Introduction to elementary Particle Physics

Emmanuel Olaiya March 2005

Outline
Elementary Particles Huge machines for tiny particles B-mesons and CP violation

The Thinker
(you and me)

What is the world around us made of? Can we describe the world in terms of fundamental particles? It is these questions we try to answer

Quarks and leptons, the building blocks of the universe

charge charge

u d

2/3 -1/3

-1 0

quarks All matter around us is can be described using these two quarks and leptons above We believe these to be the fundamental particles of the universe

leptons

Hydrogen atom

A proton is not an elementary particle. It can be broken down further into quarks

Proton

u
u

e d

Three quarks to muster Mark?

So far we have been
introduced to two quarks, the up (u) and down (d) In 1963 Murray GellMann described a previously unexplainable particle () as containing a third type of quark, the s quark. He took the name quark from three quarks to muster Mark in James Joyces book Finnegans Wake
Murray Gell-Mann

But theres more!

charge mass mass mass

Quarks

u d

~0.003 GeV

c s

~1.2 GeV

t b

~175 GeV

+2/3

~0.006 GeV

~0.1 GeV

~4.5 GeV

-1/3

mass

mass

mass

Leptons

e e

~ 0.0005 GeV ~ 0.0 GeV

~ 0.105 GeV ~ 0.0 GeV

~ 1.8 GeV

-1

~ 0.0 GeV

1st generation

2nd generation

3rd generation

Matter from Energy

Einstein derived the
relation E =mc2 Mass is directly related to energy Physicists like to refer to particles by their energy when they are at rest rather than their weight (I did this in previous slides)

ALBERT EINSTEIN

In 1928 Paul Dirac postulated that you can create matter from energy

So whats the antimatter

But I cant just create an electron out of thin air, can I? It violates conservation of charge and angular momentum

PAUL DIRAC

But you could create an electron if you simultaneously created a particle with the opposite charge and angular momentum .. the positron, Antimatter!

Matter and antimatter particles created in a bubble chamber. The picture shows many bubble tracks created by charged particles passing through a superheated liquid. The tracks highlighted in pink are created by an electron and positron. They spiral in opposites directions in the magnetic field due to their opposite charges Photons hit atoms in the liquid and the energy released to create the particles and antiparticles So, all the quarks and leptons introduced earlier have antiparticle partners. Antiparticles have the same mass, but opposite charge and angular momentum when generated We denote antiparticles with a little hat. The antiparticle of a u-quark is _ written as u To make life confusing we dont do this with the e, , leptons, we just change the sign of the charge in the notation

Building particles
u u
PROTON

d
u

Stable particles The world around us Composed of 1st generation quarks

NEUTRON

Unstable particles Need to be created by high energy interactions Contain heavy 2nd and 3rd generation quarks. So heavy these particles do not live long. The B-meson lasts one trillionth of a second. Will talk about the B-meson later The t-quark is heavier still and so unstable it does not live long enough to join with another quark and form a particle t =h/E

c
J/
_

D-MESON
_

d
KAON

B-MESON

Particle Interactions
So what causes the particles to
interact with each other? Forces, of which we know of four These forces are part of the mechanism responsible for generating matter and antimatter (pair production) changing particles from one to another (e.g. beta decay) or even binding particles together We call the particles responsible for mediating forces BOSONS!
Force Electromag netic Strong Weak Particle gluon W+,W-,Z0 Graviton (still to be discovered) Where found? magnets Sun, nuclei Beta-decay

Gravity

Earth

Particle Interactions
Can quarks and leptons interact with all the forces?

Elementary particle Quarks Leptons *

W+,W-,Z0 Gluons

Leptons do not possess the strong charge we call colour so cannot interact with gluons

* Neutrinos have no electrical charge so only feel the weak force.

Consequently they are very hard to detect. They can pass through the earth without interacting

Pair production (matter-antimatter creation)

u
_

Z/gluon/

u
Weak, strong and electromagnetic forces interact with quarks

Z/

Beta Decay
(weak interaction)

Electron

Neutrino

Only weak and electromagnetic forces interact with leptons

u
d

u
NEUTRON

d
u

d
W Boson =

u u
+

NEUTRON

PROTON

Electron

Neutrino

Particle Interactions
Quark binding

d
u
PROTON

u
gluons

Quarks in a proton are held together by the exchange of gluons

Pair Production

Z/g/
Neutral boson (Z gluon or ) changes to a quark and anti quark (pair production) Gluon holds the quarks together as they move further apart
_ _

u u
_

u
_

Gluon connection snaps and new quarks appear because quarks cannot exist in isolation

Particle Interactions
Forces can be explained as
Feynman diagram

e q

e Time

the exchange of particles (bosons) between two points The type of particle at the two points determines which force can possibly be mediated The calculation of particle interactions via the exchange of discrete bosons (quanta) is known as Quantum Field Theory

The Standard Model

We can describe Matter and their interactions using 6, quarks, 6 leptons and 4 force carriers We call this the standard model What about Gravity? Experimentally, we have not shown the existence of the graviton so we cannot verify any quantum field theory.

Beyond The Standard Model

One big goal is to unite all forces with one theory We already see some convergence of the forces
electricity magnetic Weak interactions Maxwells equations Strong Interaction Newtons equation Gravity

Electro weak

Einsteins General Relativity

Super Symmetry?

Grand Unified Theory (GUT)?

Particle Physics Applications

Medicine
Positron Emission Tomography scans (PET scans) The oxygen isotope 8O15 is administered to a patient and then proceeds to travel throughout the body The isotope 8O15 can decay to 7N15 + e+ (positron) The positron rapidly interacts with other electrons in the body, annihilating to produce a photon Since the positrons are of low energy they do not travel far. Therefore the photon essentially comes from the source of the isotope decay The photons are detected and used to map the migration of the oxygen isotope in the body

+
15 8O Nucleus 15 7N Nucleus

positron +

Detector readout

positron

electron

2 Photons (energy)
Healthy brain Alzheimer sufferer

Huge machines for tiny particles

Accelerators

Typically two types of

accelerators
Linear Circular (synchrotron)

Bunches of electrons

or charged particles are accelerated along in much the same way as surfers are on a wave. In the case of electrons/charged particles, the wave is an electromagnetic wave Where the electromagnetic wave is a changing electric and magnetic field

Accelerators
Linear
Pros

Cons

Loose less energy than a circular accelerator Longer accelerators are required to get particles up to high energy Particles that fail to collide cannot be reused Less accelerator length is required (particles keep accelerating as
they go round and round) Particles can be reused

Circular
Pros

Cons

Charged particles loose energy as they go round in circles. Energy

loss is proportional to (E/m)4/r

CERN circular accelerator located in Geneva Switzerland

26Km circumference

e+

Interactions that take place at CERN matter /Z0 antimatter

Electrons and positron were accelerated around and brought into collision at 4 interaction regions surrounded by detectors to creating new matter and antimatter. The accelerator is now being modified to accelerate protons

e-

The OPAL Detector

Omni Purpose Apparatus at Lep

A person helps to show the relative size of the detector

OPAL reconstructed events

Looking into the accelerator (electrons and positrons move in the z direction)

e+e-Z0 +
Ru n : e v e n t 4 0 9 3 :
Ru n : e v e n t 4 0 9 3 : Eb e am 4 5 . 6 5 8 Ev i s Bz =4 . 3 5 0 4556 Da t e 9 3 0 5 2 7 T i me 0.6 Vt x ( 2 2 4 3 9 C t r k ( N= - 0 . 05 , 2 Sump= 8 6 . 8 ) Ec a l ( N= 0 . 3 6 ) Mu o n ( N= 5 SumE= 1 . 6 ) Hc a l ( N= 4 SumE= 4.0) 0.0)

e+e-Z0qq
1000 Da t e 9 3 0 5 2 7 T i me -8.6 Vt x ( 2 0 7 1 6 C t r k ( N= 3 9 Sump= 7 3 . 3 ) Ec a l ( N= 2 5 SumE= 3 2 . 6 ) Hc a l ( N=2 2 SumE= 2 2 . 6 ) - 0 . 07 , 0 . 06 , - 0 . 8 0 ) Mu o n ( N= 0 ) Se c V t x ( N= 3 ) Fd e t ( N= 0 SumE= 0.0) Eb e am 4 5 . 6 5 8 Ev i s Bz =4 . 3 5 0 9 9 . 9 Em i s s Th r u s t =0 . 9 8 7 3 Ap l a n=0 . 0 0 1 7 Ob l a t =0 . 0 2 4 8 Sp h e r =0 . 0 0 7 3

9 0 . 8 Em i s s

0 . 08 ,

2 ) Se c V t x ( N= 0 ) Fd e t ( N= 0 SumE=

Th r u s t =0 . 9 9 9 9 Ap l a n=0 . 0 0 0 0 Ob l a t =0 . 0 1 1 0 Sp h e r =0 . 0 0 0 3

200 . Ce n t r e o f s c r een is ( 0 . 0000 , 0 . 0000 , 0 . 0000 )

cm .

5 10

20

5 0 GeV

200 . Ce n t r e o f s c r een is ( 0 . 0000 , 0 . 0000 , 0 . 0000 )

cm .

5 10

20

5 0 GeV

As quarks move apart more quarks are appear, seen as jets above

My office at SLAC

The Stanford Linear Accelerator Center located in Menlo Park, California uses both a linear and circular accelerator for electrons and positrons
There is an interaction point at the BaBar detector. The energy of the electron and positron combined is just enough to generate B and anti-B mesons. That is why we also refer to BaBar as the B-factory The electron and positron annihilate to energy which in turn forms a b quark and an anti b quark. As the two quarks move further apart their gluonic connection is broken and new d quarks are formed. Quarks cannot exist alone! So we end up with two B-mesons!

e+ /Z0 e-

b d
_ _ d b

High Energy Energy electron ring ring

Inside the accelerator tunnel

The BaBar experiment

The experiment generates and studies B and
anti-B mesons (B-Bbar) hence the name BaBar and the logo The BaBar experiment was built to investigate possible imbalances between matter and antimatter
Are the laws of physics the same for matter as antimatter Previously we suspected that they are not
Take the big bang for example

antimatter

Where has all the antimatter gone? Are the laws of physics different for antimatter?

equal amounts

matter Our world

Beginning of time, the Big Bang (energy)

Maybe we can start to answer these questions by studying matter and antimatter asymmetries

 The BaBar experiment is an experiment which looks at matter antimatter

asymmetries The BaBar experiment was built to measure Charge Parity (CP) violation in B-mesons What is CP?
CP is the following operation

Change particle into antiparticle

Reflect co-ordinates in a mirror

After performing the operations C and P we get the same state back. CP( )=( ) We say the state is symmetric under CP

Change particle into antiparticle

Reflect co-ordinates in a mirror

After performing the operations C and P we have a different state? The symmetry is broken under CP, i.e. CP ( ) ( )

Any difference between particles and anti-particles will result in CP violation (CP)

When the CP symmetry is different between initial and final states this is CP violation

e-

e+

b b
time

upsilon
Nearly at rest in the center of mass frame

Anti-B0

b d

d b

B0
Observe these

+ , D+, D+, J/ 0 , D+ , D-+, ....

Some decays tag the B

Search for CP Violation

We look for CP violation in two ways
Does a B-meson decay to a state X the same number of times as a anti-B-meson. If not this is CP violation We measure the decay rate of a state X as a function of time for both the B-meson and anti-Bmeson. If the decay distributions are different, this is CP violation

BaBar started running in 1999 and since then

has produced 227 million B and anti-B meson pairs which have been recorded for analysis

First B decays
e+

Second B decays
Can measure the decay length to calculate the B lifetime You will do this in your practical

t1
e-

Decay length ~ 1/4 mm

t2

Use one B as a tag and count other decays

Tests for CP violation

) ( A= N (B K ) + N (B K )
N B0 K + N (B0 K + )
0 + 0 +

Measure t = t1 - t2 for B0 J/K0 and anti B0 J/K0

CP violation if A 0

CP violation if distributions are different

BaBar Results on CP Violation

(cc) KS (CP odd) modes J/ KL (CP even) mode

Difference between two B decay distributions is a sine wave. A non-zero sine amplitude is a measurement of CP violation. The amplitude is given by sin2

sin2 = 0.722 0.040 (stat) 0.023 (sys)

B K B 0 K +
0 +

True B events peak at the B mass. Clearly see different number of reconstructed events for the B and anti-B events

Mass of reconstructed events

ACP = 0.133 0.030 0.009

Non zero asymmetry value is a measurement of direct CP violation

Some conclusions from the BaBar experiment

The BaBar experiment has measured CP

asymmetries in the B mesons system.
The physics of matter and antimatter are not completely symmetric

The effect does not just occur in one

particular decay of the B meson

Summary
Elementary particles and their interactions are
well understood. Though not perfectly!
What about incorporating gravity? Can we come up with a theory to unify all the forces? What about the Higgs Boson (Dr Bruce Kennedys talk) ?

We await more physics results after the switch

on of the Large Hadron Collider at CERN

There is still plenty of physics left for you to do!