Mechanics
Generalized coordinates
Keywords and References
Coordinates, phase space, constraints
Sourendu Gupta
TIFR, Mumbai, India
Classical Mechanics 2012 6 August, 2012
Sourendu Gupta
Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 1
Mechanics
Generalized coordinates
Keywords and References
Mechanics of a single particle
For the motion of a particle (of constant mass m and position specied by the vector x) viewed from an inertial frame, one has the equations of motion: m x = f, ie , = x p = f. , p m
is its Here f is the force acting on the particle and p = mx momentum. The function x(t ) is the trajectory of the particle. This is found with enough initial conditions: x(0) and p(0) are both needed. Phase space The 6-dimensional space with coordinates {x, p} is called the phase space of the particle. The solutions of the EoM give x(t ) and p(t ) which together dene a phase space trajectory.
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 1
Mechanics
Generalized coordinates
Keywords and References
The free particle
Problem 1 Assume that a particle is constrained to travel along a straight line.
1 2 3
How many dimensions is the phase space? What is the dimension of phase space volume? Solve the equations of motion when f = 0. What are the trajectories? The phase space trajectories? If dierent particles (with f = 0) have initial conditions which are within a small square of phase space at the initial time t = 0, then what is the shape of the area covered by these particles after some time? Does this phase space volume change with time?
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 1
Mechanics
Generalized coordinates
Keywords and References
The square well potential
Problem 2 Assume that a particle is constrained to travel along a straight line subject to the potential V (x ) = V0 0 (| x | a ) (| x | > a )
Solve the equations of motion. What are the trajectories? The phase space trajectories? If dierent particles (with the same equations of motion) have initial conditions all of which are within a small square of phase space at the initial time t = 0, what happens to this under time evolution?
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 1
Mechanics
Generalized coordinates
Keywords and References
A little mathematical generalization
An ordinary dierential equation of order N for any vector x1 d N 1 x1 d x1 d N x1 , , = f t , x , 1 dt dt N dt N 1 is equivalent to the system of equations x1 = x2 , x2 = x3 , x N = f (t , x1 , x2 , , xN 1 ). ,
One can dene a phase space with coordinates {x1 , x2 , , xN }. When these are given as functions of time one has a phase space trajectory. Clearly this requires complete specication of N initial conditions, one for each of the xi . If the force is not an explicit function of time, then the equation is autonomous. In an autonomous equation (or system of equations) the phase space trajectories do not intersect. Prove this
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 1
Mechanics
Generalized coordinates
Keywords and References
The principle of relativity
Galileos principle of relativity There are frames where the laws of physics are terribly simple: if no forces act on a particle then it remains at rest. This is one inertial frame. Any frame which moves at a constant velocity with respect to this is also an inertial frame. Here is the transformation law from one inertial frame to another: p = p + mV, x = x + Vt .
Problem 3 Is a frame xed with respect to the earth an inertial frame? If not then how badly non-inertial is it?
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 1
Mechanics
Generalized coordinates
Keywords and References
Kinds of constraints
Non-holonomic constraint. Example: particle conned in a box. The coordinates are constrained to be |x| L where L is the size of the box. Typically non-holonomic constraints are expressed as inequalities on the coordinates. Holonomic constraint. Example: particle moving in a line. where n is an The coordinates are constrained to be x = s n unit vector in some direction. Another way to write this is = 0, i.e., the components of x orthogonal to n vanish. xn Typically holonomic constraints are expressed as equalities.
^ n L
nonholonomic
Sourendu Gupta
holonomic
Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 1
Mechanics
Generalized coordinates
Keywords and References
Forces of contraint
Consider the motion of a simple pendulum: a bob suspended from a xed support by means of an inelastic thread. If the length of the thread is L, then (if the initial condition is p = 0) the CM of the bob moves along the arc of a circle of radius L. The thread is in tension. This force of constraint makes the motion one dimensional. There is no work done by the force of constraint. Prove this In actual fact any thread is elastic, so the length of the pendulum can vary. Similarly, the support is never exactly xed. In both cases the motion is no longer one-dimensional, and the constraint can do work. A holonomic constraint is a mathematical idealization. When is it a good idealization?
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 1
L T
mg V
Mechanics
Generalized coordinates
Keywords and References
Eective theories
1
The energy scale of the pendulum is E = mgh, where h is the maximum height of the bob. In terms of the generalized coordinate, h = L(1 cos ), so a typical energy scale of the pendulum is E0 = mgL. Changes in the length of the thread cost some energy, Eel . Similarly, a motion of the point of support is due to the elastic . energy of the bending of the supporting body: Eel Elastic deformations can be ignored as long as E0 Eel or . E0 Eel
Eective theory The dynamics of any system is often an eective low-energy theory, obtained by neglecting physical eects which become important at much higher energy. The approximation of rigidity of bodies is one such eective theory.
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 1
Mechanics
Generalized coordinates
Keywords and References
When can a body be considered rigid?
Problem 4: How rigid is a rigid body?
1
A simple pendulum is hung from a spring with spring constant K . The motion of the pendulum is a sum of two harmonic motions (one is the swinging of the bob, the other the extension of the spring) assumed not to be in resonance. How does energy ow between these two oscillators? Does the energy ow modify the frequency of the pendulum? A particle tries to bounce o an inated balloon. Are there any conditions under which there is no bounce? When there is a bounce can the kinetic energy of the particle remain unchanged? Under what conditions does a stone bounce o the surface of water? Is it possible to run on loose sand without slowing down?
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 1
Mechanics
Generalized coordinates
Keywords and References
Forces of constraint do no work
A particle is restricted to a surface by a constraint force R. Why not a curve? The equation of motion gives v R, R) = T 0 = v (m v where the kinetic energy T = mv 2 /2. If the force of the constraint does no work then T is conserved and v R = 0. If the normal to , then n v = 0, the surface at the point x is in the direction n R = 0. which means that n If we try to write the constraint force in terms of a potential
3
V =
i =1
i xi2 ,
since the gradient of the potential is zero along the surface, the V . The constraint is only non-vanishing component is n recovered by taking i subject to this condition.
Sourendu Gupta Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 1
Mechanics
Generalized coordinates
Keywords and References
Keywords and References
Keywords equations of motion, force, inertial frame, kinetic energy, momentum, trajectory, phase space, phase space trajectory, phase space volume, ordinary dierential equation, autonomous system of equations, initial conditions, non-holonomic constraint, holonomic constraint, constraint force, rigid bodies, eective low-energy theory References Goldstein, chapter 1. Landau, section 1 and 3.
Sourendu Gupta
Classical Mechanics 2012: Lecture 1
