Horticulture

What is Horticulture?
Horticulture is the science, skill, or occupation of cultivating plants, especially flowers, fruits, and vegetables in gardens or greenhouses. The management practices of the following plants will be discussed: 1. Citrus 2. Mango 3. Avocado 4. Banana 5. Miniature plum 6. Heliconia 7. Orchid 8. Ginger Lily 9. Anthurium 10. Rose

Citrus

The citrus crop is very versatile. It is grown for both export and domestic consumption. Some of the many products that can be obtained from citrus fruits are fruit juices, candied peel, and canned segments, oils used in perfumes, animal feed and citric acid. Because of the hardy nature of this crop, citrus can be grown almost anywhere in the Caribbean.

Varieties

There are several citrus varieties that are grown in Guyana. These include: Oranges (citrus sinensis) - These are popular citrus fruits that are grown along the entire Atlantic coast of Guyana. The vast majority of oranges produced in the country are seeded Valencia, Pineapple, Parson Brown and Hamlin types, used for both fresh market and juice. Only a limited amount of seedless navel oranges are grown. Tangerines (citrus reticulate) These are also known as mandarins, and are the second most important type of citrus grown in Guyana. Although there are small volumes of tangerines that are exported, the majority of the produce is used on the domestic market. Limes (citrus latifolia) These are the third most important type of citrus grown in Guyana and with relation to volume of production, limes are the leading citrus export. The seeded West Indian lime, which is also known as the Mexican lime or Key lime, is most widely cultivated. Nearly all of the limes are sold as fresh fruit on the local market, but small volumes are exported to Barbados. Grapefruit (citrus paradise) This is a minor citrus crop in Guyana and is almost completely consumed on the local market. Almost all grapefruit in the country have seeded fruit and consist of the cultivars White Marsh, Duncan, and Ruby. There is also the cultivation of small acreage if some citrus hybrids which include Ortanique and King.

Propagation

CULTIVATION Citrus can be propagated by seeds, by using cuttings, layers, budding or grafting. However, in the commercial planting of citrus, the most common method of propagation is budding. The two sections of the budded plant are: the rootstock, which consists of the rooting system and the bottom part of the main stem or trunk, and the scion or bud of the selected variety to be grown on the rootstock and developing as the entire top portion of the tree. The primary selection of rootstocks is made for resistance to Tristeza, which is considered the most destructive virus disease of citrus. The Tristeza-resistant rootstocks which are suitable for conditions in Guyana are Cleopatra Mandarin, Rangpur Lime, Carizzo Citrange, Rough Lemon, Swingle Citrumelo and Volkameriana Lemon. Bud wood is selected from healthy, high yielding trees that are free from viruses. Budding is usually done at a height of 12 to 15 inches above the ground using the inverted T method. After successful budding, the plants should be ready for transplanting in 3 to 6 months.

Site selection Although citrus can grow in a variety of soils, it is important that adequate drainage is provided. In waterlogged conditions, plant growth is stunted and the crops are prone to disease infestation. In areas exposed to constant high winds, windbreakers should be planted because winds adversely affect the growth of citrus. Fruit trees such as Malacca Apple and Jamoon are successfully used as windbreaks. Spacing If properly spaced, the edges of fully grown citrus trees should be slightly in contact. Therefore, the diameter of the canopy of a fully grown tree may be used as a guide. The spacing is influenced by soil type, terrain and other factors that affect tree growth. However, generally, the following distances are suggested: Grapefruit 6m (20 ft.) to 7.5m (25 ft.) Oranges 4.5m (15 ft.) to 6m (20 ft.)

Limes/Tangerines 3.6m (12 ft.) to 4.5m (15 ft.)

Planting The ideal time for planting is early in the wet season when moist soil conditions exist. Planting holes are dug to a size that would accommodate the plant in the bag. The size of the hole is therefore approximately 30cm in length, width and depth. The roots of bare root plants are more spread out and a larger hole will have to be made in order to accommodate these plants. The top soil that is removed after digging the hole could then be combined with rotted manure and/or phosphate fertilizer. The hole is then filled half-way. The plastic bags are carefully removed keeping the root ball intact and the plants are placed in the hole. After planting it is recommended that the plant is staked in order to prevent movement by the wind.

AFTER CARE Intercropping It is possible for other plants to be grown in the area between the citrus plants since this area is not occupied for the first three to four years after planting. However, these crops should be grown in such a way that they do not compete with the young citrus for light, water and nutrients. Therefore, a distance of about 1.2m (4 ft.) around the young plant should remain clear. Vegetables and small quick growing fruit such as banana and papaw are common crops that are grown in this way. Pruning As the young citrus plant begins to grow, shoots originating from the rootstock may develop. It is necessary to examine the young citrus plant at least once a month and all the shoots should be removed from the developing rootstock. There is little other pruning needed except for the shaping of the framework to produce a structurally balanced tree. As the trees get older, the rootstock shoots become less, and little or no pruning is necessary apart from the removal of dead wood. However, pruning of lower branches is important because these branches may grow towards the ground and restricts the air movement around the rootstock area

which, as a result, would increase the humidity in this area thus encouraging the development of fungal diseases. Fertilising The fertiliser that is needed for the citrus crop is dependent on the nutrient status of the soil. In riverain soil, compound fertiliser [Link] at the rate of 225g to 0.9kg, depending on the age and size of the plant, applied twice a year usually at the beginning of each wet season. In sandy soil, the same could be used at a higher rate as well as [Link] along with FTE at the rate of 225g per plant each year. WEED CONTROL The control of weeds is indeed necessary because general weeds compete with the plant for moisture and nutrients as well as providing conditions for the development of pests and diseases. Weeds can be controlled manually, chemically, mechanically, or a combination of these. For chemical weed control, Glyphosphate or Paraquat (Gramoxone, Millquat) may be used. If plants are being sprayed, it is important that spray drift on the crop plant is avoided since severe damage can occur. To minimise the risk of draft, a spray shield should be used.

Pests and Diseases and their Control and Management Pests

Citrus trees are host to a number of insects and mites which are potentially dangerous to the trees fruit. Some of these pests include: Leaf Cutting Ants- these ants cause considerable damage by cutting leaves and flowers. Repeated defoliation can result in the death of the citrus tree.

These pests can be controlled by numerous methods which include: 1. Baiting this method makes use of the insects practice of taking material back to the nests in order to culture a fungal food. The poisoned bait is scattered along the work trails and near the feeding holes of the ants.

2. Fogging this method is suitable for the control of very large nests. It involves the use of a Swing Fog machine and a fogging agent that may be soil or contact insecticide such as Basudin (Diazinon) or Malathion. 3. Spraying this method can be used with small nests with no mounds and few underground chambers and a suitable soil insecticide like Basudin can be used at a rate of about 10mls in 4 litres of water.

Citrus Leaf Miner (Phyllocnistis citrella) - this is a pest that seriously affects Rough lemon seedlings and budded citrus plants in the Nurseries. The larvae of the insect burrow into the leaves of the citrus plants leaving the characteristic tracings on the leaf. If the problem is not controlled, the leaves may eventually curl and abscise, finally leaving a defoliated seedling that quickly dies. The insecticide, Admire, can be applied to the foliage or the soil in the plant nurseries.

Citrus Aphid (Toxoptera citricida) this pest feeds only on newly developed terminals and flower buds of citrus and citrus relatives. The main problem that is associated with the citrus aphid is its transmission of Citrus tristeza virus, a phloem-limiting closteovirus. These viral strains lead to the decline of the citrus budded onto sour orange rootstock as well as stem pitting of grapefruit and sweet orange regardless of rootstock. This pest can be controlled by the following methods:

1. Cultural control this method deals directly with the virus that is spread by the citrus aphid. It is essential to prevent this problem completely by planting rootstock only if it has been pre-inoculated with a mild isolate. Another method that can be practiced in cultural control is the management of tree sizes. The trimming of the sides and tops of trees produces

conditions that are excellent for CTV spread and allows tree canopies to touch in the direction of the row. 2. Biological control although natural enemies are important in controlling the aphid population, this may not always be sufficient. It is therefore more effective to direct biological control in order to reduce the quantity of these pests. 3. Chemical control this involves insecticidal control of the pests but is still an unproven strategy. Unfortunately, these insecticides do not work quickly enough to prevent primary damage by aphids but it may decrease and prevent secondary damage to some extent.

Diseases

Several diseases are known to affect citrus plants in Guyana and these are either fungal or viral diseases. 1. Foot rot or Gummosis this disease is caused by Phytophthora citrophthora which is a soil-inhabiting fungus which attacks the trunk of the tree. This would cause the bark to rot and eventually the tree will die. There is often gum which exudes from the infected area. The main contributing factors to this disease are water logging and a susceptible rootstock e.g. Rough Lemon. Because of this, good drainage is essential in citrus orchards and rootstocks that are resistant to this disease should be used. In addition to prevention, copper fungicide can also be used such as Kocide or Cupravit which are applied to the stripped tree trunk.

2. Citrus Scab this disease is caused by a fungus which produces raised brown corky warts on the leaves, twigs and fruits of susceptible plants. Oranges and grapefruits are fairly resistant to this disease and it is thus rarely seen in growing orchards, but is prevalent in nurseries where sour orange and lemons are used as rootstock. Citrus scab can be treated by spraying Captan or Ridomil.

Harvesting

Oranges should be harvested using a pair of clippers or by carefully twisting and pulling the fruit from the tree ensuring that the calyx and disk remain attached to the fruit. After picking, the stems should be removed to prevent damage to other fruits, or post harvest decay and fruit spoilage. When harvesting the fruit, the orange tree should not be shaken. If fruits are borne on tall trees, a ladder may be used to reach it. The harvested fruit should be carefully put into padded field crates, wellventilated plastic containers, or picking bags. When these receptacles are filled with fruit they are usually emptied into larger field crates. Another practice associated with the harvesting of oranges is the de-greening of the peel. Oranges produced in Guyana are often mature and are ready to eat when the rind is still green. High temperatures and humidity often result in internal fruit maturation; however, the colouration of the fruit is not always fully developed. The general de-greening protocol involves exposing the green-skinned fruit to low concentrations of ethylene, usually 1 to 10 ppm at 20C to 25C.

Uses

Citrus are used for a number of purposes including: Used as fresh fruit Fruit juices Essential oils Pulp pellets Beverages Garnishes and dressings Marmalades Jams Jellies Flavour in coffee Additional flavour in cooking

Mango

The mango is one of the most important fruit crops grown in Guyana. Their colours vary from greenish, greenish-yellow and yellow, to red, orange and purple. Mangoes also vary in size with some being nearly rounded while others are oval and ovoidoblong. In Guyana, mango is not cultivated on a large scale nor is it managed intensively. This fruit is available all year long, but the main harvest periods are mid-October to January and May through June. Although the fruit is widely distributed in the domestic market small volumes are exported to Canada.

Varieties

There are two main types of mangoes, the Indian and Indo-Chinese. The Indian type has mono-embryonic seeds and are often highly coloured while the IndoChinese type possesses poly-embryonic seeds and the fruits often lack attractive colourations. Buxton Spice is the leading cultivar grown and produces medium-sized fruit with a yellow skin when the fruit is ripe. The fruits are sweet and have relatively low fibre content. There have been other introductions from India and Florida including Haden, Tommy Atkins, Keitt, Kent, Van Dyke, Julie and Sensation.

Propagation
CULTIVATION Although most mango plants are propagated by seedlings, there is an increase in the practice of grafting, as this reduces the time taken for bearing as well as enabling a dwarf habit to facilitate easy harvesting, combining the best characteristics of varieties and improving the resistance and tolerance to diseases such as anthracnose. Fruits are collected from healthy, mature trees and are deseeded. The seeds are washed and dried and sown individually in black plastic bags that are covered with less than an inch of soil, concave side down.

Grafting is done when plants have attained a height of 1.5 ft. And wedge or cleft grafting is the most common type used. The plant should be protected from severe sunlight and receive adequate water until transplanting into the field. Mango plants are ready for planting out in the field approximately 4-6 months after grafting. Site selection Mango plants can be cultivated in a wide range of climates or weather patterns but they thrive in areas that have a marked dry season, which is necessary for flowering and fruiting. A moderate degree of rainfall is required but excessive rainfall reduces pollination and fruit set. In addition to these weather requirements, adequate drainage is also vital. Planting The planting of the crop should be done when there is an adequate supply of water in the wet season which would aid the quick establishment of roots. The plants are spaced 20-25 ft. apart with accommodations for approximately 100-75 trees per acre. In areas where there is no water logging, planting holes are dug to a size that would accommodate the plant in the bag. The roots of bare root plants are more spread out and a larger hole will have to be made to accommodate these plants. After planting, it is recommended to stake the plant to prevent damage from wind. In areas where there is some degree of water logging the same process could be followed except that the planting should be done on mounds. AFTERCARE Training and pruning The pruning of mango plants is encouraged to promote branching which ensures a good framework. Afterwards, pruning should be done after harvesting to remove deadwood, as well as to maintain the framework of the tree. Fertilising Fertiliser needs are directly associated with the type and nutrient status of the soil. In clay soils a compound fertiliser [Link] may be used while in sandy soils the same fertiliser can be used but at a higher rate along with [Link] once per year. Organic matter like manure may be added to the soil during the first four or five years.

Pests and Diseases and their Control and Management

There are no major pests problems affecting mango plants but the occurrence of any outbreak should be reported to the Crop Protection Section at the National Agricultural Research Institute.

Diseases
1. Anthracnose this is the main disease that affects mangoes in Guyana and it is caused by the fungus Colletotrichum gloespoirdes. It is prevalent in areas of high humidity and leads to low fruit-set. The infection usually takes place between blossom time and when fruits are half their full size. This disease causes leaf spot; wither tip, blossom blight, fruit resetting/staining and fruit rot. The young leaves and branches affected, dry out from the tip downwards resulting in excessive leaf fall while young fruits wither, turn brown and falls off. Older fruits have black slightly sunken spots which grow together covering the entire fruit. Where there is severe leaf infection, the trees should be sprayed with 80 gm/5 gallon of Benlate before the inflorescence appears.

2. Stem End Rot this is caused by several fungi including Dothiorella Lasiodiplodia and begins with the fungus attacking the stem of the fruit prior to harvesting. Stem rot can be controlled by several pre- and post harvest practices such as removing the contaminated leaves and debris on the ground along with regular foliar fungicide sprays.

3. Alternaria Rot this is caused by the fungus Alternaria alternate and can become serious when anthracnose and stem-end rot are controlled. This disease affects the mango fruit through the lenticels in the skin. Spots are concentrated around the stem end of the fruit where high numbers of lenticels are present. These spots grow and join to form a single spot that may cover half of the fruit. As the disease progresses the flesh darkens and becomes partially soft.

Harvesting

The most obvious sign that a fruit has matured is its skin colour and as the fruit matures the skin colour changes from green to yellow. Yellow fruits normally have a shelf life of only a few days and must therefore be sold on the local market. If export is intended, the fruit should be picked when it is firm at the mature green colour stage. If the fruits are harvested too immature green it will not ripen properly, will have a bad taste and will shrivel prematurely. The Buxton Spice mango ripens rapidly after harvest and will turn yellow within 3-5 days at ambient temperature. A mango is ready for harvesting when the shoulder area swells or broadens and rises above the stem end. This is accompanied by the stem end sinking and forming a small pit around the stem.

Uses

Chutneys Pickles Side dishes Beverages Eaten fresh Added to food products like granola Juices Smoothies Ice-creams Fruit bars

Avocado

The avocado (Persea Americana Miller) is an evergreen tree with seedling plants reaching 67 ft. in height with small or large single seeded fruits with yellow to yellowish green butter-like flesh. A mature fruit may be green, yellow, purple or red.

Propagation
CULTIVATION There is always a great demand for avocado plants in Guyana. The two main methods of propagation are the planting of seedlings and grafting. Wedge grafting

is most popular as this reduces the time taken for bearing, combines the best characteristics of varieties and improves resistance and tolerance to diseases. Site selection The avocado plant can be grown on a wide variety of soils but it does not thrive on the coastland. However, wherever, the avocado is planted, good drainage is needed since its shallow roots make it sensitive to water logging and general poor drainage. Planting Planting should be done during the wet season when there is an adequate supply of water and roots can be established quickly. The plants are generally spaced 20-25 ft. apart with approximately 100-70 trees/acre. In areas that are well drained, planting holes are dug to a size that would accommodate the size of the bag. The roots of bare root plants are more spread out and accommodations need to be made for them. The topsoil removed in digging the hole may be mixed with fertiliser and/or rotted manure. After planting, it is recommended to stake the plant to prevent movement by wind. AFTERCARE Training and pruning These plants should be pruned to encourage branching which ensures a good framework. Pruning should be practiced after harvesting to remove dead wood as well as maintain the framework of the tree. Avocado plants are brittle and break easily therefore wind breaks should be utilised.

Fertilising Fertiliser needs are dependent on the type of soil and the nutrient requirements. In clay soils, a compound fertiliser [Link] can be applied twice a year at the beginning of the wet season, depending on the size and age of the plant. In sandy soil, the same can be used at a higher rate along with [Link] at a rate of lb to lb per plant once a year.

Pests and Diseases and their Control and Management

There are no major pest problems of the avocado although mites and scale insects pose a situation but can be controlled by using Danitol or Rogor.

Diseases

Three main fungal diseases that affect avocado are: 1. Avocado root rot when plagued by this disease (Phytophthora), the leaves get smaller, pale, wilted and fall off, giving the tree a sparse appearance. Twigs and branches die, fruits drop and there is defoliation. Watering too often or excessively increases avocado root rot. The best way to control this problem is prevention by using disease-free planting material, sterile tools in grafting and efficient drainage and irrigation.

2. Anthracnose this disease affects immature fruits and shows up when the fruit ripens as small, brown, sunken lesions which soften 7-15 days after harvesting and leads to fruit deterioration. Control may be achieved by spraying a copper fungicide such as Kocide at the onset of flowering. This treatment prevents the disease from showing up on the fruits. 3. Scab if the fruit suffers from (Elsinoe perseae); raised cream coloured to pale brown/orange warts are seen on the fruit and leaf surface. In order to control this disease pruning can be done to increase air-flow within the canopy of the tree.

Harvesting

The flowering period of avocados ranges from 4 to 14 weeks, therefore fruits that grow on the same trees will ripen on varying dates. Avocados generally do not ripen when they are still attached to the tree, and the fruits are still hard when mature and ripen only after being picked. Mature fruits are usually picked at weekly intervals over the period of a month or more, and the largest fruit is selected at picking time. The fruits outer waxy appearance changes upon fruit maturity. The smoothness of the skin is an indicator of maturity in most varieties.

Uses

Eaten raw Used as substitutes for meat in sandwiches Guacamole Fillings for sushi Milkshake Ice-cream Added to salads

Banana

The banana is a monocotyledonous plant that belongs to the family Musaceae. Along with plantains, bananas form the staple food of people in the Caribbean. It is a fruit that develops without the fertilisation of the seeds. The small black specs throughout the banana are unfertilised ovules and they are present in three rows. The fruit of the banana contains a lot of starch but this starch changes to sugar on maturing so the fruit tastes sweet.

Varieties

The original banana that was introduced to this region was the Gros Michel. The fruits of this variety are of good quality and have a good flavour, but is, however susceptible to leaf spot. Other varieties include the Cavendish, which is a hardier group, the Valery, Lacatan and Robusta.

Propagation
CULTIVATION Bananas are propagated solely by vegetative methods. The stem produces three types of suckers, namely, the water, maiden and sword. The water sucker has a stem that is the same width from top to bottom. Sword suckers are very vigorous and are produced by the main stem. They are relatively large at the bottom and taper at the top, with long, thin, blade-like leaves. The maiden sucker comes between these two with leaves that are broader than the sword suckers but narrower than the water suckers. Bananas keep growing for several years and the average period of productive growth is about 5 years. Suckers, also known as corms, are planted in holes that are 45cm wide and 45cm deep at a spacing of 2.4m x 2.1m, depending on the fertility of the soil. AFTERCARE Fertiliser

If a high level of production is to be maintained each year, bananas require fertilising. Two applications per year are recommended but the rate and quantity is dependent on the results of the soil nutrient test. Since suckers do not show a specific nutritional deficiency, a mixed fertiliser is proven to be best applied.

Pruning In fertile soils, around four or five plants are grown from the parent plant but in soils that are less fertile, the growth of only two or three is encouraged. If a sucker is being removed from a parent plant, a sharp cutlass of machete is used. A clean, smooth cut is essential in order to reduce the risk of infection.

Pests and Diseases and the Control and Management Pests

There are not many pests of banana suckers, but the very few include the banana borer and nematodes. They are both difficult to control but the easiest method is to maintain a high standard of cultivation, removing all the sources of infection or breeding. The borers tunnel into the corm, making them hard to reach with pesticides. Nematodes make galls or knots under the epidermis or outer layers of the root. The chemical Nemagon is very effective but it is very expensive to apply on large fields.

Diseases

The main disease that affects banana suckers is the Panama disease which is caused by a fungus. The fungus enters through the roots and is transported throughout the tissues of the plant. One of the earliest signs of the disease is that the heart leaves become yellow and fall over and eventually the whole plant dies. Prevention is the key since no chemical has been developed to control the fungus. The farmer can safeguard his crop by planting resistant varieties. All varieties of banana are susceptible to leaf spot although some are more resistant than others. As the name suggests, spots appear on the leaves, first appearing yellow and then turning brown. High humidity worsens the condition. Infection commonly occurs initially on the underside of the young leaves especially at the tips which eventually die back.

Harvesting

When the time comes for harvesting, the top portion of the pseudo-stem is cut off and allowed to remain at the base of the plant, acting as a source of mulch. It may also be fed to cattle or as supplementary feed when there is a scarcity. If fruits are harvested when they are immature rejections may be made because of bruising. The bananas are then transplanted from the fields to boxing plants where they are cut into hands, washed, and boxed for shipment to foreign markets, in most cases, England.

Uses

Eaten fresh Served with ice-cream Jams Cooked, baked, mashed

Miniature Plum

Plums are small, oval and richly flavoured but are not sweet enough for general taste and eating.

Propagation

Plums need well-drained soil with plenty of humus to hold moisture during the growing season. A very acid soil should be limed but a very alkaline soil should not be planted with plums. Plums do need Calcium but will not prosper in alkaline soil. Plum trees planted in thin soils overlaying chalk often suffer seriously from lime induced iron deficiency. Miniature plums are generally grown from rootstock although there has not been any satisfactory rootstock developed as yet. Bush type trees require a spacing of 4 5m or 12 to 15ft. They do best in areas where the annual rainfall is between 50 and 90cm. An established plum needs a lot of nitrogen, but until good crops are being carried, on most soils it will be sufficient to give a light mulch of rotted farmyard manure or garden compost. When crops are being borne, the yearly mulch may be supplemented with 28g per dressing of Nitro-chalk and 14g per sq. metre of potash.

Harvesting

Dessert plums should be left on the tree until quite ripe and then picked by taking hold of the stalk.

Uses

Eaten fresh Jams Jellies Wine Brandy

 Dried to make prunes

Heliconia

Heliconias are herbaceous plants that belong to the family Heliconiaceae. They have banana-like foliage and the inflorescences are either erect as in Golden torch or pendulous as in Heliconia rostrata. The pollination of these flowers is done by a genus of humming bird.

Propagation
CULTIVATION These plants grow best in well drained soil with sandy or clay-loam texture, high organic matter content and good water holding capacity. The soil pH desirous by this plant is one of 4.5 to 6.5. Shading reduces yields therefore plants are grown in full sunlight, and 21C-35C is the optimum growing temperature. After planting is done, it is wise to erect wind breaks, and also, it is not common practice to mix varieties, since taller plants would smother shorter ones. Planting When the time for planting is reached, rhizomes that are 15cm in length or pseudo stems are used. These are planted in single pseudo stems or in clumps of about 20 cm- 30 cm in diameter. It is suggested that the beds be raised, each with a width of 90 cm; also the beds are contained with solid barriers at least 30 cm by 30 cm. Overhead irrigation is recommended when the leaves begin to curl which is a sign of stress. If overcrowding becomes severe, the clumps should be dug up, divided and replanted. Fertilising At planting time, dolomitic limestone is incorporated along with micro-nutrients. High nitrogen levels are important since flower production is directly related to vegetative growth. The [Link] fertiliser should be applied at a rate of 3 to 4 kg per square meter every year.

Pests and Diseases and their Control and Management

The disease, leaf spotting, can be controlled by the application of fungicides like Manzate. Pests like grasshoppers that eat the leaves can be controlled using insecticides like Malathion, Lannate and Diazinon. Other harmful organisms like root borers and nematodes can be controlled using Furadan or Vydate in the soil before planting or as a post planting treatment.

Harvesting

Plants begin to bloom 8-9 weeks after planting and the flower is harvested when two bracts are fully opened. The entire stalk is removed to allow more light penetration and the flowers are stored at 23C. Flowers have a shelf life of about 7 days.

Uses

Floral arrangements Landscaping Food source for hummingbirds

Orchid

The Caribbean region is considered the ideal place for the growth of most orchids. These plants grow wild on almost every island and on the mainland territories as well. There are more than 35,000 orchid species, many of which are native to the tropical Americas. Through hybrid practices, many more species have been developed and orchids are now bred as very showy flora.

Varieties

There are several varieties of orchid in the Caribbean including: Cedros Bee (Oncidium lanceanum), Virgin Orchid (Caularthron biocornutum) and Butterfly Orchid (Oncidium papilio) in Trinidad; Eyelash Orchid (Epidendrum ciliare) in Barbados; Bumblebee Orchid (Oncidium henekenii) in the Dominican Republic; Pink-flowered Fan-leaved Oncidium pulchellum in Jamaica Broughtonia Cattleya Dendrobium Ground Orchid Lady-of-the-Night Lady Slipper Orchid Moth Orchid Reed Stem Epidendrum

Propagation
CULTIVATION Most tropical orchids are epiphytes, meaning they grow on other plants and trees solely for support.

Orchids require a reasonable amount of light in order to grow and flourish. Vanda and Dendrobium need almost full sunshine while others need moderate sunshine with some needing only shade. These plants also require good air circulation and their leaves are adapted to available light, and orient to face the light source. Orchids grow in two different ways, with either a single point growing continuously in one direction or those that produce shoots from a prostrate rhizome. Flowers or floral sprays arise from the leaf axils, with some examples being the Scorpion Orchid, Moth Orchid and Vanda. These can be propagated by using top cuttings from the side shoot that are produced at the base of an older plant. The other version is a situation where the orchids can be grown by simple division. Each plant division should consist of at least three shoots and the cutting tools should be sterilised. Smaller divisions may take a while to be established. Orchids absorb moisture from the air and from the surfaces to which they are attached. The humidity that is considered ideal for orchids is around 60-70 percent. The moisture evaporating from the leaf surface results in a high degree of cooling.

Pests and Diseases and their Control and Management

Orchids are susceptible to a wide range of diseases including bacterial and fungal rots, leaf spots, leaf, stem and root decay. A number of these diseases may kill the plant and can spread to others nearby via water splashes. Special care must be taken especially during the rainy and hurricane seasons when the problem is more acute. One disease in particular that is very troublesome is Dendrobium, which is root rot that eventually spreads upwards into the shoot. The first sign of the problem is the sudden collapse of a shoot. These can be removed once they have developed a few roots. Pests include, birds, which may pick at flowers, and slugs which devour young shoots, but perhaps the most the most troublesome pests are Spider Mites, Scale Insects and Thrips. These pest problems can be avoided by quarantining new plants and controlling infestations on nearby palms. Thrips damage orchid flowers and foliage, but any insecticide that kills the pest will damage the flower. Therefore, to avoid damage, Thrips can be effectively controlled by hanging sticky strips of bright yellow plastic that can be coated in vegetable oil.

Slugs love the tasty, succulent orchid foliage and flowers. The best way to control them is to keep the places where they hide to a minimum and by treating the orchid area with a metaldehyde spray or bait.

Uses

Ornamental purposes Used as flavouring (vanilla) Used in cooking Beverages Ice-cream Flavour rum Perfumes

Ginger Lily

The Ginger Lily is a plant which belongs to the family Zingiberaceae.

Varieties

The two main varieties of Ginger Lily are: Red ginger lily Pink ginger lily

Propagation Pruning, Cultivation etc

Ginger lilies grow on a wide range of soils but they prefer a pH of 4.5 6.5. Nonetheless, they grow best in soils that have a high organic content. Ginger lilies are propagated by either one of two methods: plantlets from old blooms, or rhizomes from mature clumps. In the first method, the plantlets are removed from the old blooms and planted directly into growing medium or pre-rooted in propagating bins. The second method involves the rhizomes from old clumps being planted into bags for growing or transplanted directly into the field. Clumps or nursery plantlets are transplanted with about ten stems per clump or when the plants are about 4 6 months old. If irrigation would become a problem, planting is best done at the beginning of the rainy season. The clumps are planted 2m apart in the rows and 1m apart within the row. Also mulching is done to retain moisture, and at the same time, it aids in weed control.

Fertiliser Application and Weed Control

Like most other plants, organic manure may be incorporated before planting, and, at about a month after planting, [Link] can be used at a rate of 28gm per plant every two weeks. Weeds that are found around the base can be controlled by hand weeding, but herbicides like Gramoxone can be used to control weed growth between the rows.

Pests and Diseases and their Control and Management

The pests and diseases that affect the ginger lily plant are fairly easily handled. Alternate use of Dithane and Sevine may be two choices for regular pest and disease control. It is, however, important to alternate the sprays in order to prevent a build up of immunity to by the pest and vectors.

Harvesting

When harvesting time arrives, the flowers are best harvested early in the day. The stems are cut a ground level when the bloom is about one-third opened. The leaves are trimmed off and the flowers are washed in a solution of Actellic or Diazinon. The stems are cut to a length of around 90cm.

Anthurium

The Anthurium plant, Anthurium andraeanum, is a perennial plant that belongs to the family Araceae which includes the dasheen plant. The bloom is a modified leaf or spathe with hundreds of small flowers borne on a pencil-like spadix from the base of the spathe.

Varieties

There are several varieties of Anthurium which include: Local or Caribbean Pink Dutch cultivars - Anneke 141 (pink flower) - Cuba (large white flower) - Claudia 108 (large red flower) - Lydia 420 (pink splash) Hawaiian cultivars Novelty types

Propagation

The propagation of Anthurium is usually vegetative. Mature plants produce aerial shoots or suckers which flower in 3 6 months after planting. Although seedlings are also available plantlets are also cultivated by tissue culture. CULTIVATION Plants grow best on well aerated organic medium with good water-retention and drainage. The pH that is most suitable is that of 4.5 to 5.0. Media that are used are: - 2 parts soil, 1 part coconut fibre bast, 1 part manure

1:1 chopped coconut husks and dust Bagasse

Anthuriums require shade, the degree depending on the cultivar, age and climate. Shading requirement is usually 65 90%. Insufficient shade results in bleaching of flower and death of leaves; too much shade retards growth and flowering. Shade can be provided by planting Citrus, Cassia, Gliriadia or Shade Cloth. Night temperature should not be lower than 15C and the day temperature 21C to 35C. The water requirements of plants are around eight litres or two gallons per plant in two applications per week. This should be adjusted when it rains, since over watering is not recommended. Also, plants should be protected from constant wind. When spacing plants, the trend is usually close spacing. Plants are spaced 30cm by 30cm, which would result in 62 500 plants per hectare. With close spacing there is rigid leaf pruning to allow air circulation and prevent the spread of diseases. Pruning to a minimum of four leaves can be done, and plants should not be planted more than 5cm deep, as deep planting results in the rotting of stems and roots. Planting beds should be raised 1.3m to 2m wide. Coconut husks, Bagasse, immortelle and coconut fibre bast can be used to mulch plants approximately twice per year. Due to the close spacing any weed growth will be smothered, but if there is any weed growth, they can be removed manually.

Fertiliser application

The most suitable fertiliser is Triple Super Phosphate which should be mixed in with the growing medium at 4gm per plant. One month after planting, a complete fertiliser [Link] is applied at the rate of 50gm per 100 plants. In addition to fertiliser application, it is important to irrigate after application of dry fertilisers to avoid scorching the roots.

Pests and Diseases and their Control and Management

The first step in control is to observe plant quarantine regulations. Also the compatibility should be checked to avoid phytotoxicity. It is advised that an integrated pest management approach be undertaken and to consider the cost/benefit, benefit/risk of pesticides.

Pests

 Army worm, aphid, and thrips these pests create holes in young leaves, and leave brown scars on spadix. Dipel and Temik can be used to control these organisms.

Snails and slugs these leaves brown scars on spadix but can be controlled using Methaldehyde.

Mealy bugs and scale insects symptoms of these insects include loss of vigour and the growth of sooty mould. They can be treated with Malathion and Diazinon. Grasshopper these pests leave holes in the leaves and spathes and can be treated with Diazinon.

White flies the main symptom is loss of vigour and Diazinon can be used as treatment. Nematodes these cause the yellowing and falling of leaves and can be treated with Kelthane. Mole cricket this causes plant cut at soil level. It can be treated with Diazinon and Mesurol.

Diseases
Root rot this leads to rotted root with fewer, smaller leaves and flower. Its control can be affected by improving drainage and aeration and also by drenching with Banrot.

 Corticium fungus white growth on surface of leaf sheath and base of plant. Kocide can be used for treatment. Anthracnose circular to triangular spots on petiole, spathe and spadix. Use alternate sprays of Benlate, Dithane and Maneb and also prune plants. Bacterial blight deformed flowers with water soaked areas from top downwards. Rotting of spadix from tip. Drench with Ridomil, Dithane or M45.

Harvesting

Harvesting of the flowers is usually done once a week at three quarters maturity. Maturity is determined by the firmness of the peduncle and the colour of the spadix. Harvesting is best done after 4 p.m. Blooms are stored between 13C and 17C. Preservatives such as silver nitrate and silver thiosulphate solution are used to extend the vase life.

Uses

Interior decorating Floral arrangements

Roses
Varieties
Alecs Red a sturdy medium-height grower with large, deep red blooms. Blessings a free flowering rose and an upright grower found in clusters. Fragrant Cloud a popular, coral-scarlet rose known for its perfume. Grandpa Dickson a great rose with lemon-yellow blooms and perfume. Just Joey a very fragrant flower with copper-orange blooms. Maestro a rose with crimson edges and a moderate grower. Mallard Jubilee a rose with robust vigour with rose-pink blooms. National Trust deep crimson-scarlet rose with perfectly shaped blooms. Peace a rose with large creamy-yellow edged and shaded pink blooms. Piccadilly a rose with scarlet and gold high-pointed buds. Pink Favourite a rose with fragrance, and large rose-pink blooms. Prima Ballerina a reliable grower with rose-pink blooms. Whisky Mac a rose with deep gold blooms and bronze shading.

Alecs Red

Fragrant Cloud

Maestro

Piccadilly

Prima Ballerina

Whiskey Mac

Propagation

Roses can be propagated using cuttings. Select strong shoots of the current seasons growth and cut an 18-20 cm length of stem cleanly below a node at the base, and just above the node at the top. Remove all the leaves without damaging the buds, and then dip the bottom end of the cutting in a rooting powder or solution. When doing so, make sure that only one-third of the cuttings are above the ground, otherwise too much drying out will occur.

Pruning

The third week of March is often suggested as the correct time for pruning. Pruning is able to contain the black spot problem simply because all the old dead infected foliage is then out of the way. Make sure the secateurs are really sharp so that a clean cut is achieved without crushing the wood. Bush roses should also be pruned just after their first flowering to encourage a second flush of blooms. Climbing, rambling and shrub roses should be pruned at the end of their flowering season. Climbers and ramblers should be pruned back to a framework of healthy wood; with shrub roses, it is wise to cut out all the thin straggly growth and cut the strong wood back by one-third.

Uses

Floral arrangements Decorative purposes Scented foliage Perfumes Some may be consumed for vitamin C

Conclusion
After completing this assignment, I have been able to not only learn about a variety of crops otherwise unknown to me, but also, I was able to expand my knowledge of the few of which I was familiar.

Bibliography
Sahadeo Ragoonanan CXC Agriculture Third Edition. 1994. Caribbean Educational Publishers. Jamaica.

Louis Haley

Crops and Other Plants. 2007. MacArthur Publications. London, England.

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