Proceedings ISBN 978-80-87158-29-6

fib Symposium PRAGUE 2011 Keynote Plenary Lectures

CONSTRUCTION OF ARCH BRIDGES IN JAPAN

Akio Kasuga

Abstract
Arch bridge construction technology has made a great deal of progress in Japan since the 1960s. With cantilevering construction, temporary steel arches are generally used to develop arch action as soon as possible. This approach is particularly advantageous in earthquake prone areas. Temporary stays and ground anchors can also be reduced because of the earlier arch action provided by the temporary steel arch. Such temporary arches often use a box design without filling the interior of the box with concrete, adopting this approach because less concrete is required for the arch rib. This paper also considers a new design concept for half-through arch bridges, which have the deck located at an intermediate level of the arch. Because of construction difficulties, there are not so many examples of this type of bridge using concrete arches. With the new design concept, the center section of deck inside the arch provides part of the arch action. This solution makes construction easier with steel box arch technology. Finally, some new applications of arch bridge technology are shown. Keywords: Arch bridge, Temporary steel arch, Strengthening of arch

Introduction

Mountainous terrain comprises 75% of the land area of Japan. To take just one example, approximately 30% of the route of the 2nd Tomei Expressway that is currently under construction is made up of bridges. Complicating matters further, 20% of the major Pacific Rim earthquakes registering magnitude 7 or above occur in or around Japan. These realities mean that infrastructure

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construction in Japan must be conducted under extremely difficult conditions. Naturally, a large proportion of the bridges constructed under these circumstances are arch bridges or bridges with high piers. Compared to other bridge forms, arch bridges have more members (arch ribs, spandrel columns and decks) than ordinary bridges, resulting in higher costs. Moreover, unless they are constructed on falsework, the stresses in the arch ribs will be different during construction and on completion (Fig. 1). The cost of the reinforcing materials that are needed only during the construction phase must also be factored in. Accordingly, there has long been a constant effort to find a way to reduce the cost of arch bridges. Another of the most crucial issues involved in the construction of arch bridges in Japan is how quickly the arch ribs can be closed to eliminate the instability of the bridge with regard to earthquakes. This is a situation peculiar to an earthquakeprone country like Japan. It is the reason that the construction of arch bridges in Japan has undergone a different evolution from efforts in other countries.

(a) Construction by Cantilevering Method

(b) Construction on Falsework

Fig. 1 Bending Moment of Arch Rib

In the wake of the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake that occurred in and around the city of Kobe in 1995, Japan's earthquake-resistant design specifications underwent a major revision. Under the revised specifications, the reinforcing steel for the bridge deck must be confined to the elastic area in which it will not yield even in the event of a Level 2 earthquake motion. As a result, the arch ribs are now viewed in the same manner as the bridge deck, and the use of steel reinforcements with a diameter of 51 mm is no longer unusual. Seismic retrofitting of arch bridges constructed prior to the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake has also become necessary. This paper will first present an overview of the history of arch bridge construction in Japan. It will then describe new construction methods using steel arches, as well as innovations in the construction methods for the heretofore difficult-to-construct half-through arch bridges. This will be followed by a brief discussion of the current state of arch bridge seismic retrofitting, after which the latest examples of arch bridges and new concepts in arch bridge design will be presented.

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History of Construction for Long Span Arch Bridges

There are approximately 40 concrete arch bridges in Japan with a length of 100 m or greater. Various methods were used to construct these bridges, but the basic concept underlying their construction is rapid closure of the arch and the reduction of reinforcing materials during erection. This section will discuss the changes in arch bridge construction through the years. 2.1 First Generation (1965 1980)

The first arch bridge with an arch span of more than 100 m to be constructed in Japan was the Shinsanseiji Bridge, which was completed in 1966 (Fig. 2). It has an extremely flat arch with a 100 m span and was constructed by means of the cantilever method using temporary supports at the front of arch springings.

Fig. 2 Shin-Sanseiji Bridge

In 1974, the Hokawazu Bridge was completed, using what was at the time a very unique construction method (Fig. 3). This bridge has an arch span of 170 m. The cantilever method was used, with the truss being formed from each side by constructing the deck, the columns, temporary diagonal stays, and the arch ribs in that order. The arch ribs were cast in place using form travelers, and the deck was constructed using movable scaffolding. Temporary external tendons were used to reinforce the deck that constituted the tension member.

Fig. 3 Hokawazu Bridge

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The truss method is suitable for the reverse Langer arch that has great deck rigidity. The Akayagawa Bridge with an arch span of 116 m was completed in 1979. This was the first time that an arch bridge was used for a bullet train railway bridge (Fig. 4). Whereas in the case of the Hokawazu Bridge the arch was constructed first, on the Akayagawa Bridge the deck, the spandrel columns, diagonal stays and arch had to be constructed simultaneously within the form traveler. This form traveler was of a special construction that could accommodate the changes in the height of the arch.

Fig. 4 Akayagawa Bridge

As the truss method evolved, efforts to accumulate technologies began with the aim of achieving the rapid arch closure that would enable the construction of arches that exceed 200 m. The Taishaku Bridge completed in 1978 is one example of these efforts (Fig. 5). The bridge has an arch span of 145 m, and with the aim of rapidly closing the arch, temporary stay cables were used while simultaneously a steel truss temporary arch was closed in advance, after which a concrete covering was applied. Thereafter, the method in which this steel arch was used for erection was frequently employed in Japan.

Fig. 5 Taishaku Bridge

2.2

Second Generation (1980 1995)

It was in the 1980s that arch spans first exceeded 200 m. The Usagawa Bridge completed in 1982 (Fig. 6) had an arch span of 204 m and used a plate girder type temporary arch, temporary stay cables and temporary pylons. These three types of reinforcement systems used during the erection

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of the Usagawa Bridge became the foundation for the technology used in the subsequent fullfledged construction of large arch bridges. Moreover, the stay cable technology accumulated during this period later played a major role in the construction of cable-stayed bridges.

Fig. 6 Usagawa Bridge

The Beppu Myoban Bridge shown in Fig. 7 is an example of the use of a steel truss arch with the truss method. This bridge was completed in 1989 and has an arch span of 235 m. The steel truss was assembled at ground level directly beneath the bridge and then erected by hoisting it into place. In a majority of cases, a deck arch bridge is erected using a combination of a steel arch and stay cables or by means of stay cables alone, but the truss method is also used in about 20% of cases. The reverse Langer arch is erected using the truss methods for structural reasons.

Fig. 7 Beppu-Myoban Bridge

2.3

Third Generation (1995 2010)

In the 1990s, a variety of methods were used to erect arches as well, and efforts were made to reduce the quantity of reinforcements during erection, including those for the temporary steel arch. First let us look at the Tateyama Bridge (Fig. 8). This bridge was completed in 1999 and has an arch span of 188 m. A plate girder steel arch was used during the construction. The assembly of this steel arch is unique in that no stay cables were used; the arch was assembled using a suspension bridge structure.

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Fig. 8 Tateyama Bridge

The Ikeda Hesokko Bridge is a 3-span reverse Langer arch bridge with an arch span of 200 m (Fig. 9). It was constructed using the truss method, with separate travelers for the deck and the arch ribs. This bridge was completed in 2000. In order to shorten the construction cycle, the spandrel columns were first assembled as steel frames, with care taken to ensure that their construction would not be on the critical path.

Fig. 9 Ikeda-Hesokko Bridge (Photo; West Nippon Expressway Company Ltd.)

At 265 m, the Fujigawa Bridge completed in 2003 has the largest arch span of any bridge in Japan (Fig. 10). The construction method was the same as that for the Chateaubriand Bridge in France. Temporary supports were placed between the arch ribs, and cantilever construction was conducted with the stay cables connected from pylons on top of these supports. As temporary supports were used, a temporary steel arch was not used on this bridge.

Fig. 10 Fujigawa Bridge (Photo; Central Nippon Expressway Company Ltd.)

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The lowering method had already been used by Morandi in Italy for arch erection since the 1950s. There are several examples of using this method in Japan to erect steel and concrete arches during bridge construction. Fig. 11 shows the Kameyamajou Bridge, for which the concrete arch ribs for the 105 m span arch were erected using the lowering method. In the lowering method, the arch ribs are constructed vertically and the tension of the lowering cables is used to make the axial force predominant in the arch ribs, with the aim of reducing the prestressing steel needed in the arch ribs (as compared to erection using temporary stays, in which bending moment is predominant). In this process, it is essential for the two pin supports placed in the arch springing to have the same axis of rotation during the lowering process. On the Kameyamajou Bridge, a single pin was shared, increasing the accuracy of lowering (Fig. 12). This bridge was completed in 2003.

Fig. 11 Kameyamajou Bridge

Fig. 12 Single Pin Bearings

Next, using the method of placing lowering cables as a reference, let us look at an example of the use of horizontal stays to apply as much axial force as possible to the arch ribs. Fig. 13 shows the Sudo Bridge, a 105 m arch span bridge that was completed in 2003. Due to the size of the abutment wings, horizontal stays and ground anchors were anchored here in order to reduce the quantity of erection members (Fig. 14).

Fig. 13 Sudo Bridge

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Wing Wall

Stay Cables

Form Traveler Arch Rib

Ground Anchor

Fig. 14 Temporary Stay Arrangement

There are also examples of the use of box girder steel arches during erection. The Kashirajima Bridge completed in 2004 has an arch span of 218 m (Fig. 15). As the bridge connects two islands, the entire temporary steel arch was erected in one piece using floating cranes. As can be seen in this example, in the third generation there were many examples of the use of box girder type steel arches. This is thought to be because the steel arches used up to that time for some of the arch ribs came to be used for all of the arch ribs, in order to close the arch more quickly. Moreover, in general, use of the box girder method enables the weight of the steel to be reduced as compared to the use of trusses and plate girders. In this way, a variety of erection methods have come to be used for arch bridges in Japan due to the fact that it is such an earthquake-prone country. In no other type of bridge is the difference in stress at the time of erection and at completion as great as in the arch bridge. Efforts to minimize this difference and reduce the reinforcing materials used during erection will no doubt continue in an effort to resolve this problem.

Fig. 15 Kashirajima Bridge

Construction Using Steel Box Temporary Arch

Erection methods using a box girder type steel arch have been employed since around 2000. As shown in Fig. 16, there are two varieties of this method. The method in which the steel arch was erected and then filled with concrete was developed first by Ohura and Kato (1993). The concrete fill was conducted to reduce the stress in the steel arch. As in the case of the truss and other methods, the method in which a steel arch was also used in order to close the arch more quickly had a disadvantage in that the member thickness is increased due to the burying of the steel arch 52

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within the arch rib web. The other method of box girder erection was developed to resolve this problem. In this method, the steel arch is used as formwork and, without filling the interior with concrete, the arch crown (which is critical in terms of stress) is covered with concrete first, enabling the weight to be greatly reduced. Fig. 17 and Fig. 18 show the weight of the steel and arch rib concrete in comparison with a temporary steel arch type bridge. The weight of the steel arch was determined by dividing the weight of the steel by the span length of the steel arch and the width of the arch ribs. The average thickness of the concrete was determined by dividing the volume by the arch span length and the width of the ribs. It can be seen that use of the box girder with no concrete fill helps to reduce the weight of the arch.
Filled Concrete Temporary Steel Arch

Fig. 16 Two Types of Temporary Steel Box Arch

0. 8 0. 7 0. 6 0. 5 0. 4 0. 3 0. 2 0. 1 0. 0 0 50 100 150 200 250

3. 5

Average Concrete Thickness for Arch Ribs (m3/m2)

3. 0 2. 5 2. 0 1. 5 1. 0 0. 5 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Span Length of Temporary Arch (m) Box (Concrete Fill Type) Box (Non Concrete Type) Truss Plate Girder

Span Length of Arch Ribs (m) Box (Concrete Fill Type) Box (Non Concrete Type) Truss Plate Girder

Fig. 17 Steel Weight of Temporary Arch

Fig. 18 Average Concrete Thickness for Arch Ribs

A specific design comparison was conducted as shown in Fig. 19, for an arch bridge with an arch span of 200 m and a span-to-rise ratio of 6.0:1. The results are shown in Tab. 1. Although the weight of the steel arch was increased by approximately 20%, the reinforcements used during the construction process, including the arch rib concrete, can be greatly reduced. The box girder type steel arch method in which no concrete fill is used is an effective way of reducing construction costs.

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Fig. 19 Detail of Design Model

Tab. 1 Results for Two Types of Arch

Box Arch (No Filled Concrete) Method B B/A 1,838 0 4.4 6.9 615 0.56 0.17 0.19 1.18

3,300 40 25.6 37.0 520

Temporary Steel Arch

Innovation in Half-through Arch Bridge Construction

Among arch bridges, the half-through arch bridge is one that achieves structural elegance in both construction and appearance. However, this type of bridge is difficult to construct, and in Japan as well there are few examples of the construction of this type of bridge using concrete. For bridges with the same span, the half-through arch bridge can be built with a large rise, and the overall form will differ depending on the position of the deck. However, this creates two different sections, the section where the deck is supported with piers and the section that is suspended from the arch ribs, making construction difficult. On the other hand, as shown in Fig. 20, with the half-through arch bridge it is possible to select a form that employs the deck as a tension member, achieving a structural balance and reducing the load on the foundation.

Fig. 20 Spandrel Arch

Fig. 21 shows the Koumyouike Bridge, a bridge with an arch span of 98 m that was completed in 1984. For the construction, first the arch ribs were built on top of a temporary steel arch, and then those erection members were lowered from the arch ribs and used as supports for the deck. For this spandrel arch, until the deck is completed and the tensile force can be reduced, ties need to be extended between the arches, or the arches need to be supported using temporary supports. The former method was used in this case.

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Fig. 21 Koumyouike Bridge

In this way, the half-through arch bridge is an extremely attractive structure, but it has tended to be avoided due to the difficulty of construction. In addition, when the arch ribs are placed between the outbound and inbound lanes, the distance between the outbound and inbound lanes is determined by the width of these arch ribs, and this increases the size of the support structure for the deck. In the new concept for half-through arch bridges introduced in this paper, the deck is used as one part of the arch structure, and this resolves several issues. Fig. 22 shows an example of this new concept in half-through arch bridges. Connecting the deck to the arch causes the axial force of the arch to pass to this section. In such cases, the lower section arch and deck are constructed first, allowing the upper section arch to then be constructed on top of the deck. In the case of a single plane arch, a certain portion of the axial force is passed to the deck, enabling the arch placed between the outbound and inbound lanes to be reduced in size and simplifying the suspension details. Out of consideration for erection, a corrugated steel web design is suitable for the deck structure in such cases.
55%

45% 100% 100%

Fig. 22 New Concept of Half-through Arch (Axial Force Distribution)

Fig. 23 shows the procedure for construction. First, the arch ribs and the joint section connecting the arch and the deck are constructed vertically and lowered into place. In this case, the box girder type steel arch discussed previously is used as the arch. A corrugated web is used at the launching nose of the deck, and the deck is erected by means of incremental launching and connected with the joint section. Next, form travelers are used to construct the upper and lower deck slabs, and simultaneously the arch ribs are covered with concrete. Then the deck in the center section is constructed, and the top half of the arch is constructed on the completed deck. During this process, the tensile force on the back stays is gradually reduced, enabling the intended axial force to be introduced to the bottom half of the arch, the deck and the top half of the arch. In the case of this structure, the deck functions as the corrugated steel web, so by using temporary steel piers on the arch, it is possible to lower the piers at the same time as the arch ribs.

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Step 1: Lowering of the Lower Section of Arch

Step 2: Incremental Launching of the Deck

Step 3: Cantilevering of the Deck in the Center Section

Step 4: Construction of the Upper Section of Arch Fig. 23 Construction Sequences

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Tab. 2 shows the results of a comparison of this bridge form with the conventional arch bridge, in the case of a bridge with an arch span of 200 m. It can be seen that the half-through arch bridge proposed in this paper (Fig. 24) is superior to the conventional design in all respects. Provided that ingenuity is exercised with regard to the structure and the materials used in their erection, arch bridges can be constructed in a more streamlined and economic fashion using this method. Tab. 2 Comparison of Two Types of Arch

Fig. 24 Model of New Concept Arch

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Strengthening of Arches following Seismic Code Revision after Kobe Earthquake

In the wake of the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake of 1995, major changes were made to the earthquake-resistance design specifications in Japan in 1996. Naturally the seismic force was increased, and out of consideration for the ability to restore structures following an earthquake, the reinforcing steel in the concrete deck were required to not yield even in the event of a Level 2 earthquake. These standards were applied to arch ribs as well. On an arch bridge, considerable torsional moment acts on the arch ribs of an arch bridge, particularly in the event of an earthquake that occurs in the transverse direction, and bridges constructed under the previous specifications do not meet the new standards. Accordingly, seismic retrofitting of existing arch bridges is currently being conducted. The example of the Usagawa Bridge shown in Fig. 6 is presented below. When conducting an analysis of the effect of an earthquake, the important thing is to evaluate the torsional rigidity of the arch ribs. Using Reference the research by Otsuka et al. (2004) as a guide, a method of evaluating the decrease in torsional rigidity was employed, based on the law of conservation of energy as in the case of bending moment. Fig. 25 shows the degree of decrease in torsional rigidity. In some sections, torsional rigidity decreased to 10% or less. Ultimately, the torsional moment produced by the earthquake was less than the elastic solution, and the sections in which load-carrying capacity was insufficient were reinforced by attaching carbon fiber-reinforced polymer sheets. Fig. 26 shows the status of reinforcement. Up to four layers of 0.333 mm thickness sheet were attached. Sheets measuring 0.5 m in width were placed at intervals of 0.5 m. This enabled the original concrete to be observed from the outside even after the strengthening. This method of seismic retrofitting for arch bridges is unusual even from a global perspective, and it will continue to be employed successively for bridge retrofitting in Japan in the future.
(%) 100

Degree of Decrease in Torsional Rigidity

80 60 40 20 0 0 50 100 150 DI T( ) S m 200

Torsional Moment (kNm)

300, 000 250, 000 200, 000 150, 000 100, 000 50, 000 0 0 50 100 150 D I T (m ) S 200

Elastic Solution Non-linear Solution Torsional Strength of Original Structure

Fig. 25 Reduction of Torsional Stiffness

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Fig. 26 Retrofitted Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer Sheet

New Arch Bridge Applications

This section will examine an arch bridge that is currently under construction, as well as a new approach to arch bridge construction in which an arch is used for a long span pedestrian bridge. Fig. 27 shows the Kakehashi Ichigou Bridge, a bridge with a span of 155 m that includes a curve in the road alignment. In the construction of the arch, first a box girder type steel arch was erected, and subsequently form travelers were used to form the concrete arch. The placement of the arch in planar terms first endeavored to minimize the shift with respect to the curved deck (Fig. 28). In addition, measures were taken with regard to the placement of the piers, and a deck slab supported by ribs was used to resolve the linearity issues. The Kakehashi Ichigou Bridge (Fig. 29, 30) will be completed in 2012.

Fig. 27 General View

Fig. 28

Plan of Arch

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Fig. 29 Construction of Steel Box Temporary Arch

Fig. 30 Model of Kakehashi Ichigou Bridge

Fig. 31 Olomouc Bridge

Fig. 32 Tokimeki Bridge

Combination of an arch bridge with a stress ribbon bridge was proposed by Strasky (1998). Basically, the arch is lowered into place and the lowering cables are used as a stress ribbon. This unique structure was first employed on the Olomouc bridge which was completed in 2007 (Fig. 31). In Japan, a pedestrian bridge that combines an arch with a stress ribbon was completed in 2001, using falsework for the construction (Fig. 32). When this method of erection is applied to a large bridge, if the piers are placed at the 1/4 point of the arch, the negative moment of the arch produced at this location can be restrained. As shown in Fig. 33, the arch is lowered with supports attached, forming a saddle structure in which the piers become the supports for the stress ribbon. This also enables the span length of the stress ribbon to be reduced.

Fig. 33 Construction Sequences for Arch and Stress Ribbon

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Conclusions

The arch bridge has an extremely ancient history. In modern times, with the development of reinforcing materials for use in their erection, arch bridges have grown larger, and a variety of erection methods have been developed. However, as shown in this paper, arch bridges still have considerable potential for further development. In Japan, a country in which 70% of the land area is mountainous terrain, the construction of arch bridges will continue to be needed, and efforts to make their construction more economical will undoubtedly continue. Moreover, these efforts must be promoted under the major constraint of Japan's being an earthquake-prone country. As seismic retrofitting of the arch bridges constructed in the past continues, efforts to explore new possibilities for arch bridges constitute one of the major tasks of bridge engineers in Japan.

References
[1] [2]
Ohura, T., Kato, M.: Erection and Field Test of Concrete Arch Bridge Applying Composite Tube. Journal of Construction Engineering & Management, ASCE, 1993. Otsuka, H., Takeshita, E., Yabuki, W., Wang, Y., Yoshimura, T., Tsunomoto, M.: Study in the Seismic Performance of Reinforced Concrete Columns Subjected to Torsional Moment, Bending Moment and Axial Force. 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, 2004. Strasky, J.: Rebirth of the Ribbon, Bridge Design and Engineering, 4th Quarter, 1998

[3]

Akio Kasuga, [Link].

URL

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