission standards set for the first time throughout the USA Vehicle emission standards set in European countries

1965 1968 1970

1974

Exhaust catalytic converters for oxidation of carbon monoxide (CO) and HC were needed in the US for meeting emission targets. Phasing-out of tetra ethyl lead (TEL), the antiknock additive from gasoline begins to ensure acceptable life of the catalytic converters Three-way catalytic converters and closed-loop feedback air-fuel ratio control for simultaneous conversion of CO, HC and NOx introduced on production cars Euro 1 emission standards needing catalytic emission control on gasoline vehicles implemented in Europe Catalytic emission control for engines under lean mixture operation introduced US Tier -1 standards needing reduction in CO by nearly 96%, HC by 97.5% and NOx by 90% Widespread use of diesel particulate filters and lean de-NOx catalyst systems on heavy duty vehicles US Tier -2 standards needing reduction in CO by nearly 98 %, HC by 99% and NOx by 95%

1981

1992 1994 1994 20002005 2004