1 Health Maintenance and Statistics

CASE 11 IMMUNIZATIONS
An 18-year-old male is brought to the emergency department 3 hours after he was involved in a motor vehicle crash. There are a number of dirty wounds. Some of them are stellate and >1 cm. Sensation is intact. His immunization status is unknown. What vaccine should you administer immediately? Wounds with the following characteristics have increased risk of clostridium tetanus wound infection (mnemonic is SIC SOD): Stellate, Infected, Contaminated, decreased Sensation over wound, Older than 6 hours, Deeper than 1 cm. Patients with any of these features and unknown immunization status should receive human tetanus immune globulin (HTIG) and an initial dose of Tetanus, diphtheria, and pertussis (Tdap) vaccine (Tables 11, 1-2, and 1-3).

TABLE 11 Live Attenuated Vaccines Vaccine MMR (measles, mumps, and rubella) General Indications All children Unvaccinated adults born after 1957 Schedule Contraindications

2 doses at least 4 weeks apart

Standarda Pregnancy Immunocompromisedb

Varicella

All children Unvaccinated adults with no history of chicken pox and no varicella antibodies

2 doses at least 4 weeks apart

Standard Pregnancy Immunocompromised

Oral typhoid vaccine

Travel to endemic area

4 capsules taken every other day

Standard Pregnancy Immunocompromised

Intranasal influenza vaccine

Age 50 Consider in all patients

Single dose

Standard Pregnancy Immunocompromised History of anaphylactic reaction to eggs Chronic medical conditions

Adapted from Agebegi S, Derby E. Step-up to medicine. 2005. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. a Standard contraindications are history of anaphylactic reaction to vaccine and severe illness after vaccination (mild illness is not a contraindication). b MMR is the only live vaccine not contraindicated in HIV-positive patients.

TABLE 12 Inactivated (killed virus) Vaccines

Vaccine

Indications All children Unvaccinated adults who plan to travel to an endemic area

Schedule 2 doses at least 4 weeks apart and a third dose 612 months after second dose

Contraindications

Inactivated polio vaccine (IPV)

Standard

Intramuscular influenza vaccine

Age 50 years Chronic medical conditions (e.g., diabetes mellitus, chronic renal failure, etc.) Healthcare workers Second or third trimester pregnancy during flu season (October to May) Consider in all patients

Annual

Standard History of anaphylactic reaction to eggs

Hepatitis A (HAVRIX)

Chronic liver disease Clotting factor disorder Risk factors for hepatitis B or hepatitis C infection (Chapter 5 ) Travel to endemic area

2 doses 612 months apart

Standard

Adapted from Agebegi S, Derby E. Step-up to medicine. 2005. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.

TABLE 13 Toxoid and Component Vaccines Recommended Recipients All children Unvaccinated adults with a major dirty wound Unvaccinated adult who plans to travel to an epidemic area

Vaccine

Schedule

Contraindications

Diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (Tdap)

2 doses at least 4 weeks apart and a third dose 612 months after second dose; then, booster every 10 years

Standard

Persons who plan to travel to an epidemic area All asplenic

Meningococcus

patients Consider in college students who live in a dormitory and military personnel

Single dose

Standard

Hepatitis B

All infants Unvaccinated healthcare workers Unvaccinated adults with risk factors for hepatitis B infection

2 doses at least 4 weeks apart and a third dose 612 months after second dose

Standard

Pneumococcus (PPV23)

Age 65 years Chronic medical conditions (e.g., diabetes mellitus, chronic renal failure, etc.) Asplenia

Single dose

Standard

Intramuscular typhoid vaccine

Travel to endemic area

Single dose

Standard

Adapted from Agebegi S, Derby E. Step-up to medicine. 2005. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.

Motor vehicle accidents are the leading cause of death in young adults.

Would you administer tetanus vaccine if the records showed that he had received a Tdap booster 7 years ago? Consider administering a tetanus booster if a patient with a tetanus-prone wound has not received a booster in the last 5 years.

The patient requires a splenectomy. What additional vaccines should you administer? Asplenic patients should receive a single dose of pneumococcal vaccine (PPV23) and meningococcal vaccine 14 days after emergency splenectomy.

Elective splenectomy: Administer vaccines 14 days prior to surgery.

P.2

Sickle cell anemia: Usually administered PPV23 and meningococcal vaccine because

these patients are functionally asplenic.

Would you re-administer meningococcal vaccine if medical records indicated that the patient had elected to receive the meningococcal vaccine 1 year ago when he first moved into a college dormitory? Patients who have already received the meningococcal vaccine do not require repeat vaccination, even after splenectomy.

P.3

College students living off-campus: Risk of meningococcal infection is similar to general population; vaccination is not cost-effective.

Would you re-administer PPV23 if the patient had received this vaccine in the past? Yes, consider a single repeat PPV23 dose in these patients. Other indications for a single repeat dose of PPV23 are:

1. 2.

Patient is 65 years and received PPV23 10 years ago before the age of 65. Immunocompromised patient received PPV23 5 years ago.

The patient tells you he has never had sexual intercourse and does not use illegal drugs. He is in college studying finance. He is up to date with all his childhood immunizations except hepatitis B. Should he receive any vaccines at this time? This patient does not appear to have any indications for the hepatitis B vaccine. However, he should consider annual influenza vaccine if he wishes to avoid getting the flu during flu season (October to May). Killed intramuscular and live attenuated intranasal versions of the influenza vaccine are available, both of which are equally effective.

During a follow-up appointment 1 year later, the patient reveals he has been injecting heroin for the last 3 months. What additional vaccines should you consider? Intravenous drug use is a risk factor for hepatitis B and hepatitis C infection, which can cause chronic cirrhosis. Test the patient for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis B virus. If hepatitis B virus serology is negative, administer hepatitis B vaccine. Also, consider hepatitis A vaccine. There is no vaccine against hepatitis C.

P.4 Serology for HIV-1 (enzyme immunoassay) and hepatitis B (HbsAg) is negative. The patient receives all three doses of hepatitis B vaccine; he declines hepatitis A vaccine. Two years later, he tells you he is planning to go to India in a couple of months. What immunizations should you recommend? Offer a polio booster, hepatitis A vaccine, and typhoid vaccine to patients who plan to travel to the Indian subcontinent. A live, attenuated, oral vaccine and an intramuscular polysaccharide vaccine are available to protect against salmonella typhi. Unless the patient does not wish to receive an injection, the intramuscular preparation is generally preferred.

Traveller's diarrhea: Antibiotic prophylaxis is not recommended for immunocompetent patients; consider ciprofloxacin if the patient develops any of the following: 4

unformed stools per day, bloody stools, or mucus in stool.

Malaria prophylaxis: Consider mefloquine or atovaquone-proguanil, with doxycylcine as an alternative; chloroquine is not recommended except in Central America and the Caribbean because of the high prevalence of resistant Plasmodium falciparum.

CASE 12 TUBERCULOSIS SCREENING

A 20-year-old patient visits the clinic for the first time. She is asymptomatic. She emigrated from Mexico 3 years ago and works with the state prison system. Would you recommend tuberculosis (TB) screening for this patient? Annual TB screening is indicated in any of the following asymptomatic patients (mnemonic is Mycobacterium = SIC Lungs):

1.

Medical risk factor: Chronic renal failure, diabetes mellitus, and immune suppression (HIV, organ transplant, blood cancer, and chronic steroid use)

2. 3.

Socioeconomic risk factor (e.g., homelessness, alcoholism, intravenous drug use) Immigration <5 years ago from area with increased TB prevalence (e.g., India, Mexico)

4.

Career with high potential for close contact with active TB patient (healthcare worker, prison guard)

5.

Long-term care facility resident (nursing home, mental care facility, prison)

This prison guard, who recently emigrated from a high-prevalence country, should undergo annual screening.

Perform TB screening once if a person has a single potential exposure (e.g., infected family member) or an incidentally detected fibrotic lung lesion.

What test is used to screen asymptomatic patients for TB? Use the Mantoux test to screen asymptomatic patients. Inject purified protein derivative into the patient's arm and measure the transverse length of induration (not erythema) 48 to 72 hours later.

There is 11 mm of induration 60 hours later. How would you interpret this finding? On the basis of this patient's risk factors, the Mantoux test is considered positive because she has >10 mm of induration (Table 1-4).

TABLE 14 Interpretation of Mantoux Test (intradermal PPD injection) Induration Considered Positive in the Following Patients 1. 2. 3. Immunosuppression or HIV positive Recent close contact with known active TB patient Fibrotic changes on chest radiograph that suggest prior TB

>5 mm

1. 2. >10 mm 3. 4.

Socioeconomic risk factor Immigrant <5 years ago from an area with high TB prevalence Career with increased potential for close contact with active TB patient Long-term care facility resident

>15 mm

Considered positive in all persons

How would your interpretation of the Mantoux test differ if the patient mentioned that she had received the Bacilli Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine as a child, and her medical records mentioned that her baseline level of induration was 7 mm? Many patients from countries with a high TB prevalence have been immunized with the BCG vaccine as children to prevent childhood TB, meningitis, and miliary TB. Interpret the Mantoux test as follows in BCG-vaccinated patients:

1.

Age <35 years: Test is positive if there is an increase of 10 mm induration from baseline P.5

2.

Age >35 years: Test is positive if there is an increase of 15 mm induration from baseline

If this 20-year-old patient's baseline induration was 7 mm, the Mantoux test is negative because she has an increase of only 4 mm induration from baseline.

Most individuals in the United States do not receive BCG vaccine because overall prevalence is low, the vaccine's efficacy is variable, and it interferes with the purified protein derivative test.

How would your interpretation of the Mantoux test differ if the patient mentioned that she received the BCG vaccine as a child but did not know her baseline induration? If the patient does not know her baseline level of induration, interpret and treat skin test reactivity just like you would an unvaccinated person. This patient would therefore have a positive Mantoux test.

What is the next step in management of an asymptomatic patient with a positive Mantoux test? The next step is to obtain a chest radiograph (CXR) to exclude active infection. If CXR shows signs of active infection, treat with combination therapy (refer to Chapter 3).

What is the next step in management if CXR of a patient with a positive Mantoux test does not show any signs of active infection? If CXR does not demonstrate active infection, treat with a 6- to 12-month course of isoniazid (INH) to prevent reactivation of latent infection.

3 months of INH + rifampin: Alternative if compliance is a concern. 4 months of rifampin monotherapy: Reserved for known exposure to INHresistant TB.

What other infectious diseases should you screen for in adults?

1.

HIV-1: The U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommends screening all persons 13 years old. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) makes no recommendation for or against universal HIV screening.

2. 3.

Human papillomavirus: Refer to case 1-3. Chlamydia: Routinely test all sexually active women <25 years old; use nucleic acid amplification assays of cervical swabs or urine samples. Screen women >25 years old if they have a history of sexually transmitted diseases or multiple sexual partners.

Also screen high-risk women for gonorrhea and syphilis.

P.6

CASE 13 CANCER SCREENING

A 22-year-old woman presents for a routine evaluation. She saw a breast cancer documentary on television and wants to know if she should undergo any screening for breast cancer. She is particularly interested in learning breast self-examination (BSE). Her father was diagnosed with colon cancer at age 55. There is no other cancer history in her family. She reports that she has never had sexual intercourse. What screening should you recommend for early detection of breast cancer at this time? Perform clinical breast exam (CBE) every 3 years in women between the ages of 20 and 40 to screen for breast cancer (Table 1-5). After the age of 40, she should undergo annual CBE and mammography. BSE is an adjunctive option for patients who express interest, but this method is not a substitute for CBE.

TABLE 15 American Cancer Society Guidelines for Early Cancer Detection

Breast Cancer

Women aged 2040 years: Perform clinical breast exam every 3 years. Women aged 4070 years: Perform annual clinical breast exam and mammography. Women >70 years: Discontinue screening if the woman's life expectancy is <10 years.

Initiate screening at age 50 in all average-risk persons. Any one of the following five options are acceptable:a Colorectal Cancer 1. 2. 3. Annual fecal occult blood test or fecal immunochemical testb Flexible sigmoidoscopy every 5 years Annual fecal occult blood test or fecal immunochemical test plus flexible sigmoidoscopy every 5 years

4. 5.

Double-contrast barium enema every 5 years Colonoscopy every 10 years

Refer to Chapter 4 and table 1-6 for screening recommendations in patients with greater than average risk.

Cervical Cancer

Begin annual Pap test in women 3 years after the first episode of sexual intercourse or at age 21 (whichever is earlier).c After age 30, women with at least three normal Pap smears in a row can decrease screening interval to every 23 years. After age 70, women with at least three normal Pap smears in a row and normal Pap tests for the last 10 years can discontinue screening.

Prostate Cancer

Discuss the risks and benefits of early prostate cancer detection in all males at age 50 as long as their estimated life expectancy is >10 years.d If the patient wishes to undergo screening or asks the physician to decide, test with annual digital rectal exam and prostate specific antigen.

Starting at age 20, perform the following physical exam maneuvers during periodic health exams: 1. 2. 3. 4. Thyroid palpation to screen for thyroid cancer Bimanual pelvic exam to screen for ovarian cancer Mouth and skin inspection to screen for oral and skin cancers Lymph node palpation

Other

a Follow up on a positive result in options 1 to 4 with colonoscopy. b Examine two samples from each of three consecutive stools. c Perform every two years rather than annually if using the newer, liquidbased Pap test. d Initiate the discussion and possible screening at age 45 if the patient is African American or has a family history of prostate cancer before age 65 in one or more family members.

Family history of early breast cancer: Discuss the risks and benefits of aggressive screening, and then tailor screening protocol based on patient preference; the main risk of mammography is over-diagnosis (requires unnecessary invasive testing).

P.7 Is any other cancer screening test recommended at this time? Perform annual Papanicolaou testing (Pap test, Pap smear) to screen for cervical cancer in all females by the age of 21 even if they report never having had sexual intercourse (Table 1-5).

Gardasil: Vaccine against cervical cancer that protects against human papillomavirus serotypes 6, 11, 16, and 18; guidelines for immunization are unclear.

When should she start colorectal cancer screening? Colorectal cancer in at least one first-degree family member or at least two second-degree family members is associated with a greater than average risk of colon cancer. Colonoscopy is the screening test of choice in such patients. This patient should start screening colonoscopy at age 40 (Table 1-6).

TABLE 16 Colorectal Cancer Screening in Persons with a Positive Family History Earliest Age atDiagnosis 50 years

Family Member One or more firstdegree relatives

When to Start Screening Colonoscopy 40 years

One or more firstdegree relatives

<50 years

10 years before earliest age at diagnosis

Two or more second-degree relatives

Any

40 years

One seconddegree relative

Any

50

At the age of 48, the patient asks whether she needs to continue with Pap testing. She had a subtotal hysterectomy for menstrual migraines 11 months ago. She has been in a monogamous relationship with her husband for the last 25 years. Her prior Pap tests were all negative. Because the cervix is left in place after subtotal hysterectomy, the recommendations regarding Pap testing are not changed in her situation. She should continue to undergo regular Pap testing. If this patient had a total hysterectomy (cervix excised), then she would no longer require screening for cervical cancer.

The results of a Pap test at age 50 are unsatisfactory for evaluation. What is your recommendation regarding follow-up testing? A satisfactory specimen contains at least 8000 to 12,000 squamous cells, as well as both squamous metaplastic and endocervical cells (indicates adequate sampling of the transformation zone of the cervix, the area at greatest risk for neoplasia). Always repeat unsatisfactory Pap smears in 2 to 4 months.

The patient undergoes repeat testing two more times, and both times the specimen is labeled as unsatisfactory. What is the next step in management? Women with repeated unsatisfactory Pap smears have increased risk of cervical intraepithelial lesions. The next step in management is colposcopy biopsy.

Colposcope: lighted, binocular microscope that provides enlarged view of the cervix, vagina, and vulva.

Colposcopy and biopsy are negative. Over the next 22 years, she regularly undergoes Pap

testing. All subsequent Pap tests are negative. She has not had sexual intercourse since her husband passed away 5 years ago. Can she discontinue Pap testing? Yes, she can discontinue cervical cancer screening at this time (Table 1-5).

P.8 Suppose the patient's subtotal hysterectomy at age 48 was performed to treat stage-2 cervical carcinoma in situ rather than menstrual migraines. Can she discontinue cervical cancer screening at age 70 if all her Pap tests are negative after age 48? The following situations pose an increased risk for cervical cancer (DICE):

1. 2. 3. 4.

DES (Diethylstilbestrol) exposure in utero Immune compromise Cervical cancer, history of CIN II or CIN III (Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia) Endocervical cells repeatedly absent or obscured on Pap tests

Patients with any of these risk factors should undergo annual screening after age 30 and should continue screening after age 70 even if prior Pap tests are all negative.

The 70-year-old patient has regularly undergone CBE and mammography, which have always been normal. She has mild hypertension but is otherwise healthy and active. Should she discontinue breast cancer screening? The patient has a strong chance of living 10 more years. She should not discontinue annual CBE and mammography unless life expectance is <10 years (Table 1-5).

The 70-year-old patient's 45-year-old daughter has a 25-pack-year history of cigarette smoking. She asks about lung cancer screening. What should she be told? Lung cancer screening with low dose helical (spiral) CT sputum cytology does detect lung cancer at an earlier stage, but it is unclear whether early detection improves mortality (lead-time bias). On the other hand, screening detects a number of benign pulmonary nodules that require invasive testing to rule out cancer. The American Cancer Society and USPSTF do not make any recommendation for or against screening.

CASE 14 PREVENTION OF CORONARY HEART DISEASE

A 54-year-old male presents to the clinic for the first time. He has not visited a healthcare provider in many years. He is asymptomatic. His father died of a myocardial infarct at age 70. His mother died after a stroke at age 80. He has a 30-pack-year history of cigarette smoking. Physical activity is limited to walking 15 minutes daily to catch the train to work. He does not eat fruits and vegetables often. Blood pressure is 150/90 mm Hg. On the basis of history and physical exam alone, how many major risk factors does this patient have for coronary heart disease (CHD)? The patient has two major risk factors for CHD: smoking and hypertension (Table 1-7). On the basis of his history and physical exam, he also has three nonmajor risk factors for CHD (male sex, sedentary lifestyle, and diet).

TABLE 17 Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease

10

Major risk factors

Hypertension Diabetes mellitus Dyslipidemia ( low-density lipoprotein and high-density lipoprotein) Smoking

Other risk factors

Age: male, >45 years; female, >55 years Male gender First-degree family history of coronary heart disease: male, <55 years; female, <65 years Lab markers: increased homocysteine, creactive protein, fibrinogen, and estrogen Sedentary lifestyle and abdominal obesity Diet: inadequate fruits and vegetables

Note: DM, chronic renal failure, and peripheral arterial disease are CHD equivalents.

CHD: Stable angina, unstable angina, and myocardial infarct; synonymous with coronary artery disease (CAD).

When should you start screening patients for hypertension? Measure blood pressure in all patients 18 years of age at every clinical encounter.

When should you start screening patients for dyslipidemia (hyperlipidemia)? National Cholesterol Education Project (NCEP) recommends a fasting lipid profile at age 20. If values are normal, recheck fasting lipid profile every 5 years. If the patient has a borderline measurement, recheck within 1 to 2 years. If the patient has not fasted prior to testing, obtain nonfasting total and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol.

Most other organizations recommend initial fasting lipid profile at age 35.

P.9 When should you start screening patients for DM? The American Diabetes Association recommends screening everyone 45 years for DM every 3 years. The USPSTF recommends this screening interval only for patients with hypertension or hyperlipidemia.

Aggressive control of major risk factors decreases mortality from CHD.

The patient's fasting lipid profile is normal. Fasting blood sugar is 150 mg/dL on 2 repeat measurements, which indicates he has DM. He starts taking hydrochlorothiazide, lisinoprol, and metformin. He quits smoking. In addition to lifestyle measures and medications that help control risk factors, what drug could lower his risk of developing CHD? Aspirin can lower the risk of developing CHD in patients without known CHD (primary

11

prevention).

Should this asymptomatic patient take aspirin? Although aspirin lowers the risk of developing overt CHD, it also carries a risk of gastrointestinal bleeding. The benefits of aspirin outweigh the risks when the 10-year risk of developing CHD exceeds 10%. The risk of CHD is >10% in patients with DM and at least one other risk factor. Therefore, because this patient has DM and more than one other risk factor, he should consider aspirin for primary prophylaxis.

Risk factors used to calculate CHD probability are major risk factors + age.

Would you recommend aspirin if he were asymptomatic and had no CHD risk factors? The 10-year risk of CHD is <1% in asymptomatic patients with no CHD risk factors, so aspirin is not recommended for primary prevention in these patients.

Suppose the patient has stable angina. Would you recommend aspirin? Patients with stable angina already have CHD. Aspirin can prevent further cardiovascular events in these patients (secondary prevention). Because the 10-year risk of a future cardiovascular event is well over 10% in patients with known CHD, he should take aspirin for secondary prevention.

CASE 15 SCREENING AND PREVENTION OF OSTEOPOROSIS

A 34-year-old white female presents for a routine evaluation. She is concerned about her risk of osteoporosis because her 67-year-old mother recently had a compression fracture. The patient is asymptomatic. She has regular menstrual periods. She has never had a fracture. She does not get much time to exercise and smokes a pack of cigarettes every day. P.10 What measures should you recommend at this time to prevent osteoporosis? Discuss risk factors for osteoporosis (Table 1-8), and advise all women to adopt lifestyle measures to prevent this condition. Lifestyle measures include:

1.

Adequate calcium and vitamin D intake: Premenopausal women should consume 100 mg of calcium and 400 IU of vitamin D. Consider supplements if dietary intake is insufficient.

2.

Weight-bearing physical activity: Perform activities that require the body to work against gravity (e.g., walking, tennis, resistance training, etc.).

3.

Stop smoking and avoid excessive alcohol intake.

TABLE 18 Risk Factors for Osteoporosis (National Osteoporosis Foundation)

KEY RISK FACTORS THAT DETERMINE RISK OF HIP FRACTURES

Personal history of fracture as an adult Family history of fracture in first-degree relative

12

 Cigarette smoking Low body weight (<58 kg)

OTHER RISK FACTORS (MNEMONIC: OLD WHITE FEMALE FALLS DOWN AND FRACTURES SECOND VERTEBRA):

Old age White race Female sex Falls (recurrent) Dementia Alcoholism Frail (poor overall health) Sedentary Estrogen Calcium intake Vision poor despite adequate correction

Nonweight-bearing exercise: Activities such as swimming and riding a bicycle do not reduce risk of osteoporosis.

The patient asks if she should undergo screening for osteoporosis. What should you recommend to her? Screen men and premenopausal women only if they have a history of fragility fracture. Screening is not indicated in this premenopausal woman because she has no fracture history.

Fragility fracture: Fracture that occurs after a fall from standing height or less; most common sites are neck of femur, wrist, and vertebrae.

Over the next 20 years, the patient performs weight-bearing exercise regularly but continues to smoke. She is postmenopausal. Is any osteoporosis screening indicated? Postmenopausal women <65 years old with at least one osteoporosis risk factor should consider dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) to screen for osteoporosis. If the DXA Tscore is >1 (normal), consider follow-up DXA after 3 to 5 years (not universally recommended). If the T-score is between -1 and -2.5 (osteopenia), consider follow-up DXA every 1 to 2 years. The optimum DXA measurement site is debatable, although the hip and spine are frequently used.

Use DXA to screen all women 65 years of age regardless of risk factors.

P.11 T-score is 1.5. Should this patient take any medications to prevent osteoporosis? Discuss the risks and benefits of pharmacologic therapy with patients who have osteopenia and multiple osteoporosis risk factors (see Chapter 8: Endocrinology). Firstline agents for primary prevention in patients who desire medications are raloxifene and bisphosphonates. Estrogen is a second-line agent if first-line agents are contraindicated

13

or cause intolerable side effects.

All postmenopausal women should continue lifestyle measures; recommended calcium and vitamin D intake in postmenopausal women is 1200 mg and 800 IU, respectively.

CASE 16 SMOKING CESSATION

A 60-year-old male with hypertension visits the clinic to follow up on his antihypertensive regimen. What is the first step with regard to smoking cessation? Ask all patients whether they smoke. A modified CAGE questionnaire or Fagerstrom test can help assess nicotine dependence in smokers:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Have you ever tried to, or felt the need to, Cut down on your smoking? Do you ever get Annoyed when people tell you to quit smoking? Do you ever feel Guilty about smoking? Do you ever smoke within one-half hour of waking up (Eye-opener)?

For the modified CAGE questionnaire, two yes responses constitute a positive screening test. To assist with patients who are attempting to quite smoking, use the Five As of Office-Based Smoking Cessation Counseling:

Ask all patients whether or not they smoke. Advise them about the risks of smoking and the benefits of quitting. Assess their willingness to quit smoking. Assist the patient (set quit date, provide pharmacologic therapy, etc.). Arrange follow-up to reassess smoking status.

Doctors are three times more likely to intervene if they know a patient smokes.

The patient has a 30-pack-year history of smoking. He does not feel that smoking is a problem and does not wish to quit at this time. What is the next step in management? There are five stages of smoking cessation. In the precontemplation stage, the patient does not believe that smoking is a problem or refuses to consider smoking cessation. In the contemplation stage, the patient recognizes that smoking is a problem and wishes to quit. In the preparation stage, the patient makes specific plans to quit smoking (e.g., setting a quit date). In the action stage, the patient stops smoking. In the maintenance stage, the patient continues to abstain from smoking. Patients often cycle through these stages several times before reaching stable abstinence. This patient is in the precontemplation stage. Motivational interviewing to encourage contemplation is the best strategy at this time:

1.

Express concern about his habit.

14

2. 3. 4.

Discuss the risks of smoking and the benefits of quitting (Table 1-9). Recommend smoking cessation. Arrange for a follow-up appointment.

P.12 TABLE 19 Hazards of Smoking

Cardiovascular

Smoking is responsible for >10% of cardiovascular deaths; smoking cessation reduces the risk of acute coronary events.

1. 2. Cancer 3. 4.

Pulmonary (nasopharynx, pharynx, larynx, bronchogenic cancer, mesothelioma) Gastrointestinal (esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas) Renal and reproductive (kidney, bladder, renal pelvis, cervix) Heme (leukemia)

Pulmonary

Smokers with chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder have an accelerated decline in FEV1 (forced expiratory volume in 1 second). Smoking cessation slows this rate of decline and may lead to remission of certain interstitial lung diseases such as Langerhans histiocytosis. Finally, smoking increases the risk of pneumonia and tuberculosis infections.

Peptic ulcer disease

Smoking cessation decreases the risk of developing peptic ulcer disease and accelerates the rate of healing in established disease.

Reproductive disorders

Smoking increases the risk of infertility, spontaneous abortion, ectopic pregnancy, and premature menopause.

Osteoporosis

Smoking accelerates bone resorption and is a risk factor for hip fracture in women; 10 years of smoking cessation reduces this risk.

Mortality

Smoking is the leading cause of preventable death among all patients in the United States. Smoking cessation decreases mortality from all causes.

Six months later, the patient returns for a follow-up appointment. When questioned about smoking, he reports that he wishes to quit because his uncle was recently diagnosed with lung cancer. What are the next steps in management? The patient is now in the contemplation stage. The next steps are:

1. 2.

Set a quit date, typically within 2 to 3 weeks. Prepare the environment: Ask patient to remove cigarettes and smoking-related paraphernalia from home, office, and vehicle; have patient tell others not to smoke in his presence.

3.

Avoid triggers and recommend healthy substitute activities.

15

4. 5.

Prescribe pharmacologic therapy if the patient desires. Arrange follow-up 3 to 7 days after the quit date.

The patient decides to quit smoking in 2 weeks. His wife and children support his decision. He prepares the environment and decides to restart his prior hobby of woodworking. He presents 4 days after the quit date with irritability, difficulty concentrating, and insomnia. What is the most likely cause of these symptoms? Smoking cessation can lead to nicotine withdrawal. Symptoms include depression, anxiety, irritability, restlessness, insomnia, difficulty concentrating, increased appetite, and weight gain. These symptoms typically resolve within a few weeks of cessation. Pharmacologic therapy can reduce but not completely eliminate symptoms.

What pharmacologic options exist to decrease symptoms of nicotine withdrawal?

1.

Nicotine replacement: Available in five forms (see Table 1-10). All five forms are equally effective, so patient preference decides which method to use. Nicotine pharmacotherapy reduces rate of relapse by 50%.

2.

Bupropion (Zyban): Bupropion inhibits dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake in the central nervous system. Bupropion is as effective as nicotine at reducing relapse. Nicotine + bupropion may be superior to either agent alone.

3.

Varenicline (Chantix): This recently approved drug is designed to partially activate nicotinic acetylcholine receptors while displacing nicotine at its sites of action in the brain.

P.13 TABLE 110 Pharmacotherapy for Nicotine Withdrawal Drug Nicotine gum/lozenge Duration Drawbacks Requires patient education because it is difficult to use correctly. Many smokers become chronic gum/lozenge users.

36 months

Nicotine patch

23 months

Can cause vivid, disturbing dreams. The combination of cigarettes and the nicotine patch causes discomfort due to high nicotine levels (associated with almost 100% relapse rate).

Nicotine inhaler/spray

23 months

Highest potential for nicotine dependence.

Bupropion

23 months

Can cause seizures in 0.1% of patients.

Varenicline

36 months

Can cause nausea, headache, insomnia, and vivid dreams.

Behavioral programs: Associated with decreased relapse rates; pharmacotherapy plus behavioral therapy is associated with lower relapse rates than either method

16

alone.

CASE 17 ALCOHOL ABUSE AND DEPENDENCE

A 38-year-old woman tells you she drinks two to three 5-ounce glasses of wine every night. She works as a lawyer and was recently promoted to partner. She does not feel like her alcohol use is a problem and does not feel guilty about her drinking. Her husband sometimes tells her she needs to cut down on the wine, which she finds annoying. What is the next step in management? Women who consume >7 drinks a week or 3 drinks per occasion are considered to be at risk for future adverse consequences. The next step for at-risk patients is brief intervention, which can vary from a single discussion to multiple sessions of counseling and follow-up sessions.

1 drink: 0.5 oz alcohol (12 oz beer, 5 oz wine, or 1.5 oz 80-proof spirit).

At-risk men: >14 drinks per week or 4 drinks per occasion.

After a brief discussion, the patient tells you she is not interested in cutting down on her alcohol intake and does not want any further discussions on the topic. One year later, she is arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol. Her husband has threatened to leave her if she doesn't stop drinking. She continues her usual intake of alcohol. How would you classify her pattern of alcohol use? Substance use is classified as abuse if the patient meets any of the following criteria:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Failure to fulfill obligations (at work, school, home, etc.) Continued use despite social or interpersonal problems caused by substance use Use in dangerous situations (e.g., driving a car) Recurrent substance-related legal problems

Alcohol abuse screening: suspect if two or more criteria on CAGE questionnaire are present.

P.14 Two years later, the patient tells you she now consumes 25 glasses of wine per week to achieve the same effect. She doesn't get out of the house much because she prefers to drink alone in her free time. She realizes she has a drinking problem and is very depressed because she is unable to stop drinking. How would you classify her pattern of alcohol use? Three out of seven criteria are required to diagnose dependence on alcohol or any other substance:

1.

Tolerance (patient requires an increased amount of substance to achieve the desired effect)

17

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Withdrawal (see Chapter 7: Fluids, Electrolytes and Acid Base Disorders) Significant time spent getting, using, or recovering from the substance Using substance more than originally intended Persistent desire to cut down on use Decreased social, occupational, or recreational activities as a result of substance use

7.

Continued use despite physical or psychological problems

Legally, blood alcohol level >80 mg/dL is classified as intoxication; chronic users may not experience signs of intoxication until much higher levels.

What treatment should you recommend? Set a quit date. Monitor the patient for withdrawal and treat if necessary (see Chapter 7: Fluids and Electrolytes). Recommend an Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) program, which is a cost-effective alternative to professional outpatient alcohol treatment.

AA emphasizes recovery through belief in a higher power; other non-faith programs are available but have not been studied rigorously.

The patient agrees on a quit date. She experiences minor tremors and nausea within a few hours of her last drink, which is successfully treated with outpatient diazepam. She remains abstinent for 12 days and enrolls in an AA program. She constantly experiences cravings for just one alcoholic beverage. What additional therapy can you offer? Consider a 4-month course of naltrexone for patients who have stopped drinking but need additional support to remain abstinent. This opioid antagonist reduces alcohol cravings. Before prescribing this drug, check serum creatinine and liver function tests because naltrexone is contraindicated in patients with chronic liver or kidney disease.

Alcohol withdrawal: inpatient therapy is recommended if the patient has seizures, hallucinations, or delirium tremens (see Chapter 7: Fluids, Electrolytes, and Acid-Base Disorders).

CASE 18 CLINICAL STATISTICS

The CDC estimated that in 2002 there were about 700,000 people in the United States living with HIV/AIDS. They also estimated that there were 40,000 new infections that year. The population of the United States at that time was approximately 280 million people. On the basis of the CDC report, what was the prevalence of HIV/AIDS in 2002? Prevalence is the total number of cases of a disease in the population at a given time, so the prevalence of HIV/AIDS in 2002 was 700,000. Prevalence can also be expressed as (total number of cases) / (total population) = 700,000 / 280 million = 0.025%.

On the basis of the CDC report, what was the incidence of HIV/AIDS in 2002? Incidence is the number of new cases of disease in the population at a given time, so the

18

incidence of HIV/AIDS in 2002 was 40,000. Incidence can also be expressed as (total new cases) / (total population at risk) = 40,000 / (280 million - 700,000) = 0.00014%.

P.15 Which measure is more useful when describing a disorder such as infectious mononucleosis? Incidence is far more useful than prevalence to describe acute, short-lived disorders such as infectious mononucleosis.

Western blot is the gold standard test to detect HIV-1 infection. Enzyme immunoassay (EIA) is the most frequently used screening test. Table 1-11 describes the findings of a study that compared EIA to the gold standard test in 10,000 persons. On the basis of this study, what is the sensitivity of EIA? Sensitivity tells us how good a test is at correctly identifying people with disease. Therefore, a very sensitive test helps rule out disease.

TABLE 111 EIA versus Western Blot Western Blot (+) EIA (+) 9990 = True positive (TP) Western Blot (-) 10 = False positive (FP)

EIA (-)

10 = False negative (FN)

9990 = True negative (TN)

SNOUT = SeNsitivity rules OUT

On the basis of this study, what is the specificity of EIA? Specificity tells us how good a test is at correctly identifying people without disease. Therefore, a very specific test helps rule in disease.

SPIN = SPecificity rules IN

On the basis of this study, what is the positive predictive value (PPV) of EIA? PPV tells us what proportion of positive results is correct.

On the basis of this study, what is the negative predictive value (NPV) of EIA? NPV tells us what proportion of negative results is correct.

19

The prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Malawi is about 20%. How would this increased prevalence affect sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and NPV? Sensitivity and specificity are unaffected by prevalence; however, increased prevalence leads to increased PPV and decreased NPV (and vice versa).

What is the probability that a randomly chosen person in Malawi will be HIV-positive? The probability that a person will have a disorder before the results of a test are known is called pretest probability. The pretest probability that a randomly chosen person in Malawi will be HIV-positive is 20%.

Increased pretest probability does not affect sensitivity or specificity of a test; however, increased pretest probability leads to increased PPV and decreased NPV (and vice versa).

P.16 What are the odds that a randomly chosen person in Malawi will be HIV-positive?

Odds of a:b correspond to a probability of a / (a + b).

Diagnostic testing for HIV is not available in the Mulanje district of Malawi. A 32-year-old patient presents with fever, cough, lymphadenopathy, and an abnormal lung exam. You read in a journal that these findings carry a positive likelihood ratio of 8 for HIV seropositivity in this district. How can you use this positive likelihood ratio to calculate the probability of AIDS? In this case, the test is compatible clinical features:

Therefore, on the basis of clinical findings alone, this patient has a 66% chance of AIDS.

You also read that absence of these findings carries a negative likelihood ratio of 0.2. What is the probability that a person with none of these findings will be HIV-positive?

You see another patient in Malawi who presents with purple nodules on his face and trunk. The nodules bleed easily. You read in a journal that the sensitivity and specificity of these findings for HIV seropositivity are 80% and 85%, respectively. How can you calculate the probability that the patient is HIV-positive?

20

Negative likelihood ratio = (1 - sensitivity) / specificity = (1 - 0.8) / 0.85 = 0.24

An HIV-positive patient presents with mild fatigue. The pretest probability of pneumonia in a patient with fatigue and no other clinical findings is 5%. The test threshold to order a CXR is 10%, and the test-treat threshold is 15%. What is the next step in management? If the pretest probability is less than the test threshold, do not order the test or initiate treatment.

What would have been the next step in management if the pretest probability were 8%? If the pretest probability is greater than the test threshold but less than the test-treat threshold, the next step is to order the diagnostic test (CXR).

What would have been the next step in management if the pretest probability were 20%? If the pretest probability is greater than the test-treat threshold, the next step is to initiate treatment without ordering any diagnostic tests.

21

2 Cardiology
CASE 21 HYPERTENSION
A 50-year-old man presents to the clinic for an annual physical. He does not have any prior medical history, hospitalizations, or surgeries. He smokes half a pack of cigarettes a day and drinks a glass of wine every night. Physical examination is unremarkable. Temperature, pulse, and respirations are within normal limits. Blood pressure is 135/80. The patient asks if his blood pressure is normal. What should you tell this patient? This patient with no other medical conditions has prehypertension (HTN), defined as systolic blood pressure of 120 to 139 mm Hg or diastolic pressure of 80 to 89 mm Hg (Table 2-1). His risk of cardiac disease is elevated compared to patients with optimal blood pressure. However, antihypertensive therapies do not reduce cardiovascular (CV) risk in otherwise healthy patients P.18 with pre-HTN. He should adopt nonpharmacological measures to reduce his blood pressure. Also, arrange a follow-up appointment to recheck his blood pressure in a year.

TABLE 21 Classification of Hypertension Systolic BP (mm Hg) <120 Diastolic BP (mm Hg) <80 Classification Normal

<120139

8089

Prehypertension

140159

9099

Stage 1

160

100

Stage 2

Abbreviation: BP, blood pressure.

Nonpharmacological measures to control HTN are SAAD: 1. Smoking cessation 2. Activity: aerobic activity at least 30 minutes a day, most days of the week 3. Alcohol moderation: <2 drinks a day for men and <1 drink a day for women and lightweight patients) 4. Diet: Consume a diet high in fruits and vegetables and low in saturated and total fat. Limit sodium intake to <2.4 g/day

The threshold to initiate anti-HTN medications is >130/80 mm Hg if the patient has congestive heart failure (CHF), coronary artery disease (CAD), or CAD equivalents (e.g., peripheral artery disease (PAD), diabetes, or chronic renal failure).

The patient quits smoking and begins to walk for 30 minutes every day. He reduces his intake of saturated fat. During his follow-up appointment 1 year later, his blood pressure is 145/90. What is the next step in management? Do not diagnose HTN on the basis of a single blood pressure measurement. In the absence of end-organ damage, confirm the diagnosis by obtaining at least three elevated measurements on separate occasions within the next 2 months. Ask patients to avoid caffeine or nicotine for at least 30 minutes prior to blood pressure measurement.

Confirm the diagnosis within 14 weeks in patients with initial measurements corresponding to stage 2 HTN.

The patient's blood pressure is 150/92 during a follow-up visit 1 month later. He is surprised because he has been measuring his blood pressure at the local Wal-Mart frequently and has never had a reading >130/80. What is the next step in management? This patient may have white coat HTN. An option in this case is ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) using a device that measures the patient's blood pressure every 15 to 20 minutes over a 24- to 48-h period. The patient has HTN if either:

1. 2. 3.

Average blood pressure over 24 hours is >135/85 mm Hg. Average blood pressure during the day is >140/90 mm Hg. Average blood pressure during the night is >125/75 mm Hg.

ABPM confirms the diagnosis of HTN. What additional work-up should you perform? The goal of the initial evaluation of a patient with confirmed HTN is to search for clues suggesting secondary causes (Table 2-2), assess CV risk, and detect end-organ damage (Table 2-3). The following work-up is indicated: P.19 1. Physical examination to screen for end-organ damage and to search for clues to suggest a secondary cause of HTN (e.g., abdominal bruits suggest renal artery stenosis (RAS); an abdominal mass suggests pheochromocytoma; arteriovenous (AV) nicking and cotton wool spots indicate end-organ damage to the eyes). 2. 3. 4. 5. Evaluate renal function with blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, and urinalysis. Screen for left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy with resting electrocardiogram (EKG). Measure blood glucose to screen for diabetes mellitus (DM). Obtain fasting lipid profile to screen for hyperlipidemia.

TABLE 22 Secondary Causes of Hypertension in Adults

Renal

Renal artery stenosis (most prevalent cause of secondary HTN) Renal parenchymal disease

Endocrine

Pheochromocytoma Primary hyperaldosteronism (Conn's syndrome) Cushing's syndrome Hypo- or hyperthyroidism, hyperparathyroidism

Other

Sleep apnea Medications (e.g., oral contraceptive pills)

Abbreviation: HTN, hypertension.

TABLE 23 End-Organ Damage Caused by Hypertension Organ System Central nervous system Complications Intracerebral hemorrhage (hypertension is the major cause) Encephalopathy when blood pressure is severely elevated Stroke caused by accelerated atherosclerosis

Early changes: Arteriovenous (AV) nicking (thick retinal arteries compress retinal vein) Cotton wool spots (yellow-white discoloration of the retina due to ischemic injury and swelling of retinal nerve layers) Late changes: Hemorrhage Exudates Papilledema when blood pressure is severely elevated

Eyes

Heart

LV hypertrophy and congestive heart failure (due to increased afterload) Coronary artery disease and MI (due to accelerated atherosclerosis) Aortic dissection and aortic aneurysm

Kidneys

Chronic renal failure (due to hypertensive nephrosclerosis caused by sclerosis of glomerulus, afferent, and efferent arterioles) Worsening of other causes of chronic kidney disease

Extremities

Peripheral vascular disease (due to accelerated atherosclerosis)

Abbreviation: AV, arteriovenous; LV, left ventricular; MI, myocardial infarction.

Laboratory test results are normal. The patient does not have any physical signs to suggest a secondary cause or end-organ damage caused by HTN. What therapy is most appropriate? All antihypertensive drugs are equally effective at lowering blood pressure. This patient does not have any compelling indications for a specific drug (Table 2-4). Initiate therapy with a lowdose thiazide diuretic such as hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ) because of its low cost (see Fig. 21).

FIGURE 21 Algorithm for work-up and diagnosis of hypertension.

TABLE 24 JNC-7 Guidelines for Antihypertensive Therapy

COMPELLING INDICATIONS FOR SPECIFIC DRUG CLASSES

Stable systolic heart failure or asymptomatic LV dysfunction

ACE inhibitor, a -blocker an aldosterone antagonista

Heart failure with fluid overload

Add a loop diuretic to the regimen

Postmyocardial infarct

ACE inhibitor and a -blocker

Angina or atrial fibrillation

-Blocker or a nondihydropyridine CCB

Diabetes or chronic renal failure

ACE inhibitor

RELATIVE INDICATIONS FOR SPECIFIC DRUG CLASSES

Benign prostatic hypertrophy

-Blocker

Hyperthyroidism, essential tremor, glaucoma, or perioperative hypertension

-Blocker

Migraine headaches

-Blocker or CCB

Raynaud's syndrome, esophageal spasm

CCB

Osteoporosis

Thiazide diuretic

ABSOLUTE CONTRAINDICATIONS TO SPECIFIC DRUG CLASSES

-Blockers

Cardiogenic shock or hypotension Bradycardia with heart rate <50 beats per minute Second- or third-degree AV block Decompensated heart failure Active asthma or reactive airways disease

CCBs

Cardiogenic shock or hypotension Bradycardia with heart rate <50 beats per minute Second- or third-degree heart block Decompensated heart failure Avoid short-acting CCBs after MI

ACE inhibitors/ARBs

History of angioedema Bilateral renal artery stenosis Pregnancy

Abbreviation: ACE, angiotensin-converting enzyme; ARB, angiotensin receptor blocker; CCB, calcium channel blocker. a If the patient has a compelling indication for an ACE inhibitor but cannot tolerate the associated cough, switch to an ARB.

The patient begins taking a low dose of HCTZ. One month later, his blood pressure is 145/91. What is the next step in management? If the initial dose fails to adequately reduce the patient's blood pressure to <140/90, optimize the diuretic dose. If the blood pressure is still not within normal limits, options are to maximize the dose of the single drug, switch to another drug, or add a second drug. Combinations should almost always include a thiazide diuretic because they minimize volume expansion and thereby improve the antihypertensive response to other drugs.

Diuretics can cause hypokalemia, hyperuricemia, and hyperglycemia; angiotensinconverting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blocker (ARBs) minimize these electrolyte abnormalities.

-Blockers may mask hypoglycemic symptoms in insulin-dependent diabetics; however, do not withhold -blockers if the patient has a compelling indication.

Avoid using -blockers and rate-limiting calcium channel blockers (CCBs) together (verapimil and diltiazem) because the combination can cause bradycardia and heart block.

P.20 The patient's blood pressure is well-controlled with a thiazide diuretic over the next 7 years. Blood pressure during his last visit 6 months ago was 120/78. During this visit, however, blood pressure is 165/100. An ACE inhibitor is added to his regimen; 2 weeks later, the patient presents to the emergency department with new onset of dyspnea at rest. Physical examination is significant for bilateral rales and a bruit over the left abdomen. Extremities are warm. There is no JVD, peripheral edema, extra heart sounds, or murmurs. Temperature is 37 C, pulse is 90 beats per minute (bpm), and blood pressure is 175/110. Serum creatinine is 2.5, and chest radiograph reveals bilateral infiltrates. What is the most likely cause of his symptoms? Suspect RAS in this patient with sudden, marked elevation in previously stable blood pressure, lateral abdominal bruit, noncardiogenic pulmonary edema, and acute renal failure after starting an ACE inhibitor. RAS reduces blood flow to the glomeruli, which activates the reninangiotensin-aldosterone system and causes HTN.

Suspect a secondary cause of HTN if the patient has any of the following: age <30 or >55 years, severe or refractory HTN, or sudden rise in blood pressure over a previously stable value.

90% of renovascular HTN is caused by atherosclerosis in older patients; the other 10% occurs in young women with fibromuscular dysplasia.

Noncardiogenic pulmonary edema: rales and chest infiltrates without signs of fluid overload (described in Chapter 7: Fluids and Electrolytes).

What is the next step in management? This patient has a very high probability for RAS. He should undergo digital subtraction angiography. Treatment is surgery or angioplasty with or without stent placement.

P.21

Low pretest probability: First screen using captopril renal scan, magnetic resonance (MR) angiography, computed tomography (CT) angiography, or duplex Doppler ultrasound; perform digital subtraction angiography only if the screening tests are positive.

Renal arteriography: Gold standard to diagnose RAS, but this test is invasive and the contrast dyes used are nephrotoxic.

How would management differ if RAS were clinically suspected on the basis of lateral abdominal bruit in an asymptomatic patient with well-controlled HTN? Although diagnosis of RAS is possible on the basis of a physical exam, screening and specific treatment for RAS is only indicated if HTN is difficult to control or renal function is affected.

CASE 22 HYPERTENSIVE URGENCY AND EMERGENCY

A 55-year-old man presents to the emergency department with an 8-hour history of slowly progressing headache, nausea, and vomiting. He has a 5-year history of stage 2 HTN that is poorly controlled as a result of nonadherence with medications. He appears restless and confused. He is oriented to person but not to place and time. Examination of the eyes is significant for retinal hemorrhages and papilledema. Blood pressure is 240/140. Remaining vital signs are within normal limits. What is the most likely cause of his symptoms? A sudden rise in blood pressure to >180/120 mm Hg that is associated with end-organ damage is termed a hypertensive emergency. This patient has malignant HTN associated with hypertensive encephalopathy, most likely caused by noncompliance with medication.

How does malignant HTN differ from accelerated HTN and hypertensive encephalopathy? Accelerated HTN, malignant HTN, and hypertensive encephalopathy are all possible presentations of hypertensive emergency:

1.

Accelerated HTN is a sudden, marked elevation in blood pressure associated with endorgan damage but no papilledema (although retinal hemorrhage and exudates are often present).

2.

Malignant hypertension is a sudden, marked elevation in blood pressure accompanied by end-organ damage including papilledema.

3.

Hypertensive encephalopathy is a malignant HTN accompanied by cerebral edema, which presents with headache, nausea, vomiting, restlessness, and confusion.

Hypertensive encephalopathy versus stroke: Onset is usually sudden in ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke but insidious in hypertensive encephalopathy.

How is hypertensive emergency managed? The initial steps are:

1.

Intravenous (IV) antihypertensives: First-line choices in this patient are nitroprusside, nicardipine, fenoldopam, or labelalol (Table 2-5).

2. 3.

Head CT: Obtain in patients with hypertensive encephalopathy to rule out hemorrhage. Admit the patient to the intensive care unit (ICU).

TABLE 25 Blood Pressure Management in Hypertensive Emergencies Recommended Antihypertensive Therapy Antihypertensive Drugs to Avoid Nitroprusside and nitroglycerin -Blockers (decrease contractility), hydralazine (increases cardiac work)

Etiology Acute pulmonary edema

Angina or acute MI

Labetalol, nitroprusside, and nitroglycerin

Hydralazine (increases cardiac work)

Aortic dissection

Nitroprusside plus propanalol or labetalol

Increased sympathomimetic activity (e.g., cocaine, amphetamines, Guillian Barre, pheochromocytoma)

Phentolamine, labetalol, or nitroprusside

Do not use a -blocker alone to avoid unopposed adrenergic vasoconstriction.

Antihypertensive drug discontinuation

Re-administer withdrawn drug; if necessary, administer nitroprusside, labetalol, phentolamine, nicardipine, or fenoldopam.

Pregnancy

Hydralazine is first choice; nicardipine and labetalol are alternatives if hydralazine is unsuccessful.

Do not use nitroprusside and ACE inhibitors because they can harm the fetus.

Ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke

Refer to Chapter 12 : Neurology.

Do not treat hypertension unless it is very elevated because hypertension helps maintain cerebral perfusion.

The initial goal of treatment is to lower diastolic blood pressure to 100 to 105 mm Hg over 2- to 6 hours. After the patient reaches this goal he can switch to oral therapy. Consider screening for secondary causes of HTN after discharge from the ICU.

Malignant HTN causes defective blood pressure autoregulation, so very rapid blood pressure reduction can lead to myocardial ischemia and ischemic stroke.

P.22

Alternative 2.2.1
The patient has a blood pressure of 200/120 but is asymptomatic. He has not adhered to his outpatient antihypertensive regimen of HCTZ and lisinopril. He does not have any other medical conditions. Physical examination is unremarkable. How would you label this patient's HTN? Blood pressure <180/120 that is not associated with end-organ damage is called hypertensive urgency.

How is hypertensive urgency managed? The first step is to repeat the blood pressure measurement after a short period of rest. Because the patient has not been compliant, reinstitute his outpatient regimen. If blood pressure is still markedly elevated after repeat measurement, reduce blood pressure to <160/100 over several hours to days. Closely follow the patient over the next 1 to 2 days. If close follow-up is not possible, admit the patient for overnight observation. Over the next few weeks to months, tailor therapy to reach target blood pressure of >140/90.

Do not aggressively reduce blood pressure with IV drugs in hypertensive urgency because the risk of organ hypoperfusion outweighs the benefits of blood pressure reduction.

CASE 23 HOARSENESS AND MURMUR

A 25-year-old man presents to the clinic with a 2-month history of hoarseness. He is tall and thin. His arms and legs are disproportionately long compared to the rest of his body. There are numerous stretch marks on his skin. He recalls that his father had a similar physical appearance. Auscultation of the heart is significant for a blowing diastolic murmur heard best at the upper sternal border. Vital signs are normal. Chest radiograph (CXR) is obtained which demonstrates a thoracic aneurysm of the ascending aorta. P.23

FIGURE 22 Chest radiograph suggestive of aortic dissection. From Jarrell B. NMS Surgery Casebook, 1st ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2003.

What are the clinical manifestations of thoracic aortic aneurysms? These aneurysms are frequently asymptomatic and are often detected incidentally. However, an ascending aneurysm can cause aortic root dilatation, which leads to aortic regurgitation and heart failure. The aneurysm can erode into the mediastinum to cause hoarseness (recurrent laryngeal nerve compression), hemidiaphragm paralysis (phrenic nerve compression), dysphagia (esophageal compression), cough, wheezing, dyspnea, or hemoptysis.

Classification of thoracic aortic aneurysms: 1. Ascending aortic aneurysms (arise from aortic root to innominate artery)

2. Aortic arch aneurysms (affect brachiocephalic vessels) 3. Descending aortic aneurysms (arise distal to subclavian vein)

What is the next step in management? Obtain a transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE) and either CT scan with IV contrast or MR angiography. Contrast angiography provides the best resolution, but this technique is invasive and potentially nephrotoxic.

A high index of suspicion is needed to detect thoracic aortic aneurysm. Consider thoracic aorta imaging in any patient admitted with chest pain and no obvious cause.

TEE and MR angiography detect an ascending aortic root aneurysm that is 3 cm long. What condition likely predisposed this young patient to aortic aneurysm? Thoracic aortic aneurysm is most common in older men with HTN. However, patients with Marfan's syndrome, Ehlors Danlos syndrome, and bicuspid aortic valve have an increased risk of thoracic aortic aneurysm at a young age. This patient's tall, thin body habitus with large extremities, stretch marks, and a positive family history are consistent with Marfan's syndrome.

What management should you recommend for this aneurysm? Surgically resect symptomatic thoracic aneurysms regardless of size because they have a high risk of rupture.

Alternative 2.3.1
A 3-cm ascending aortic aneurysm is detected incidentally in a 65-year-old patient. The patient is asymptomatic and has no signs of aortic regurgitation or mediastinal extension. He has a 10-year history of HTN. Vital signs are temperature 37.1C, pulse 75 bpm, respirations 18, blood pressure 160/100. How should you manage this aneurysm? The risk of rupture is low in an asymptomatic patient with a thoracic aneurysm <6 cm. Treat asymptomatic aneurysms with -blockers and monitor frequently for symptoms or growth. Indications for surgery are:

1. 2. 3.

Aneurysm 5.5 cm on follow-up. Aneurysm grows >1 cm per year. Patient becomes symptomatic.

Marfan's syndrome: Surgery is indicated when aneurysm grows to 5 cm.

The patient does not return to monitor his aneurysm and is lost to follow-up. He returns 1 year later with tearing chest pain. He has a blowing diastolic murmur along the right sternal border. Blood pressure is 180/110 in his right arm and 80/60 in the left arm. Pulse is 120 bpm, temperature is 36C, and respirations are 25/minute . CXR is obtained (see Fig. 2-2). What is the most likely complication? P.24

10

FIGURE 23 EKG showing inferior STEMI: ST elevations in leads II, III and aVF. From Thaler MS. The Only EKG Book You'll Ever Need, 5th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

Tearing chest pain and pulse deficits should always raise suspicion for aortic dissection, particularly if the patient has a history of longstanding HTN or aortic aneurysm. The CXR demonstrates the characteristic features of a dissected thoracic aorta (widened mediastinum and tracheal deviation).

CXR is not a sensitive test to detect aortic aneurysm or dissection, so further testing is necessary if CXR is nondiagnostic and these diagnoses are suspected.

70% of patients with aortic dissection have a history of HTN.

What are the next steps in management?

1.

Stabilize: Admit the patient to the ICU and administer IV propanalol or labetalol (target systolic blood pressure of 100 to 120 mm Hg). If -blockers do not control the blood pressure, administer IV nitroprusside.

2. 3. 4.

Pain control: Administer morphine while stabilization measures are being carried out. Confirmatory testing: When the patient is stable, confirm the diagnosis with TEE. Other: Obtain an EKG and measure cardiac enzymes to rule out myocardial infarction

11

(MI).

TEE shows an ascending aortic dissection. What is the next step in management? Patients with ascending aortic dissections (Type A) require emergent surgery.

Type A = Ascending thoracic aortic dissection: presents with sharp, tearing chest pain; management is surgical (mnemonic: Type A personalities are attracted to surgery). Type B = Descending thoracic aortic dissection: presents with interscapular Back pain; management is -blockers.

CASE 24 DYSLIPIDEMIA
A 50-year-old woman with no prior medical history presents for her annual physical. She had breakfast 2 hours ago. She does not have any family history of CV disease. She does not smoke P.25 or drink alcohol, and she exercises 5 days a week for 30 minutes. She does not take any medications. Blood pressure is 120/80 mm Hg; blood glucose is 120 mg/dL. What tests should you request to screen for hyperlipidemia? Obtain a fasting lipid profile in patients who have fasted for at least 8 hours. This patient has not fasted, so obtain nonfasting total cholesterol (TC) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) counts. If these are normal, further testing is not necessary.

TC is 240 mg/dL and HDL is 42 mg/dL. What is the next step in management? If TC is >200 mg/dL or HDL is <40 mg/dL, obtain a fasting lipid profile, which includes triglycerides (TG) and a calculated low-density lipoprotein (LDL).

TG is 120 mg/dL, and LDL is 170 mg/dL. Does this patient require pharmacotherapy? LDL cholesterol is the primary target of lipid management because it is the most atherogenic lipoprotein. The target LDL in a patient with no CV risk factors is 160 mg/dL, so no pharmacotherapy is necessary (Table 2-6).

TABLE 26 National Cholesterol Education Program Guidelines for Management of Hyperlipidemia LDL Level to Start Lifestyle Measures (mg/dL) 160

CV Risk Factorsa 01

Target LDL (mg/dL) 160

LDL Level to Start Drug Therapy (mg/dL) 190

130

130

130160

DM or CHD

100

100

130

Abbreviation: CV, cardiovascular; DM, diabetes mellitus; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; HDL, high-density lipoprotein. a CV risk factors are smoking, HTN, family history, age, male sex, and HDL < 40 mg/dL. If you count male sex as a risk factor, do not count age. Remove one risk factor if HDL cholesterol is 60 mg/dL. Diabetes, peripheral artery disease, and chronic renal failure are coronary artery disease equivalents.

12

TC = LDL + HDL + (TG/5)

What measures are recommended to manage her cholesterol at this stage?

1.

Diet and exercise: Initiate a step 1 diet. If cholesterol remains above goal (<160 mg/dL) 6 to 12 weeks later, consider a step 2 diet (more restrictive). Also consider increasing dietary intake of omega-3-fatty acids (found in fish oil).

2.

Laboratory tests: Measure thyroid-stimulating hormone, liver function tests, glucose, BUN, creatinine, and urinalysis to establish a baseline; evaluate for secondary causes of dyslipidemia (Table 2-7).

TABLE 27 Secondary Causes of Dyslipidemia Categories Endocrine Disorders Hypothyroidism LDL HDL TG

DM

Cushing's disease

Liver

Acute hepatitis

Primary biliary cirrhosis

Kidney

Nephrotic syndrome

Uremia

Other

Alcohol

Oral contraceptive pills

Cigarettes

Obesity, sedentary lifestyle

Adapted from Sabatine M. Pocket Medicine, 2nd ed. Lippincott William & Wilkens, 2001.

Step 1 diet: <10% of calories from saturated fat, <300 mg/day of cholesterol. Step 2 diet: <7% of calories from saturated fat, and <200 mg/day of cholesterol. Limit fat intake to <30% of total calories in both step 1 and step 2 diets.

13

The patient initiates lifestyle measures and is able to lower her LDL to 150 mg/dL within 1 month. Two months later, DM is diagnosed and the patient initiates metformin. LDL is 150 mg/dL, HDL is 42 mg/dL, and TG is 170 mg/dL. What is the next step? Diabetes is a coronary heart disease (CHD) equivalent, so her target LDL cholesterol is now 100 mg/dL. Statins are the initial drug of choice for patients with elevated LDL levels (Tables 28 and 2-9). Statins improve mortality when used for both primary and secondary prevention of CV disease. The patient should continue regular exercise and follow a step 2 diet even after initiating drug therapy. She should discontinue fish oil because it may worsen glycemic control.

P.26 P.27 TABLE 28 Side Effects and Contraindications of Dyslipidemia Drugs Class Statins Examples Atorvastatin Pravastatin Side Effects Myopathy LFTs Contraindications Liver disease (active or chronic)

Cholesterol absorption inhibitors

Ezetimibe

LFTs

None

Bile acid binding resins

Cholestyramine Colestipol Cholesevalam

GI distress, Drug absorption

TG > 400 mg/dL

Niacin

Nicotinic acid

Flushing Hyperuricemia Hyperglycemia LFTs GI distress

Chronic liver disease Severe gout

Fibrates

Gemfibrozil Fenofibrate

Dyspepsia Gallstones Myopathy

Severe liver disease Severe kidney disease

Abbreviation: LFT, liver function tests; TG, triglyceride. Adapted from O'Rourke et al. Hurst's The Heart: Manual of Cardiology. 11th ed.

TABLE 29 Effect of Dyslipidemia Drugs on Lipoprotein Levels Drug Class Statins LDL HDL TG

Ezetimibe

Bile acid binding resins

14

Niacin

Fibrates

P.28 The patient initiates lovastatin, which brings her LDL to 90 mg/dL. Over the next 3 years, her LDL remains well controlled, but her triglycerides increase to 250 mg/dL; HDL is 30 mg/dL. Glycosylated hemoglobin is 6.0%. What is the next step in management? Add a fibrate or niacin if the LDL cholesterol is well controlled by a statin but serum triglycerides are >200 mg/dL or HDL cholesterol is >40 mg/dL (Table 2-10). Do not use niacin if DM is not well controlled (glycosylated hemoglobin >6.5%).

TABLE 210 TG Management Level (mg/dL) <150 Classification Treatment Normal None

150199

Borderline

Main goal is to control LDL cholesterol with statin; if LDL is normal, then only lifestyle measures are recommended.

200499

High

Main goal is to control LDL cholesterol with statin; if patient has coronary heart disease equivalent and statin does not also lower TG, add niacin or fibrate.

500

Very high

First initiate treatment with fibrate or niacin to prevent pancreatitis; when TG level is controlled, address LDL target.

DM and niacin: If niacin is chosen in a well-controlled diabetic, use the crystalline form because it has a smaller adverse impact on glycemic control. Fibrates and statin: Use fenofibrate because it has fewer pharmacological interactions with statins than gemfibrozil. Bile acid binding resins: Use of these resins is relatively contraindicated if TG >200 mg/dL.

Alternative 2.4.1
The patient is a 30-year-old man who presents with painless yellow nodules on his finger extensors and painless yellow plaques on his eyelids. His father had similar masses before he died of MI at the age of 42. He recalls that his paternal grandmother had an MI at the age of 40. Yellow deposits are seen in the peripheral cornea bilaterally. Serum LDL is 450 mg/dL, TG is 130 mg/dL, and HDL is 60 mg/dL. What is the diagnosis? This patient has familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), an autosomal condition that leads to defective LDL receptors. Both homozygotes and heterozygotes are affected, although the clinical manifestations are more severe in homozygotes. Patients with FH have very high LDL levels at a young age; TG levels are usually normal. Excess LDL can deposit on eyelids and

15

form yellow plaques (xanthelasma). LDL can also form yellow nodules on finger extensor tendons, the Achilles tendon, and plantar tendons (xanthoma). Most importantly, LDL can accumulate on arteries and form atheromas that predispose the patient to MI at a young age.

Corneal arcus: Bilateral yellow deposits in the peripheral cornea are common in older patients, but they should prompt an evaluation of serum lipids in patients <40 years old.

50% of homozygotes with FH develop aortic stenosis as a result of atheroma formation.

Familial defective apolipoprotein B-100: This relatively rare condition presents with findings identical to FH; genetic testing is the only way to distinguish the two conditions.

P.29 What treatment should this patient receive? Options for initial therapy are high-dose statin or statin with a bile acid binding resin. If these regimens do not adequately lower LDL, add niacin to the regimen.

The patient asks if the yellow lesions will go away with treatment. What should you tell him? Xanthomas and xanthelasmas usually resolve with treatment. If they are refractory, consider probucol. This antioxidant does not affect LDL but helps resolve xanthomas.

Alternative 2.4.2
The patient is a 32-year-old woman who presents with nausea, vomiting, and acute epigastric pain radiating to the back. Amylase and lipase levels are elevated, and acute pancreatitis is diagnosed in the patient. She recently initiated oral contraceptive pills (OCP). She does not drink alcohol, and right upper quadrant ultrasound does not show any gallstones. Physical examination reveals pimplelike plaques behind both knees and xanthomas on palmar creases. The patient's triglyceride level is 4000 mg/dL; BUN, creatinine, serum glucose, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and transaminase levels are within normal limits. Body mass index is 22. What is the most likely cause of her symptoms? Serum TG levels >1000 mg/dL can precipitate acute pancreatitis for unclear reasons. Eruptive xanthomas (pimple-like plaques on extensor surfaces) are a common physical finding when TG >1000 mg/dL. The most likely reason for acutely elevated TG in this patient is a familial condition superimposed with a secondary cause (oral contraceptives).

What familial condition is most likely in this patient? Palmar crease xanthomas are pathognomic for familial dysbetalipoproteinemia.

Familial conditions associated with elevated triglycerides: 1. Mixed hypertriglyceridemia 2. Familial hypertriglyceridemia 3. Familial combined hyperlipidemia 4. Familial dysbetalipoproteinemia

16

How should you treat this patient? In addition to treating acute pancreatitis (refer to Chapter 5: Hepatology), administer fibrates or niacin and discontinue oral contraceptive pills.

When DM is the precipitating secondary cause of hypertriglyceridemia, insulin is part of the acute treatment plan.

CASE 25 SCREENING FOR CAD

A 50-year-old woman visits her primary care physician for an annual physical. Her husband recently had a myocardial infarct and she is worried about her risk of a heart attack. She asks if she should have a stress test to make sure she does not have heart disease. She does not have any chest pain, shortness of breath, diaphoresis, nausea, or vomiting. She does not have any medical problems. Her father died of a myocardial infarct at the age of 80. She does not smoke or drink alcohol. Physical examination and vital signs are normal. Should she undergo exercise stress testing? This asymptomatic patient does not have any significant risk factors for CHD. Her pretest probability of CHD is very low, so a positive stress test in her case is more likely to be a false positive result. In general, do not screen asymptomatic, low-risk patients for CHD.

P.30 The patient returns to the clinic for a scheduled appointment 6 years later. She has had HTN for the last 2 years and received a diagnosis of DM 5 months ago. She does not have any chest pain, dyspnea, diaphoresis, nausea, or vomiting. She takes HCTZ and metformin. She plans to train for a marathon with her new boyfriend. She has been fairly sedentary for the last 30 years. Physical exam and vital signs are normal. Is any screening for heart disease warranted before she starts training for the marathon? This patient now has three major risk factors for CHD (see Table 1-7). Of these, her history of DM is most concerning because asymptomatic diabetics with no history of MI have the same risk for coronary mortality as nondiabetic patients who have had an MI. She should undergo an exercise stress test on a treadmill or bicycle to screen for CHD before starting an exercise program. Obtain a baseline resting EKG before the exercise stress test to evaluate for changes that might obscure the results of a stress test.

Screening asymptomatic, intermediate- to high-risk patients for CHD is controversial. Consider an exercise stress test to screen for CHD in the following asymptomatic patients: 1. High-risk occupations (pilots, firefighters, law enforcement officers) 2. Older patients (women, >50 years; men, >40 years) who plan to engage in vigorous exercise 3. More than two CV risk factors or CHD equivalents such as DM or chronic renal failure

Baseline EKG is normal, and she is ready to undergo an exercise treadmill test (ETT). How is this test performed and interpreted? At least two EKG leads are monitored continuously while the patient exercises on a treadmill. The treadmill speed and inclination is increased according to a set protocol. Blood pressure is measured before the test and at the end of each increase in exercise intensity. If the patient reaches 80% to 90% of her target rate without positive findings, the test is negative. Positive

17

findings for ischemia are any of the following:

1. 2. 3. 4.

A drop in systolic blood pressure 10 mm Hg Angina or angina equivalents A new murmur, S3, or S4 EKG findings: ST segment depression 1 mm or ST elevation 1 mm, T wave inversion, frequent or multifocal premature ventricular contractions

Can she take all of her medications the morning of the test? Withhold the following medications 24 hours before an ETT:

1.

Insulin and oral hypoglycemics: Exercise combined with these medications can precipitate hypoglycemia.

2.

-Blockers and CCBs: It can be difficult to reach a target heart rate while on these drugs.

The patient develops T wave flattening and has 2 to 3 premature ventricular contractions near the end of the study. The remainder of the study is normal. She reached 10 metabolic equivalents (METS) without any signs of angina. What is the next step in management? Patients who develop severe ST depression (>2 mm) at low workloads (<6 minutes) are likely to have a true-positive study. Such patients should undergo coronary angiography. In contrast, this asymptomatic patient has a good exercise capacity as shown by a high number of METS and equivocal findings on EKG. The next step in a patient with equivocal ETT is exercise myocardial perfusion scintigraphy or exercise echocardiography.

10% to 30% of patients with 1 mm of ST depression on ETT have a false-positive result.

P.31

1 to 4 METS: Performs activities of daily living. 4 to 10 METS: Climbs a flight of stairs, performs heavy housework, and mild exercise. >10 METS: Plays sports.

How is exercise myocardial perfusion scintigraphy performed? Inject radionuclides such as thallium or technetium during exercise. Record images soon after exercise and after a 3- to 4-hour rest period. Because radionuclide uptake is proportional to blood flow, areas of hypoperfusion represent either ischemia or scar tissue. If the defect reverses with rest, the cause is ischemia. Defects that are present 3 to 4 hours after injection indicate scar tissue from an old MI or severe ischemia.

Echocardiogram or echocardiograph: Noninvasive image of the heart created with highfrequency (ultrasound) sound waves.

18

Alternative 2.5.1
The patient is 56 years old and has diabetes. She wishes to begin training for a marathon. Physical exam and vital signs are within normal limits, but resting EKG demonstrates LV strain and 0.8 mm of ST segment depression. How should you screen this patient for CHD? Exercise EKG testing is the preferred initial test in most patients to screen for heart disease. There are two exceptions to this preference:

1.

Baseline EKG changes: Wolf-Parkinson syndrome, ST-segment changes, and LV hypertrophy can obscure interpretation of ETT. Evaluate these patients with exercise myocardial perfusion scintigraphy or exercise echocardiography.

2.

Impaired exercise capacity: Patients with leg claudication, arthritis, deconditioning, or severe pulmonary disease should undergo either pharmacological stress scintigraphy or pharmacological stress echocardiography. Pharmacological stress scintigraphy is performed with the vasodilators adenosine or dipyridamole. Dobutamine is used to pharmacologically stress the heart during echocardiography.

This patient, who has LV hypertrophy, mild ST-segment changes, and no difficulty exercising, should undergo exercise myocardial perfusion scintigraphy or exercise echocardiography.

What test would you recommend if she had a left bundle branch block on EKG? Transient septal defects can cause false-positive results on exercise myocardial perfusion scintigraphy in patients with left bundle branch block. Perform pharmacological stress test in this group of patients.

CASE 26 EXERTIONAL CHEST DISCOMFORT THAT RESOLVES WITH REST

A 58-year-old woman presents with an 8-week history of substernal chest tightness and pressure that radiates to the left arm. The discomfort occurs predictably after 5 minutes of exercise and causes her to stop all activity. Her symptoms gradually increase in intensity and resolve with 3 to 4 minutes of rest. Breathing and position do not change her symptoms. She does not have any dyspnea, diaphoresis, nausea, or vomiting. She does not currently have any symptoms. She has a history of HTN that is controlled with HCTZ. Her father has diabetes and both parents have HTN. She has one younger sibling who has no known medical conditions. She has smoked a pack of cigarettes a day since she was 25 years old. Physical examination, vital signs, and resting EKG are normal. What is the most likely cause of her symptoms? This patient's symptoms are characteristic of angina caused by myocardial ischemia (Tables 211 and 2-12). Angina that occurs predictably and reproducibly at a certain level of exertion and is relieved with rest or nitroglycerin is called stable angina.

P.32 TABLE 211 Characteristics of Chest Pain Due to Myocardial Ischemia

Onset

Gradual

Provokes,

Provoked by exercise or exertion,

19

Palliates

Palliated by rest or nitroglycerin.

Quality

Crushing or squeezing discomfort rather than pain. Symptoms are difficult to localize because angina is referred pain from dermatomes that supply the same sections of the spinal cord as the heart. The classic description of the location is a clenched fist placed over the center of the chest (Levine sign).

Radiation

Because angina is referred pain, symptoms can radiate to the upper abdomen, shoulders, arms, wrist and fingers, neck and throat, lower jaw and teeth (but not upper jaw), and rarely to the back (specifically the interscapular region).

Severity

Angina associated with nausea, vomiting, or sweating should raise suspicion for acute coronary syndrome.

Timing

Stable angina usually lasts 2 to 5 minutes. Suspect acute coronary syndrome if pain lasts >20 minutes and is not relieved with rest or nitroglycerin.

TABLE 212 Differential Diagnosis of Chest Pain Organ System Cardiac Disorders Myocardial ischemia (angina, MI), pericarditis, myocarditis, aortic dissection

Pulmonary

Pulmonary embolism, pneumothorax, pneumonia, pulmonary hypertension

Gastrointestinal

Gastroesophageal reflux, esophageal spasm, Mallory-Weiss tear, peptic ulcer disease, biliary diseases, pancreatitis

Musculoskeletal

Costochondritis, osteoarthritis/cervical spine disease

Other

Herpes zoster, anxiety

Visceral pain: Dull aching, tightness, or burning that is poorly localized is more common with myocardial ischemia and gastrointestinal causes. Pleuritic pain: Sharp pain increased with movement, position, inspiration, and cough is more common with pulmonary causes, pericarditis, and musculoskeletal causes.

The characteristic EKG change with angina is horizontal or down-sloping ST segment depression that reverses after the symptoms disappear. T wave flattening or inversion can also occur.

How is stable angina managed? Patients with stable angina should adopt certain general measures, take anti-ischemic medications, and undergo exercise stress test.

20

What general measures should patients with stable angina adopt?

1.

Take 81 to 325 mg aspirin daily. Patients with aspirin allergy can take clopidogrel instead. Patients who have a gastrointestinal (GI) bleed while taking aspirin can often resume 81 mg aspirin daily after the bleeding has resolved only if they are also taking a proton pump inhibitor (see Chapter 4: Gastroenterology).

2.

Exercise and aggressively control CV risk factors (stop smoking; monitor and treat DM, HTN, and hyperlidipidemia).

What anti-ischemic drugs are generally instituted in patients with stable angina? Anti-ischemic drugs for patients with stable angina are known as NBC:

1.

Nitrates: Sublingual nitroglycerin is the treatment of choice to relieve acute episodes of angina and as prophylaxis prior to activities known to elicit angina. Nitrates cause P.33 systemic vasodilatation, which reduces LV wall stress. Chronic oral or transdermal nitrate therapy is a second-line measure if the initial regimen does not successfully control symptoms. With chronic therapy, a 12- to 14-hour nitrate-free interval is required to avoid tolerance.

2.

-Blockers: These drugs reduce angina and improve exercise tolerance. Nonselective blockers inhibit peripheral vasodilatation and bronchodilation, so use long-acting -1 selective agents such as Atendol or Metoprolol. Titrate the dose to achieve a heart rate between 50 and 60 beats per minute.

3.

CCBs: Long-acting CCBs also reduce angina and improve exercise tolerance. Prescribe CCBs if -blockers are contraindicated, or combine them with -blockers if -blocker monotherapy is not successful. Do not use short-acting CCBs because they increase the risk of MI in hypertensive patients and the risk of death after an MI.

Common CCBs: 1. Verapimil (long-acting) 2. Diltiazem (long-acting) 3. Dihydropyridines: amlodipine and felodipine (long-acting); nifedipine (short-acting)

None of the anti-ischemic drugs reduce mortality in stable angina patients with no history of MI.

Why is an exercise stress test recommended in patients with stable angina? A stress test is generally recommended in intermediate- to high-risk patients such as the person in this case because the test can identify the subset of patients with stable angina who have a high risk of MI. The test can also assess the efficacy of anti-angina therapy.

The exercise stress test is positive for 2 mm of ST segment depression after 5 minutes of exercise. What is the next step in management? Although it is the gold standard for diagnosing CAD, coronary angiography is not indicated in most low- to intermediate-risk patients with stable angina because it is expensive and invasive. There are two exceptions to this general rule:

21

1.

Angina that significantly interferes with the patient's lifestyle despite maximum tolerable medical therapy, and

2.

High-risk criteria on noninvasive testing, regardless of angina severity.

This patient should undergo coronary angiography because significant ST depression appeared <6 minutes into the study (high-risk criteria). Angiography can identify whether she would benefit from a revascularization procedure.

Coronary angiography: Thread a catheter through the femoral artery into the heart. Inject contrast into the coronary vessels and take x-ray images (fluoroscopy) to detect occlusion.

During coronary angiography, 65% stenosis is seen in the left main coronary artery. What is the next step in management? Perform revascularization if a patient with stable angina has any of the following:

1.

Angina that significantly interferes with a patient's lifestyle despite maximum tolerable medical therapy.

2. 3. 4.

Left main coronary artery stenosis >50% (this patient). 70% stenosis in three coronary vessels. 70% stenosis in two coronary vessels and one of them is the proximal left anterior descending artery.

P.34 How is revascularization of the coronary arteries achieved? There are two methods for revascularization:

1.

Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI): Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) is performed in a cardiac catheterization laboratory under local anesthesia at the same time as diagnostic coronary angiography. A balloon is inflated under high pressure to dilate the area of stenosis. A bare-metal or drug-eluting intracoronary stent is usually placed after the procedure to prevent restenosis.

2.

Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG): Grafts from the internal mammary artery or saphenous vein are used to bypass the area of stenosis.

Should this patient undergo PCI or CABG? In most patients, infarction and mortality rates are similar with PCI and CABG. However, CABG is superior to PCI in three groups of patients:

1. 2. 3.

Diabetics Reduced left ventricle function Left main CAD

This patient with left main CAD should undergo CABG.

A major limitation of studies that compare PTCA and CABG is that they did not evaluate newer developments (drug-eluting stents after PTCA and internal mammary grafts during

22

CABG).

PCI in patients with stable angina is superior to medical therapy for symptom relief but not for preventing infarction or death.

Alternative 2.6.1
The patient is a 35-year-old woman who reports substernal chest discomfort radiating to the lower jaw. Her symptoms usually occur in the morning and often wake her up from sleep. She is a smoker, but she does not have any other risk factors for CHD. An EKG obtained when the patient is symptomatic is significant for ST segment elevation that disappears when the symptoms resolve. Physical exam and vitals signs are within normal limits. What is the most likely diagnosis? This patient has variant (Prinzmental) angina. It is caused by spasm in the coronary arteries (most commonly the right coronary artery) and is more common in women under the age of 50 who smoke. Symptoms usually occur early in the morning. The characteristic EKG finding is ST segment elevation that disappears when the symptoms resolve.

Is any other diagnostic test indicated for this patient? Perform coronary angiography in patients with any chest pain syndrome associated with ST segment elevation to determine if stenotic lesions are present. If stenotic lesions are not seen and the examiner wishes to confirm the diagnosis of variant angina, administer ergonovine during angiography to precipitate and document vasospasm.

No stenosis is seen during angiography. Intravenous ergonovine administration confirms vasospasm. How is variant angina treated? CCBs are the first-line treatment for variant angina. Add nitrates if the CCB does not completely relieve symptoms. Avoid nonselective -blockers because they promote vasospasm.

Cocaine can induce coronary artery vasospasm and is an important cause of MI in young patients.

P.35

Women >35 years old should not smoke and take oral contraceptives at the same time because the combination additively increases the risk of MI.

CASE 27 PERSISTENT CHEST DISCOMFORT AT REST

A 65-year-old man presents to the emergency department with a 2-hour history of crushing, substernal, chest discomfort radiating to his left arm. He has a history of stable angina on exertion that is usually relieved with sublingual nitroglycerin. His current symptoms occurred at rest and have not responded to nitroglycerin at home. He has history of HTN and smoking. He is sweating and appears anxious. Vital signs are temperature 37.6C , blood pressure 140/85, pulse 110 bpm, respirations 22/minute. Oxygen saturation is 98% on room air. What is the most likely cause of his symptoms? Suspect acute coronary syndrome (ACS) in a patient with angina that occurs at rest and persists for >20 minutes despite taking nitroglycerin. ACS is usually caused by disruption of an atherosclerotic plaque, which activates platelet aggregation and causes the formation of an intracoronary thrombus. Conditions categorized as ACS range from unstable angina (UA) and

23

non-ST elevation MI (non-Q wave MI) caused by a partially occlusive thrombus to the more severe ST elevation MI (Q-wave MI) caused by a completely occlusive thrombus.

Patients with angina should call emergency services if their symptoms have not improved or are worsening 5 minutes after taking a dose of sublingual nitroglycerin.

Maintain a high level of suspicion for ACS in women, diabetics, and the elderly. These patients often present with atypical symptoms such as isolated dyspnea, jaw pain, nausea/vomiting, palpitations, and syncope.

What are the initial steps in the management of this patient with suspected ACS? Within the first 10 minutes of presentation, carry out the following initial steps (mnemonic: ABC, EKG, MONA, LABS):

1.

ABC: The first step is to assess and correct any Airway, Breathing or Circulation instability (see Case 16). Also, place the patient on a cardiac monitor and make sure resuscitation equipment is nearby.

2.

EKG: A 12-lead EKG is the basis for initial diagnosis and management. If initial EKG is nondiagnostic, repeat EKG every 5 to 10 minutes if the patient is still symptomatic.

3.

Morphine: Administration of 2- to 4 mg IV morphine reduces cardiac workload by decreasing sympathetic stimulation as a result of pain and anxiety.

4. 5.

Oxygen (O 2 ): Maintain oxygen saturation (SaO 2 ) >90% with supplemental O 2 . Nitrates: Administer three doses of 0.4 mg sublingual nitroglycerin every 5 minutes. Nitrates are contraindicated if the patient has taken a 5-PDE inhibitor such as Viagra or Cialis in the last 24 to 36 hours because the combination can cause severe hypotension.

6.

Aspirin: Give all patients 160 to 325 mg aspirin (antiplatelet therapy) unless it is contraindicated. Aspirin is the only MONA therapy that improves mortality.

7.

LABS: Establish IV access and obtain cardiac enzymes (biomarkers that measure cardiac injury), serum electrolytes, lipids, and coagulation studies (prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin time (PTT), and International Normalized Ratio (INR)).

Exercise stress testing is contraindicated if ACS is the suspected diagnosis.

P.36

In the acute setting, pain relief with nitroglycerin or a GI cocktail (viscous lidocaine and antacids) does not reliably distinguish cardiac from noncardiac chest pain.

12-lead EKG is obtained (see Fig. 2-3). What is the diagnosis?

24

FIGURE 24 EKG in acute pericarditis (diffuse ST elevations, down-sloping PR). From Harwood-Nuss A, Wolfson AB, et al. The Clinical Practice of Emergency Medicine, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001.

ST segment elevation 1 mm in two or more leads is diagnostic of an acute ST elevation MI (STEMI). This patient with lead II, III, and aVF ST elevation has an inferior STEMI (Tables 213, 2-14, and 2-15).

TABLE 213 Basic EKG Interpretation

Basics

Each little box is 0.04 seconds Each big box is 0.2 seconds (5 little boxes) P wave: represents atrial depolarization; normally upright except in aVR (inverted) and lead V1 (biphasic with upright initial deflection and inverted terminal deflection) QRS: represents ventricular depolarization Q wave: if first deflection of QRS is down, it is called a Q wave R wave: first upward deflection in the QRS complex S wave: any downward deflection that follows the R wave R': second upward deflection after an S wave QRS nomenclature: small deflections are denoted in lowercase, large deflections in uppercase T wave: represents ventricular repolarization

Rate

Rate: 300/(number of large boxes between each R wave) Normal rate: 60 to 100 beats per minute Tachycardia: >100 beats per minute; bradycardia <60 beats per minute

Rhythm

Sinus rhythm: Similarly shaped p wave precedes every QRS; R-R interval is the same. Irregular rhythm: QRS not preceded by p wave or irregular R-R interval.

Normal axis: upright QRS complexes in leads I and aVF Left axis deviation: upright QRS in lead I, inverted QRS in aVF

25

Axis

Right axis deviation: inverted QRS in lead I, upright QRS in lead Extreme right axis deviation: inverted QRS in leads I and aVF

Intervals

PR

Definition: time from beginning of P to beginning of QRS Normal PR interval: 1 big box PR interval >1 big box: suspect AV block PR interval <3 little boxes: suspect WolfParkinson-White syndrome or Lown-GanongLevine syndrome

QRS

Definition: time from beginning of QRS to end of QRS Normal QRS interval: <3 little boxes Abnormal (wide) QRS: suspect bundle branch block (p before QRS) or impulse originating in ventricle (no p before QRS)

QT

Definition: time from start of QRS to the end of the T wave Normal QT interval: less than half the distance between 2 R's

Hypertrophy evaluation

LA

Lead V1: terminal downward deflection width or depth >1 mm

RA

Lead II: initial half of p wave >2.5 little boxes (and larger than terminal part)

LV

Left axis deviation V1 or V2: S wave: 6 big boxes in V1 or V2 V5 or V6: R wave: >5 big boxes in V5 or V6 or S wave (in V1) + R wave (in V5 or V6) >7 big boxes

RV

Right axis deviation V1: R wave 7 little boxes V1 to V6: R wave size progressively decreases

Right

Wide QRS preceded by p wave

BBB

V1: rSR'; R' > S (see Fig. 2-24 )

Evaluation for bundle branch block (BBB)

V6: large wide S wave in lead V6

Left

Wide QRS preceded by p wave

26

BBB

V1: normal small R wave is absent

V5 and V6: RR' (see Fig. 225 )

Infarct evaluation

Larger than normal Q waves: > one fourth the size of R wave or >1 little box. ST elevation > 1 mm above baselinea (see Tab. 2-15 ) T wave inversion: T wave deflection in opposite direction as R wave

Ischemia evaluation

ST depression >1 mm T wave inversion

Other important patterns

Pulmonary embolism: S1Q3T3 (see Chapter 3 : Pulmonary) Hypokalemia: U wave (small upward deflection after T wave) Hyperkalemia: peaked T waves, wide QRS, flattened p wave Pericarditis: diffuse ST elevation and down-sloping PR interval

a ST segment elevation is an unreliable finding in patients with left bundle branch block.

TABLE 214 EKG Changes During an STEMI Within Minutes Hours ST Elevation ST elevation + Q wave

Day 12

ST elevation + Q wave + T wave inversion

Days later

ST normalizes, T wave inversion and Q wave persist

Weeks later

ST segment and T wave normal but Q wave persists

Abbreviation: STEMI, ST elevation MI.

TABLE 215 Location of Infarct Based on Abnormal EKG Leads Abnormal EKG leads Location Coronary Artery

27

ST depression and large R wave in V1 and V2

Posterior

Right coronary

Inferior leads (II, III, aVF)

Inferior

Right or left coronary

Leads I and aVL and leads V4V6

Lateral

Circumflex

V1V3

Anteroseptal

Left anterior descending

One or more precordial leads (V1V6)

Anterior

Distal left anterior descending

V4R, V5R, V6R

Right ventricle

Right coronary

A patient is presumed to have a STEMI if he/she has a new left bundle branch block in the presence of symptoms.

Obtain EKG of right precordial leads (V4R, V5R, V6R) if the patient has an inferior MI to assess whether the right ventricle is affected.

Right precordial leads are normal. What are the next steps in management? The patient should undergo prompt revascularization with PCI or thrombolytics. Before revascularization, administer the following medications:

1.

Clopidogrel: This anti-platelet agent inhibits ADP receptors (see Chapter 10: Hematology and Oncology). Combined therapy with aspirin and clopidogrel improves outcomes compared to aspirin alone. Clopidogrel is also an alternative when aspirin is contraindicated.

2.

GPIIb/IIIa inhibitors: Add a GPIIb/IIIa inhibitor (abciximab or eptifibatide) to the antiplatelet regimen prior to PCI but not prior to thrombolytics. P.37 P.38

3.

-Blockers: Administer a -1selective agent to all hemodynamically stable STEMI patients (reduce myocardial O 2 consumption and have antiarrhythmic effects). IV nitroglycerin: Administer if the patient continues to have pain despite sublingual nitroglycerin. Unlike -blockers, nitrates do not improve mortality, so stop nitrates if the resulting drop in blood pressure prevents -blocker administration.

4.

5.

Potassium (K + ) and magnesium (Mg +2 ): Maintain serum K + >4 mEq/L because hypokalemic patients have an increased risk of ventricular fibrillation. Maintain Mg +2 >2 mEq/L because serum potassium will not rise with concurrent hypomagnesemia.

6.

Heparin: Although there is limited data to support its efficacy, heparin is generally administered prior to revascularization to prevent thrombus progression.

The patient is at a small hospital, with no experienced interventional cardiologist on-site to perform PCI. The hospital is 4 hours away from a center where PCI is available. What

28

revascularization method should this patient undergo? PCI is preferred to thrombolytics if the patient presents within 12 hours of symptom onset and the hospital can ensure a door to balloon time <90 minutes (time lapse between entering the hospital and inflation of the PTCA balloon). Although this patient presents <12 hours after symptom onset, transporting him to a center where PCI is available would entail a door to balloon time >90 minutes. He should receive thrombolytics instead.

Thrombolytics in STEMI: Effective up to 12 hours after symptom onset (most effective in first 4 hours). Goal is door to needle time <30 minutes.

CABG in STEMI: This is an infrequent revascularization strategy in STEMI. Indications are failure of PCI or thrombolytics, STEMI associated with cardiogenic shock, and lifethreatening ventricular arrhythmias in patients with left main or three-vessel disease detected on angiography.

P.39 Which thrombolytic should this patient receive? Tenecteplase, lanotleplase, and alteplase have equivalent efficacy. Tenecteplase is usually preferred because it the easiest to use (single bolus) and has a lower rate of bleeding complications.

Heparin and thrombolytics: Heparin is usually continued for 24 to 48 hours. Monitor using PTT (maintain between 1.5 and 2 times upper limit of normal).

Heparin and PCI: Large doses are given during the procedure, and monitored using activated clotting time (maintain between 250 and 350 seconds). Heparin is usually not continued after an uncomplicated procedure.

While tenecteplase is being administered, the initial troponin and creatine kinase (muscle/brain type) (CK-MB) values return as normal. How should you interpret these values? Virtually all patients with MI have at least one elevated cardiac biomarker (troponin I and T, CK-MB, myoglobin, and lactate dehydrogenase). Serum troponins are the preferred marker because they are more specific for cardiac muscle damage than the other enzymes. However, their sensitivity in the first 4 to 6 hours is low. In fact, troponin elevation may take up to 12 hours. Because initial measurements are often negative, obtain a second set of cardiac biomarkers 4 to 6 hours later, and a third set of cardiac biomarkers 4 to 6 hours after the second. Do not delay revascularization because of delayed or normal initial cardiac biomarkers in this patient with symptoms of ACS and an STEMI documented on EKG.

Subsequent troponin and CK-MB levels are elevated. The patient is admitted to the coronary care unit. His symptoms resolve. He does not have any further complications over the next 5 days and is ready for discharge. What tests are recommended prior to discharge for risk stratification?

1.

Echocardiography: Cardiac ischemia can lead to systolic or diastolic heart failure, which is associated with a worse prognosis. Perform echocardiography to evaluate contractility and stiffness of the heart.

2.

Stress test: Exercise stress testing detects residual ischemia and helps assess exercise

29

capacity for subsequent cardiac rehabilitation. Most patients undergo submaximal exercise stress right before discharge from the hospital and a maximal exercise stress test after 3 to 6 weeks.

What medications should this patient take after STEMI? There are several discharge medications suitable after STEMI (mnemonic: ABC N' ACE, STAT!):

1. 2. 3.

ABC: Aspirin, -1 Blockers, and Clopidogrel reduce mortality after STEMI. Nitrates are used for symptom relief but do not reduce mortality. ACE inhibitors reduce mortality after STEMI. The mechanism is decreased LV remodeling, which lowers risk of subsequent CHF and recurrent MI. Initiate ACE inhibitors within 24 hours as long as they are not contraindicated. If the patient cannot tolerate an ACE inhibitor, substitute with an ARB (specifically valsartan or candesartan).

4.

STATins.

Aggressive control of CV risk factors reduces mortality after MI (smoking cessation, blood pressure <130/80, LDL <70, and tight glycemic control).

What additional therapy would you recommend if the patient had evidence of systolic heart failure with an ejection fraction of 30% on echocardiography?

1.

K + -Sparing diuretics improve survival after an MI in patients with DM or heart failure. The first-line K + -sparing diuretic is spironolactone (because it is less expensive). If the patient P.40 suffers endocrine side effects, switch to eplerenone. Regularly monitor serum K + in patients taking spironolactone or eplerenone.

2.

Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) improves survival after in MI in all patients with LV ejection fraction <30% and in patients with LV ejection fraction <35% with New York Heart Association (NYHA) class II or II heart failure.

Alternative 2.7.1
The patient is a 65-year-old man with 2 hours of crushing, substernal discomfort radiating to the left arm that was not relieved with nitroglycerin at home. He has a history of stable angina. Blood work is obtained after IV access is established. He is placed on a monitor and a 12-lead EKG is obtained. The EKG shows 1 mm of ST segment depression and T wave inversion in leads V1, V2, and V3. He receives aspirin, sublingual nitroglycerin, and morphine. What is the most likely cause of his symptoms? Both UA and non-ST elevation MI (NSTEMI) cause symptoms of ACS without the characteristic ST elevation and Q waves seen in STEMI. ST depression and T wave inversion may or may not be observed in either (if present, they tend to be transient in UA and persistent in NSTEMI). The primary difference between UA and NSTEMI is that myocardial injury is sufficient to cause a detectable elevation in cardiac enzymes in NSTEMI but not in UA. Because an elevated troponin or CK-MB level may not be detected for up to 12 hours after presentation, the initial management of UA and NSTEMI is the same.

30

Technically, any worsening of stable angina symptoms is referred to as UA.

What is the next step in management?

1.

Administer the same medications given prior to revascularization in STEMI. Low molecular weight heparin is preferred to unfractionated heparin.

2.

Risk-stratify this patient on the basis of TIMI risk score as low, intermediate, or high risk. This patient has an intermediate TIMI risk score (Table 2-16).

TABLE 216 TIMI Risk Score for NSTEMI and UA Risk Factor Age 65 years Points 1

3 risk factors for CHD

Prior coronary stenosis 50%

ST segment depression

At least 2 angina episodes in last 24 hours

Elevated serum cardiac biomarkers

Use of aspirin in last 7 days

Abbreviation: NSTEMI, non-ST elevation MI; UA, unstable angina. Note: Low risk score = 02, Intermediate risk = 3 4, High risk = 57.

How would you manage the patient based on his TIMI score? Intermediate- to high-risk patients should undergo coronary angiography within 48 hours. Perform PCI or CABG on the basis of coronary angiography findings (indications for CABG over PCI are the same as those in patients with stable angina). Before the patient is discharged, perform echocardiogram, submaximal stress test, and medications (ABC N' ACE, STAT).

With low-risk TIMI, angiography not necessary; obtain stress test before discharge.

P.41

Do not administer thrombolytics for UA or NSTEMI. This is because the thrombi are nonocclusive and platelet-rich. Such thrombi do not respond to thrombolytics like the fibrinrich thrombi in STEMI.

31

Alternative 2.7.2
The patient is a 65-year-old man with 2 hours of crushing, substernal discomfort radiating to the left arm that was not relieved with nitroglycerin at home. He has 12 cm of JVD and a holosystolic murmur at the left sternal border that increases with inspiration. Lungs are clear to bilateral auscultation. Blood pressure is 98/60, heart rate is 50 beats per minute. Blood work is obtained after IV access is established. He is placed on a monitor and a 12-lead EKG is obtained, which shows 2 mm of ST elevation in leads II, III, and aVF. ST elevation (2 mm) is also seen in the right precordial leads (V4R, V5R, and V6R). Where is the infarct located? This patient has a right-ventricle infarct that is most commonly caused by occlusion of the right coronary artery. A right ventricle infarct usually occurs in association with an inferior infarct. A hemodynamically significant right-ventricle infarct can present with signs of right heart failure (JVD, hypotension, and tricuspid regurgitation). The infarct can affect the AV node and cause bradycardia.

How does management of a right-ventricle MI differ from that of a left-ventricle MI? Cardiac output is highly dependent on preload in right-ventricle STEMI. In general, avoid nitrates, -blockers, and CCBs because they decrease preload, which could decrease cardiac output and cause severe hypotension. If symptoms of angina are intolerable, an option is to administer normal saline to expand intravascular volume and then use nitrates judiciously.

Alternative 2.7.4
The patient is a 25-year-old man who presents with signs and symptoms of ACS. His medical history is significant for an upper respiratory infection 2 weeks ago. The patient denies cocaine use, and urine drug screen is negative. EKG shows ST elevation in leads V1-V5. However, coronary angiography is normal. What diagnosis should you suspect? Suspect viral myocarditis in patients who present with unexplained signs and symptoms of MI, heart failure, or cardiac arrhythmias. The classic patient is a young man with a recent viral infection. Many viruses can cause myocarditis, but the most common one is coxsackie B. Viral myocarditis can sometimes cause elevated troponins and EKG findings of STEMI, but coronary angiography is normal. Diagnosis is primarily clinical.

How is myocarditis managed? Obtain a CXR and echocardiogram to evaluate for heart failure, and treat heart failure if present. Otherwise, treatment is supportive. The patient should avoid exercise. If his symptoms persist, consider endomyocardial biopsy to confirm the diagnosis, although even biopsy is not very accurate.

CASE 28 COMPLICATIONS AFTER STEMI

A patient is given a diagnosis of right-ventricle STEMI. He undergoes PCI and is admitted to the coronary care unit. His symptoms resolve. Ten hours later he has an episode of ventricular tachycardia (VT) that lasts for 10 seconds. What is the next step in management? Arrhythmias are a common complication during and after the acute phase of STEMI. Treat arrhythmias according to Advanced Cardiac Life Support protocols. This patient had an P.42 episode of nonsustained VT. Treat VT only if it is sustained (i.e., lasts >30 seconds). Limit

32

arrhythmia prophylaxis to -blockers and correction of electrolyte imbalances.

Seventeen hours after diagnosis, the patient has a recurrence of angina symptoms. Troponin levels are elevated. What is the next step in management? Repeat the 12-lead EKG to look for changes suggestive of re-infarction in this patient with recurrent ischemia. Increase the nitrate and -blocker dose to reduce myocardial oxygen demand. Initiate heparin and perform coronary angiography followed by CABG or PCI (rescue PCI) depending on the lesion, even if transfer to another center where PCI is available takes longer than 2 hours.

Elevated troponins within the first 18 hours after STEMI are not diagnostic of reinfarction.

The patient undergoes rescue PCI and is admitted to the coronary care unit. Three days later, his blood pressure drops to 80/60. On examination, there is 13 cm of JVD. A harsh, loud holosystolic murmur is heard at the right and left sternal borders. A palpable thrill is present and the precordium is hyperdynamic. Extremities are cool and clammy. What is the most likely cause of these symptoms? Suspect a life-threatening mechanical complication when a patient develops hemodynamic compromise and a new, loud murmur in the first 2 to 12 days after STEMI. The major mechanical complications are ventricular free-wall rupture, interventricular septum rupture, and rupture of the papillary muscles (Table 2-17). This patient's murmur is consistent with interventricular septal rupture. The right coronary artery supplies the inferior one third and the left anterior descending artery supplies the superior two thirds of the septum, so STEMIs that occlude these arteries pose a higher risk for this complication.

TABLE 217 Mechanical Complications After MI Complication Distinguishing Symptoms Management Diagnose with echocardiogram-directed pericardiocentesis; if blood is detected on pericardiocentesis, then emergent surgery is necessary.

Rupture of left ventricle free wall

Hemopericardium and cardiac tamponade

Rupture of interventricular septum

Harsh, loud, holosystolic murmur, hyperdynamic precordium and palpable thrill

Diagnose with Doppler echocardiogram or pulmonary artery catheter to document left to right shunt; unstable patients require prompt surgical repair, whereas stable patients can undergo elective surgical repair at a later time.

Papillary muscle rupture

Apical or parasternal systolic murmur and pulmonary edema; hyperdynamic precordium but no thrill

Diagnose with Doppler echocardiogram followed by cardiac catheterization; after diagnosis, reduce afterload with nitrates, diuretics, and intra-aortic balloon counterpulsation. If the patient is still unstable, perform emergent surgery; if the patient stabilizes, surgery can be delayed.

Note: All mechanical complications can present with hypotension and cardiogenic shock. Initial steps always include stabilizing the patient (airway, breathing, and circulation).

Alternative 2.8.1

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A patient with chest discomfort at rest has ST elevation in V1-V5, and an anterior STEMI is diagnosed. He undergoes PCI and is admitted to the coronary care unit. Twenty-four hours later he complains of sharp chest pain that increases on inspiration, improves on leaning forward, and radiates to the left shoulder. Physical examination is significant for a three-component friction rub heard over the left sternal border. Vital signs are within normal limits. P.43 What is the cause of these signs and symptoms? Infarction pericarditis presents with pleuritic chest pain that radiates to the trapezius ridges and improves on leaning forward. Three-component friction rub is a very specific sign. This complication is more common with anterior STEMI and usually develops in the first 1 to 2 days. STEMI changes usually overshadow EKG findings of pericarditis.

How is infarction pericarditis managed? Aspirin or indomethacin is sufficient to treat this complication. Perform echocardiography in all patients who develop pericarditis after STEMI to evaluate for a pericardial effusion. Discontinue anticoagulation if echocardiography detects an effusion >1 cm to minimize the risk of cardiac tamponade.

No effusion is detected on echocardiography. The symptoms and friction rub resolve. Two months after discharge from the hospital, he returns to the clinic with fever, malaise, and symptoms of pericarditis. A three-component friction rub is again heard on physical examination. Temperature is 39C. What is cause of these findings? This patient has developed postinfarct injury syndrome (Dressler's syndrome). Unlike infarction pericarditis, the symptoms of fever, malaise, and pericarditis do not appear for weeks to months after STEMI (Table 2-18). Cardiac muscle injury releases antigens that stimulate the formation of immune complexes. These immune complexes deposit on the pericardium and induce inflammation, which leads to Dressler's syndrome. Diagnosis is clinical, although elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is a common finding. Treat with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Use corticosteroids if symptoms are refractory.

TABLE 218 Characteristic EKG Findings in STEMI Versus Acute Pericarditis STEMI Elevated and upwardly convex in regional leads Pericarditis Elevated and upwardly concave (saddle shaped) in all leads

ST segment

PR segment

Not depressed

Depressed

Q waves

Q waves

No Q waves

T waves

Inverted

Not inverted

Complications of MI: The MAD PALS of an infarct are Mechanical complications, Arrhythmia, Dressler's syndrome, Pericarditis, Aneurysm of LV (predisposes to embolus from a mural thrombus), LV failure and pulmonary edema, and Shock (cardiogenic).

Alternative 2.8.2

34

A 65-year-old man undergoes PCI for an anterior MI. A drug-eluting stent is placed in the left anterior descending artery. One week after discharge, he stops taking aspirin and clopidogrel. Two weeks after discharge, he has another anterior STEMI. Angiography demonstrates no flow through the stented lesion. What is the most likely cause of the second STEMI? Stent thrombosis is a feared complication of PCI that presents with sudden occurrence of MI as a result of complete stent occlusion. Stent thrombosis can be acute (within 24 hours), subacute (within 30 days), or late (more than 30 days). This complication occurs as a result of the formation of a blood clot over the region where the stent damages the intimal wall. Antiplatelet therapy (lifelong aspirin and clopidogrel for at least a year) markedly reduces the incidence of stent thrombosis. Premature cessation of antiplatelet therapy greatly increases the risk of stent thrombosis. Treatment is emergent PCI.

P.44

Types of drug-eluting stents: sirolimus-eluting stents (Cypher) and paclitaxel-eluting stents (Taxus)

What diagnosis is more likely if the patient received a bare metal stent (BMS) and presents with a 3-week history of increasing angina 6 months later? Gradually worsening angina after BMS placement should raise concern for in-stent restenosis. Unlike stent thrombosis, this complication is caused by smooth muscle proliferation in the region of the stent, which leads to gradually worsening angina. Consider repeat PCI if the patient's symptoms are refractory to medical therapy.

In-stent restenosis risk: BMS > drug-eluting stents Stent thrombosis risk: drug-eluting stent > BMS Stent thrombosis risk with antiplatelet therapy: drug-eluting stent = BMS = low

CASE 29 PLEURITIC CHEST PAIN AND FRICTION RUB IN AN OTHERWISE HEALTHY PATIENT
A 24-year-old man presents with a 2-day history of fever, malaise, and pleuritic chest pain radiating to the left shoulder and left trapezius muscles. The chest pain improves on leaning forward. He denies any weight loss, anorexia, cough, or hemoptysis. He does not have any prior medical history and does not take any medications. He has never had sexual intercourse. Auscultation of the heart demonstrates a three-component friction rub. Temperature is 38C. Other vital signs are normal. Figure 2-4 is the patient's EKG.

35

FIGURE 25 Chest radiograph of congestive heart failure (explain kerley B lines, cardiomegaly, and cephalization of the pulmonary vessels. From Webb WR, Higgins CB. Thoracic Imaging. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2005.

What is the most likely diagnosis? The patient has acute pericarditis. Typical symptoms are fever, malaise, and pleuritic chest pain that may radiate to the shoulder and trapezius and improves on leaning forward. The classic physical finding is a three-component friction rub. This patient's EKG demonstrates the characteristic down-sloping PR segment and diffuse ST segment elevation (as opposed to P.45 MI, where ST elevations occur in specific leads). The patient has the classic signs, symptoms, and EKG findings of acute pericarditis.

What causes acute pericarditis?

1.

Infections: In otherwise healthy patients, viral infection is the most common cause of pericarditis; tuberculosis, HIV, bacteria, and fungi are other, less common infectious causes.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Uremia (see Chapter 6: Nephrology) Autoimmune disorders (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis) Malignancy MI

36

6.

Other medical causes (iatrogenesis): drugs, cardiac surgery or procedures, and radiation

Acute pericarditis can cause mild elevation in CK-MB and troponin-I. This transient elevation does not indicate a worse prognosis.

Acute pericarditis caused by uremia: Diffuse ST elevation is often absent. Acute pericarditis caused by rheumatoid arthritis: Chest pain is often absent.

What is the next step in management? Perform echocardiography in all patients with acute pericarditis to evaluate for a pericardial effusion (wet pericarditis). If the patient has a small pericardial effusion, repeat echocardiography 1 to 2 weeks later to assess whether more fluid has accumulated. If the pericardial effusion is large, perform diagnostic pericardiocentesis even if the patient is hemodynamically stable.

Echocardiography does not show any pericardial effusion. What treatment is indicated? An exhaustive search for the cause of acute pericarditis is unnecessary in patients with dry pericarditis and no obvious clues to suggest a nonviral cause. Outpatient treatment with an NSAID to relieve symptoms and colchicine to prevent recurrence is sufficient. Symptoms should resolve within 1 week of onset.

Symptoms recur in 15% to 30% of acute pericarditis patients who do not receive colchicine.

The patient returns 2 weeks later with continued symptoms. What is the next step in management? If symptoms do not resolve after 1 week, admit the patient to the hospital and conduct a more thorough investigation for underlying causes of pericarditis. If no underlying cause is found, consider a short course of high-dose systemic corticosteroids.

No underlying cause is found. His symptoms resolve over the next few days after a short course of steroids. He presents 1 year later with a 3-month history of fatigue and dyspnea on exertion. There is 2+ peripheral edema and ascites. The liver edge is felt 6 cm below the costal margin. Neck veins are distended even during inspiration (Kussmaul sign). Auscultation of the heart reveals a loud S3 (pericardial knock). What is the most likely cause of his symptoms? The initial insult in acute pericarditis may trigger fibrous scarring of the pericardium. The scar tissue leads to a rigid pericardium with impaired filling during late diastole. This condition is called constrictive pericarditis. Patients present with signs of right heart failure as a result of impaired filling. Jugular venous distension (JVD) is the most common initial finding. Advanced disease leads to peripheral edema and ascites. Other common findings are Kussmaul sign and pericardial knock (basically a loud S3).

P.46

Restrictive cardiomyopathy: Findings similar to constrictive pericarditis, except patients have S3 gallop instead of loud S3 (softer; occurs later in diastole). Cirrhosis: Presents with ascites and peripheral edema but no JVD.

37

EKG in constrictive pericarditis: Nonspecific; ~25% have decreased voltage and atrial fibrillation.

What is the next step in management? Perform Doppler echocardiography to distinguish constrictive pericarditis from restrictive cardiomyopathy and cirrhosis. If this test is inconclusive, consider cardiac CT or MR imaging.

Cardiac catheterization: Occasionally required to establish the diagnosis. Findings are elevated and equal diastolic pressures in all chambers, and the square root sign (rapid y descent on ventricular pressure tracing).

Echocardiography and gated cardiac MR imaging confirm the diagnosis of constrictive pericarditis. What treatment is recommended? This patient with severe symptoms of advanced disease should undergo surgical pericardiectomy (removal of the pericardial sac). Close observation is sufficient for patients with mild symptoms like isolated ascites.

Alternative 2.9.1
The patient with signs, symptoms, and EKG findings indicating acute pericarditis is found to have a 1-cm pericardial effusion. Repeat echocardiogram is scheduled 7 days from this time, but 3 days later he presents to the emergency department with sudden onset of dyspnea at rest and pleuritic chest pain radiating to the left shoulder that improves somewhat on leaning forward. Physical examination is significant for 12 cm of JVD, distended forehead and scalp veins, weakened carotid pulse during inspiration, muffled heart sounds, and a friction rub. Vitals signs are temperature 37C, pulse 120 bpm, respirations 27/minute. Blood pressure is 100/80 on expiration but decreases to 80/60 on inspiration (pulsus paradoxus). EKG now shows low voltage and sinus tachycardia. What is the cause of his clinical deterioration? Excessive accumulation of pericardial fluid can impair ventricular filling and lead to hypotension (caused by decreased cardiac output). This condition is termed cardiac tamponade and is the most likely diagnosis in this patient. The classic triad (Beck's triad) of tamponade is JVD, muffled heart sounds, and hypotension. Other findings may include:

1. 2. 3.

Symptoms: dyspnea and pleuritic chest pain Vital signs: tachycardia and tachypnea Physical signs: distended scalp veins and weakened carotid pulse during inspiration, friction rub, and pulsus paradoxus

4.

EKG: low voltage and sinus tachycardia with or without electrical alternans

Electrical alternans: Beat-to-beat variation in the amplitude or axis of the QRS complex caused by swinging of the heart within the pericardial space. It is an insensitive but relatively specific sign for cardiac tamponade. Pulsus paradoxus: Greater than normal decrease in systolic blood pressure during inspiration (>12 mm Hg decrease). The paradox is that S1 is audible with all beats during inspiration, but the pulse is weak or cannot be felt. A number of cardiac and pulmonary conditions can cause this phenomenon.

38

Ewart sign: Dullness and bronchial breath sounds near the angle of the scapula is neither sensitive nor specific for tamponade.

P.47

Cardiac tamponade versus constrictive pericarditis: Both conditions cause JVD. Pulsus paradoxus is rare in constrictive pericarditis. Kussmaul sign is rare in cardiac tamponade.

What causes cardiac tamponade? Any cause of pericardial effusion can theoretically progress to tamponade. The most common causes of cardiac tamponade are malignancy and trauma (including iatrogenic tamponade caused by pericardiocentesis, central line placement, etc.). Free-wall rupture is an important cause in the post-MI setting.

What work-up and management is indicated? Diagnosis is clinical, although echocardiography is usually performed to confirm the diagnosis. Treat this hemodynamically unstable patient with emergent catheter pericardiocentesis to drain fluid from the pericardial sac.

CASE 210 CHRONIC, PROGRESSIVE DYSPNEA

A 58-year-old man with a 10-year history of HTN presents with dyspnea and dry cough that has been progressively worsening over the last 6 months. Initially he experienced dyspnea only after a brisk 1mile walk. He now has dyspnea climbing up the flight of stairs to his bedroom. Lying down worsens symptoms, and he often needs three to four pillows to fall asleep (orthopnea). Auscultation of the heart reveals an S3, S4, and a 1/6 blowing holosystolic murmur heard best at the apex that radiates to the axilla. Point of maximal impulse is displaced to the left. There are scattered rales and wheezes on lung exam. There is 9 cm of JVD. The liver edge is tender and 4 cm below the costal margin (tender hepatomegaly). He has marked peripheral edema. Blood pressure is 170/100, and pulse is 80 bpm and regular. What are the most common causes of chronic dyspnea? Two thirds of chronic dyspnea (duration >1 month) is caused by pulmonary or cardiac causes. Remember the five most common causes using the mnemonic Chronic Cigarette Addicts Can't Inhale (Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), CHF, Asthma, CHD, and Interstitial lung disease). Other important pulmonary causes are lung cancer, pleural effusion, and bronchiectasis. Other important cardiac causes are arrhythmias and deconditioning. Anemia is a common noncardiopulmonary cause.

What is the most likely cause of progressive dyspnea in this patient? The most likely diagnosis is CHF. Although no single physical finding establishes the diagnosis, suggestive findings include:

1. 2. 3.

Symptoms: dyspnea and orthopnea Fluid overload: elevated JVD, peripheral edema, and ascites Heart exam: S3, S4, displaced point of maximal impulse, or murmur suggesting valve disease (Table 2-19).

4.

Lung exam: normal or rales and wheezes

TABLE 219 Murmurs Caused by Valvular Heart Disease and Other Select Conditions

39

EARLY DIASTOLIC MURMURS

Aortic regurgitation

Decrescendo murmur heard best at left lower sternal border

Pulmonic regurgitation

Decrescendo murmur heard best at upper sternal border that increases with inspiration

MID-LATE DIASTOLIC MURMURS

Mitral stenosis

Opening snap followed by rumble heard best at apex when patient is in left lateral decubitus position; loud S1

Tricuspid stenosis

Opening snap followed by rumble heard best at left sternal border that increases with inspiration; canon a wave may be present if severe.

Atrial myxoma (benign tumor)

Murmur similar to mitral stenosis but changes with body position

HOLOSYSTOLIC MURMURS (SOUND THE SAME THROUGHOUT SYSTOLE)

Mitral regurgitation

Blowing murmur heard best at apex and radiates to the axilla

Tricuspid regurgitation

Blowing murmur heard best at left lower sternal border that increases with inspiration and decreases with expiration or valsalva

OTHER SYSTOLIC MURMURS

Mitral valve prolapse

Mid systolic click followed by rumble that increases with standing, sustained handgrip, and valsalva. The click and murmur decrease with squatting

Aortic stenosis

Harsh crescendo-decrescendo murmur at right upper sternal border that radiates to carotids; carotid upstroke is diminished and delayed (parvus et tardus)

Pulmonic stenosis

Harsh crescendo-decrescendo murmur

MURMURS CAUSED BY SELECT PEDIATRIC CONDITIONS

Atrial septal defect

Mid-systolic murmur with fixed and widely split S2

Ventricular septal defect

Loud holosystolic murmur heard best at left lower sternal border and often accompanied by a thrill

Hypertrophic

Harsh crescendo-decrescendo systolic murmur that increases with standing and valsalva, and decreases with

40

cardiomyopathy

squatting and sustained handgrip

Patent ductus arteriosus

Machine-like murmur heard in systole and diastole

Rumbling sound = lowpitched

Blowing sound = highpitched

Note: Other classic signs of aortic regurgitation are widened pulse pressure (markedly increased systolic BP and decreased diastolic BP), water-hammer pulse (rapidly increasing pulse that collapses suddenly in late diastole and systole), Austin-Flint murmur (late diastolic rumble due to relative mitral stenosis), Duroziez sign (pistol-shot sound over femoral arteries), and DeMusset sign (rhythmic head jerking).

Distension of the internal jugular vein is a marker for central venous pressure (CVP) (normally <6 cm). The four causes of JVD >6 cm are cardiac tamponade, constrictive pericarditis, CHF (biventricular or isolated right heart failure), and superior vena cava syndrome.

What causes CHF? CHF is the final and most severe manifestation of almost every type of heart disease. In descending order, the most common causes of CHF are CAD, HTN, and valvular heart disease (Table 2-20).

P.48 TABLE 220 Causes of Heart Failure

DCM: left ventricular dilatation and systolic heart failure.

Secondary DCM (HIV): HTN: Prognosis is better than other patients with DCM, as long as hypertension is controlled. Ischemia: Coronary artery disease is the most common cause of heart failure. DCM is also a common complication after MI. Prognosis is worse with ischemic DCM than nonischemic causes of DCM. Valvular heart disease Note: The above conditions can cause isolated diastolic heart failure or both systolic and diastolic heart failure.

Primary DCM (I4P): Accounts for 90% of primary cardiomyopathies. Idiopathic Infections: viral myocarditis, HIV, Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas disease), Lyme disease (transient dilated cardiomyopathy). Ingestions: Alcohol, cocaine, HIV drugs, chemotherapy drugs (ADD = anthracyclin, doxorubicin, daunorubicin). Inherited: muscular dystrophies, thalassemias Postpartum cardiomyopathy: Occurs in the last trimester or first 6 months after

41

pregnancy; most patients recover but, because of the risk of recurrence, advise against future pregnancies.

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (diastolic heart failure, sometimes also systolic heart failure)

Restrictive cardiomyopathies (diastolic heart failure). Many cases are idiopathic or familial. Other causes are CRASSH = Cancer (carcinoid, multiple myeloma), Radiation, Amyloidosis, Sarcoidosis and Scleroderma, Hemochromatosis.

Systolic heart failure: Decreased ejection fraction as a result of increased afterload (e.g., HTN) or decreased contractility (e.g., myocardial damage caused by MI, myocarditis, etc.). Diastolic heart failure: Decreased ventricular filling (i.e., decreased preload) as a result of impaired relaxation. Clinical distinction between systolic and diastolic CHF: It is very difficult to distinguish between systolic and diastolic CHF on the basis of signs and symptoms alone.

Systolic or diastolic CHF can affect the left heart, right heart (cor pulmonale), or both. Left heart failure is the most prevalent cause of right heart failure. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is the most prevalent cause of cor pulmonale.

P.49 What tests should you order initially in a patient with suspected CHF? The goal of initial testing is to distinguish heart failure from pulmonary etiologies and to detect the underlying cause of heart failure. Order the following tests initially:

1.

CXR: Findings in CHF include cardiomegaly, cephalization of the pulmonary vessels, Kerley B-lines, and pleural effusions (see Fig. 2-5).

2.

EKG: The EKG can detect underlying causes of CHF, such as arrhythmias that are causing or exacerbating CHF. A normal EKG is unusual in patients with symptomatic heart failure.

3.

Echocardiogram: Echocardiography is the most helpful test in the evaluation of heart failure suggested by history, physical, and chest radiography. Ejection fraction <40% indicates systolic heart failure. Ejection fraction >40% in a symptomatic patient suggests diastolic heart failure (as a result of impaired relaxation). Many clinicians confirm the diagnosis of diastolic heart failure by documenting decreased end-diastolic volume on Doppler echocardiography. P.50

4.

Plasma BNP (bone natriuretic peptide) or n-terminal BNP: Plasma BNP is usually >100 pg/ml in CHF. BNP <100 pg/ml suggests a pulmonary etiology is more likely. Note that BNP does not help distinguish systolic from diastolic heart failure.

5.

Complete blood count, serum electrolytes, and liver function tests: These tests are not diagnostic of heart failure, but they are used to detect exacerbating conditions such

42

as anemia and to establish a baseline. 6. Stress tests: These tests are used to evaluate all patients with heart failure for CAD.

FIGURE 26 EKG of sinus bradycardia. From Nettina SM. The Lippincott Manual of Nursing Practice, 7th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001.

CHF is a clinical diagnosis, made on the basis of clinical, radiographic, and laboratory findings. There is no single test to diagnose heart failure.

CXR shows cardiomegaly, cephalization, and Kerley B lines. EKG shows biventricular hypertrophy. Echocardiography reveals biventricular hypertrophy, left ventricle dilatation, and an ejection fraction of 30%. What is the pathophysiology behind the signs and symptoms of systolic heart failure?

1.

Cardiac output is proportional to stroke volume and heart rate. Stroke volume is inversely proportional to afterload and directly proportional to preload and contractility. Therefore, increased afterload (e.g., HTN) or decreased contractility (e.g., myocardial damage caused by MI, myocarditis, etc.) reduces stroke volume.

2.

Compensatory mechanisms to maintain stroke volume are myocardial hypertrophy (to increase contractility) and dilatation (to increase preload). Physical signs of hypertrophy are S4 and displaced point of maximal impulse (caused by the resulting cardiomegaly). The physical sign of dilatation is S3. Progressive dilatation can also lead to mitral regurgitation.

3.

As long as stroke volume is adequate, symptoms of CHF are absent. However, as CHF progresses, compensatory mechanisms become inadequate to maintain stroke volume. Systolic emptying ceases at a higher end-systolic volume than normal, which increases end-systolic pressure in the LV. During diastole (when the mitral valve is open), this increased pressure is transmitted to the left atrium and pulmonary vasculature. Pulmonary HTN causes transudation of fluid into the pulmonary interstitium (pulmonary edema), which leads to the loud pulmonic component of S2, dyspnea, orthopnea, paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea, and a nonproductive cough.

4.

Eventually, increased pulmonary pressure is transmitted to the right ventricle, which leads to worsening right heart failure. Signs of right heart failure are right ventricular heave, tricuspid regurgitation, and fluid retention (JVD, tender hepatomegaly, ascites, nocturia, and pitting edema).

5.

Decreased cardiac output leads to progressive fatigue and weakness. Also, decreased perfusion of the kidneys (as a result of decreased cardiac output) stimulates the renin-

43

angiotensin-aldosterone system, which leads to sodium and fluid retention.

How would you classify this patient's disease severity? Disease severity is generally classified using the NYHA system (Table 2-21). This patient's symptoms correspond to NYHA class II CHF.

TABLE 221 New York Heart Association Classification of Heart Failure Class I Severity Symptoms occur only with vigorous activities, like playing sports.

II

Symptoms occur with moderate exertion, like climbing a flight of stairs or carrying heavy packages.

III

Symptoms occur with usual activities of daily living, such as getting dressed or walking across the room.

IV

Symptoms occur at rest.

P.51 Stress testing is equivocal. The patient then undergoes coronary angiography, which does not reveal any significant CAD. He denies any recent infections or ingestions. What is the most likely cause of this patient's systolic heart failure? Echocardiography findings of a dilated, hypertrophic LV with decreased ejection fraction indicate that he has dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM). Ischemic heart disease is the most common cause of heart failure, but he has a negative work-up for CAD. The most likely cause of CHF in this patient is HTN. The prognosis of dilated cardiomyopathy secondary to HTN is better than with other primary and secondary causes of dilated cardiomyopathy.

Coronary angiography is often performed in the initial evaluation of CHF to rule out ischemic cardiomyopathy (the most prevalent cause of CHF).

How is stable systolic heart failure treated?

1.

Initiate loop diuretics (e.g., furosemide) first to control symptoms caused by fluid overload. Loop diuretics improve symptoms more rapidly than other therapies (hours to weeks), although they do not improve long-term survival.

2.

During diuretic therapy, initiate an ACE inhibitor, which decreases preload and afterload. Use an ARB if the patient cannot tolerate the ACE inhibitor. ACE inhibitors/ARBs improve symptoms and survival in all groups of patients with systolic heart failure. Patients taking ACE inhibitors should monitor serum K+, BUN, and creatinine regularly.

3.

Initiate a -blocker when the patient is stable on an ACE inhibitor and signs and symptoms of fluid overload have resolved. Start low and go slow to minimize the risk of cardiac decompensation that may occur initially with -blockers. -blockers also improve symptoms and survival in all groups of patients with systolic heart failure.

4.

Consider the use of digoxin if the patient continues to have symptoms despite maximal doses of loop diuretics, ACE inhibitor, and -blockers. Digoxin improves symptoms and reduces hospitalizations but does not increase survival. Patients taking digoxin should

44

regularly monitor serum levels digoxin to ensure that blood content is in the therapeutic but not the toxic range. 5. If digoxin does not control symptoms, add spironolactone or the combination of hydralazine and a nitrate. Hydralazine and nitrates may improve survival in African Americans with NYHA class III or IV systolic heart failure. Spironolactone may improve survival in select patients with NYHA class III or class IV systolic heart failure. 6. All patients with systolic heart failure should alter their lifestyle: consume <2 g of sodium per day and increase physical activity.

Medications for stable systolic heart failure are made in Dr HyNi'S LAB (Digoxin, Hydralazine, Nitrates, Spironolactone, Loop diuretics, ACE inhibitors/ARBs, and blockers).

When is implantation of an ICD recommended in patients with nonischemic CHF? ICD implantation improves survival in patients with NYHA class II to class IV heart failure and ejection fraction <35%. On the basis of these criteria, this patient qualifies for an ICD.

Combined resynchronization therapy (CRT): Consider an ICD plus a biventricular pacemaker in patients with NYHA class IV CHF and ejection fraction <35% who also have a wide QRS complex on EKG (>120 ms).

Why are ACE inhibitors started before -blockers in CHF? ACE inhibitors provide rapid hemodynamic benefit and do not exacerbate CHF. The hemodynamic benefit of -blockers is delayed, and cardiac function may initially worsen. For this reason, start -blockers after the patient is stable on ACE inhibitor therapy.

P.52 Dyspnea, peripheral edema, and JVD improve with furosemide. Enalapril (2.5 mg twice a day) is then initiated. The enalapril is titrated over the next few weeks to 20 mg twice a day without any hypotension or laboratory abnormalities. Carvedilol (3.125 mg/day) is started. One week after starting carvedilol, the patient gains 5 lbs. He has 9 cm of JVD and bilateral pedal edema. What is the next step in management? Symptoms can transiently worsen when the patient initiates or increases the dose of a blocker. Rather than discontinuing the -blocker, increase the dose of the loop diuretic to minimize fluid overload during this short period.

Unexplained weight gain is an early sign of worsening CHF.

Two weeks later, the patient's blood pressure is 98/70. What is the next step in management? Excessive diuresis can cause volume contraction, which increases the risk of hypotension and renal failure from ACE inhibitors. Decrease the diuretic dose and/or the ACE inhibitor dose at this time.

Over the next two years, digoxin and then spironolactone are added to the heart failure regimen. He now presents to the emergency department with nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and blurry vision. He recently started taking paroxetine for depression. EKG is significant for ventricular ectopic beats. He is oriented to person but not place and time. There is no JVD or peripheral edema. Lungs are clear. Temperature, blood pressure, and respirations are within

45

normal limits. What is the most likely cause of his symptoms? GI symptoms, visual disturbances, and disorientation coupled with a rhythm disturbance should raise suspicion for digoxin toxicity. The most likely cause is the recent initiation of a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, which decreases renal digoxin excretion. Check a digoxin level at this time. Also obtain serum electrolytes because hyperkalemia is an ominous finding in the setting of digoxin toxicity.

DIVERT: Drugs that commonly predispose to digoxin toxicity are DIlitiazem, Verapimil, Erythromycin, Rifampin, and Tetracycline.

Digitalis toxicity can cause almost any kind of arrhythmia, although Mobitz type II AV block, atrial fibrillation, and atrial flutter are less likely.

Serum digoxin level is 6 ng/ml (normal <2 ng/ml), and serum potassium is 5.5 mEq/L. What is the next step in management? Digibind (digoxin-specific Fab fragments) is indicated for the following patients with digoxin toxicity:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Patients with digoxin level >10 ng/L Patients with plasma potassium >5 mEq/L Patients who are hemodynamically unstable Patients with digoxin-induced arrhythmia

This patient with ventricular ectopy and plasma K + >5 mEq/L should receive Digibind.

The patient improves with Digibind. One year later, he presents to the emergency department with dry cough and dyspnea at rest. He ran out of his medications 4 weeks ago, and he was unable to obtain more after losing insurance coverage. Lung examination reveals bilateral crackles. Auscultation of the heart is significant for an S3 gallop, S4, loud P2, and mitral regurgitation. There is 13 cm of JVD and peripheral edema bilaterally. The liver is tender and can be palpated 4 cm below the costal margin. He is using accessory muscles to breathe. Vital signs are temperature 37.1 C, pulse 120 bpm, respi rations 24/minute, blood pressure 150/95, and SaO 2 , 89%. CXR shows bilateral infiltrates in a butterfly pattern. What is the cause of his symptoms? P.53 The most likely explanation for his symptoms is acute decompensated CHF (cardiogenic pulmonary edema). Acute decompensated heart failure is characterized by signs of acutely worsening volume overload and decreased cardiac output.

Noncardiogenic pulmonary edema: Common causes are volume overload in renal failure or increased afterload in hypertensive emergency. Unlike cardiogenic pulmonary edema, patients typically have a warm periphery and a bounding pulse. Flash pulmonary edema: Sudden and dramatic onset of cardiogenic pulmonary edema.

46

What is the most likely cause of decompensation in this patient? The most common cause of acute decompensation is nonadherence with lifestyle measures, followed by nonadherence with drug therapy. Nonadherence to prescribed medication appears to be the most likely cause in this patient. Other causes of acute decompensated heart failure include the six I's and high-output heart failure:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Ischemia/infarction Inflammation of heart (myocarditis, etc.) Infection (endocarditis, etc.) Inability to take medications or adhere to lifestyle measures (noncompliance) Ingestions (alcohol or drugs such as -blockers, CCBs, and chemotherapy drugs) Inappropriate rhythm (arrhythmias)

High-output conditions are those that increase cardiac output requirements to maintain peripheral oxygenation: anemia, pregnancy, AV fistulas, hyperthyroidism, wet beriberi (B1 deficiency), Paget's disease, and mitral and aortic regurgitation.

How is cardiogenic pulmonary edema? Key measures in acute cardiogenic pulmonary edema are LMNOP:

1.

Loop diuretics: IV loop diuretics reduce volume overload and have an initial morphinelike effect. Measure daily weight and 24-hour fluid balance to assess the efficacy of diuresis.

2.

Morphine: Reduces anxiety decreased work of breathing decreased sympathetic outflow arteriolar and venous dilation decreased cardiac filling pressure.

3.

Nitrates: Transdermal nitroglycerin (vasodilator) reduces cardiac filling pressure. Consider IV nitroglycerin if transdermal nitroglycerin is not sufficient. Nitroprusside is another alternative, but it is used less frequently because of the risk of cyanide toxicity.

4.

Oxygen: Maintain oxygen saturation >90% with supplemental oxygen. If the patient progresses to respiratory failure, attempt noninvasive positive pressure ventilation. If this is not successful, intubate and mechanically ventilate the patient.

5.

Position: Have patients sit up with their legs dangling over the side of the bed.

Do not initiate ACE inhibitors for the first time during the initial 12 to 24 hours of acute cardiogenic pulmonary edema (risk of hypotension and renal failure). If the patient is already on an ACE inhibitor, he can continue the drug.

The patient with systolic heart failure continues to have dyspnea at rest despite maximal outpatient therapy. He has repeated admissions for exacerbations and is currently hospitalized with cardiogenic pulmonary edema that is refractory to maximal therapy with loop diuretics, morphine, nitrates, oxygen, and position. What additional options exist for patients with refractory, NYHA class IV, systolic heart failure?

1.

IV dobutamine (-1 agonist) or milrinone (phosphodiesterase inhibitor): Helpful for inpatient management of refractory cardiogenic pulmonary edema.

2.

Nesiritide: This vasodilator may help heart failure patients with refractory pulmonary

47

edema who are not hypotensive or in cardiogenic shock. P.54 3. Hemodialysis: Helps reduce volume overload and may improve responsiveness to loop diuretics. 4. Mechanical circulatory support: Intraaortic balloon pump, LV assist devices, and a recently approved total artificial heart can serve as a bridge to transplantation. A longterm LV assist device is available for patients who are not candidates for cardiac transplantation. 5. Cardiac transplantation: Most of the above therapies are intended as a bridge to transplantation. One-year survival is close to 80% and 5-year survival is 65% to 70% after heart transplant.

Alternative 2.10.1
A 40-year-old woman presents with progressive dyspnea on exertion over the last 3 months. She denies recent infection, cigarette, or alcohol use. Her father died of heart failure at the age of 45, and her brother died of sudden cardiac arrest while practicing for a triathlon as a teenager. There is 12 cm of JVD and a positive a wave. There is 2+ pedal edema. Auscultation of the heart reveals a harsh crescendo-decrescendo systolic murmur that increases with standing and valsalva, and decreases with squatting and sustained handgrip. Carotid pulse is bifid with a brisk upstroke. What is the most likely cause of this patient's symptoms? This patient presents with signs and symptoms of heart failure caused by hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (idiopathic subaortic stenosis). Approximately 30% of patients have obstruction of the LV outflow tract as a result of hypertrophy of the ventricular septum, which causes the characteristic murmur (see Table 2-19). This is an autosomal dominant condition with variable penetrance, and often presents with sudden cardiac arrest in young athletes.

Aortic stenosis: Crescendo-decrescendo murmur that radiates to carotids and does not change with maneuvers. Carotid upstroke is diminished and delayed (parvus et tardus). Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: Crescendo-decrescendo murmur that does not radiate to carotids. Intensity changes with maneuvers. Carotid upstroke is brisk and bifid.

What findings would you expect to find on echocardiography? Typical findings are asymmetric left-ventricle hypertrophy without dilatation, preserved systolic function but decreased end-diastolic volume (diastolic heart failure). Because this patient has the characteristic murmur of LV outflow tract obstruction, you should expect the anterior septum of the mitral valve to contact the ventricular septum during systole.

Screen all first-degree family members with echocardiography every year during adolescence and then every 5 years until the sixth or seventh decade.

Echocardiography confirms the diagnosis of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy with diastolic dysfunction and LV outflow tract obstruction. In general, how should you approach the treatment of diastolic heart failure? Management of diastolic heart failure can be extremely challenging. The left ventricle is small and stiff, so medications that decrease preload such as diuretics and venodilators can

48

drastically reduce left ventricle filling, resulting in decreased cardiac output and hypotension. Control HTN, atrial fibrillation, volume overload, and CAD when they present. Monitor the patient closely for hypotension and syncope if you are using diuretics or venodilators such as nitrates, dihydropyridine CCBs, and ACE inhibitors.

What are the specific recommendations regarding management of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?

1.

For asymptomatic patients, all patients with outflow tract obstruction should take prophylactic antibiotics before dental, genitourinary, or other invasive procedures to decrease risk of mitral valve infective endocarditis. No other treatment is necessary for asymptomatic patients. P.55

2.

For symptomatic patients, the preferred initial therapy for dyspnea on exertion is a blocker. If symptoms persist, add verapamil or disopyramide (an anti-arrhythmic). Consider surgery (septal myomectomy) for patients with outflow tract obstruction and symptoms refractory to medical therapy. Alternatives to septal myomectomy are alcohol septal ablation and dual-chamber pacing.

Use of an ICD may prevent sudden cardiac death in high-risk patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.

CASE 211 FEVER, SYSTEMIC SYMPTOMS, AND A MURMUR

A 15-year-old African woman presents to a mission clinic in Malawi with a 3-week history of joint pain. The pain initially began in her legs. That pain resolved itself, and then she experienced pain in her knees followed by her wrists. She recalls having a sore throat 2 weeks before her symptoms began. Physical examination is significant for three firm, symmetric, and painless subcutaneous nodules over the olecranon processes. There are erythematous, nonpruritic plaques with a pale center on the trunk. Auscultation of the heart reveals a 2/6 blowing holosystolic murmur that is heard best at the apex and radiates to the axilla. Vital signs are temperature 38.9C, pulse 90 bpm, respirations 12/minute, blood pressure 110/70, and oxygen saturation, 95%. What is the most likely diagnosis? The most likely diagnosis is rheumatic fever. Diagnosis of rheumatic fever is clinical based on the Jones criteria. To make the diagnosis, a patient must have either two major and one minor or one major and two minor criteria. Remember the major criteria for acute rheumatic fever with the mnemonic JNES:

1.

Joints: Migratory polyarthritis that predominantly affects the large joints is usually the first manifestation of acute rheumatic fever.

2.

Carditis (): Acute rheumatic fever can cause pancarditis (pericarditis, epicarditis, and myocarditis). Mitral regurgitation is a common finding. The cardiac manifestations are often subtle.

3.

Nodules: Firm, painless, subcutaneous nodules over a bony surface or tendons that can be moved under the skin.

4.

Erythema marginatum: A pink, nonpruritic rash with a central clearing located on the trunk and limbs but not the face.

5.

Sydenham chorea: Neurological disturbances include inappropriate behavior, weakness, and abrupt, purposeless, nonrhythmic involuntary movements. This is usually a late manifestation, occurring months after the initial infection.

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Minor criteria for rheumatic fever include:

1. 2.

Clinical findings of fever, arthralgias, or history of acute rheumatic fever in the past. Laboratory findings of prolonged PR interval, elevated ESR, and elevated C-reactive protein (CRP).

ESR and CRP are general markers for inflammation. They are not specific for any one condition.

What causes rheumatic fever? Rheumatic fever is an immune-mediated condition that occurs 2 to 4 weeks after untreated streptococcal pharyngitis in 3% of patients. This complication most frequently affects children between the ages of 6 and 15 years.

How can you establish that the sore throat was secondary to group A streptococcal infection? Either increased antistreptolysin O (or other streptococcal antibodies), positive throat culture, positive rapid streptococcal antigen test, or recent scarlet fever can establish the diagnosis. P.56 Throat culture is usually negative by the time the patient develops acute rheumatic fever. At this stage, the best test, if available, would be antistreptolysin O, which peaks 5 weeks after the initial infection.

Scarlet fever presents with fever; chills; cervical lymphadenopathy; sore throat; and an erythematous, maculopapular, sandpaper-like rash on trunk and abdomen for 2 to 5 days.

How is acute rheumatic fever treated? Acute rheumatic fever is a self-limiting condition, and NSAIDs such as aspirin are sufficient for symptomatic treatment. It is important to treat the streptococcal infection with oral penicillin-V to prevent rheumatic heart disease. Use intramuscular benzathine penicillin-G if compliance is an issue. Erythromycin is an alternative for patients allergic to penicillin. Continue antibiotic prophylaxis until the patient is 18 to 20 years of age to prevent recurrence of acute rheumatic fever.

Patients with a history of rheumatic fever should take erythromycin or amoxicillin before dental, genitourinary, and other invasive procedures to prevent infective endocarditis.

Antibiotic treatment of streptococcal pharyngitis has dramatically reduced the incidence of rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease in the United States.

There is no penicillin-G in the clinic, and the patient loses the penicillin-V on her way home. She does not return to the clinic. She moves to the United States the next year. Fifteen years later, she presents to the clinic with gradually progressive dyspnea and orthopnea over the last 3 months. She finds it difficult to climb stairs and walk to her mailbox. Auscultation of the heart reveals a mid-diastolic opening snap followed by a 3/6 rumble heard best at the apex. The murmur is followed by a loud S1. Bilateral rales are heard on lung examination. There is 2+ pedal edema. What is the most likely diagnosis? This patient has rheumatic heart disease, which presents 10 to 20 years after the original

50

infection in untreated patients. Immune-mediated damage to the mitral valves causes fusion of the valve commissures, leading to mitral stenosis (fish mouth orifice). Mitral stenosis causes elevated left atrial pressure, which leads to pulmonary HTN and right heart failure. The condition is typically asymptomatic until the mitral valve area decreases to <1.5 cm 2 (normal: 4cm 2 to 5 cm 2 ). Atrial fibrillation and atrial thrombus formation are important complications of mitral stenosis.

Rheumatic heart disease can also lead to aortic stenosis. Tricuspid and pulmonary valve stenoses are possible but uncommon.

Echocardiography shows a mitral valve area of 1 cm 2 . There is no left atrial thrombus, valve calcification, or mitral regurgitation. Ejection fraction is 28%. How is mitral valve stenosis treated?

1.

Asymptomatic patients: No specific treatment is required for asymptomatic patients except periodic monitoring with echocardiography.

2. 3.

Mild fluid overload: Diuretics are sufficient for patients with mild fluid overload. NYHA class II to class IV heart failure: Perform surgical valve replacement or catheter balloon commissurotomy.

What treatment should this patient receive? This patient has NYHA class II CHF. Surgery is recommended in this patient because of the mitral regurgitation. Other indications for surgery are calcified valves or left atrial thrombus. Catheter balloon commissurotomy is indicated in patients with none of these indications for surgery.

P.57

Alternative 2.11.1
The patient is a 30-year-old man who presents to the clinic with a 3-week history of low-grade fever, malaise, and arthralgias. He has a history of IV cocaine and heroin use. He has no other prior medical history. Physical examination is significant for a 1/6 blowing murmur heard best at the left lower sternal border that increases with inspiration and decreases with expiration. There are numerous recent injection marks on his right and left arms. Vital signs are temperature 39C, pulse 90 bpm, respirations 15/minute, blood pressure 110/75. What cause should you suspect on the basis of his symptoms? Suspect infective endocarditis in any patient with unexplained fever and a new murmur. Infective endocarditis often affects heart valves, which is why patients develop a murmur. IV drug abuse is an important risk factor, particularly for right-sided (tricuspid valve) endocarditis. With fever, murmur, and flu-like symptoms for >2 weeks, this patient is more likely to have subacute than acute bacterial endocarditis (Table 2-22).

TABLE 222 Acute Versus Subacute Bacterial Endocarditis Acute Bacterial Endocarditis Heart valve Healthy native valve Subacute Bacterial Endocarditis Damaged or prosthetic valve

High fever and systemic

Low-grade fever and nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue,

51

Presentation

symptoms over the course of a few days

weakness, malaise, anorexia, and arthralgias lasting weeks to months.

White cell count

Leukocytosis with a left shift

White count may or may not be elevated

Microbiology

Staphylococcus aureus (most common), Staphylococcus epidermis, and Gram-negative bacilli

Streptococcus viridans (most common). Streptococcus bovis, enterococcus, and HACEK organisms

Prognosis

Fatal in <6 weeks if left untreated

Takes >6 weeks to cause death if untreated

Murmur and physical signs are often absent, so infective endocarditis is an important diagnostic consideration in fever of unknown origin.

What are other physical signs of infective endocarditis? Important physical findings of infective endocarditis (often not present) are:

1.

Petechiae: Although not specific, petechiae on the skin, mucous membrane, and conjunctiva are the most common skin findings.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Splinter hemorrhages: Nonblanching, red-brown lines under the nail bed. Janeway lesions: Erythematous, painless, blanching macules on palms and soles. Osler nodes: Painful violaceous nodules on the pulp of fingers and toes. Roth spots: Retinal hemorrhage and exudates.

Janeway lesions, Osler nodes, and Roth spots are specific but not sensitive.

In addition to careful physical examination, what tests should you order for this patient with suspected subacute infective endocarditis?

1.

Blood cultures: These are the most important diagnostic tests for infective endocarditis. Draw three sets of cultures at least 1 hour apart to maximize diagnostic yield.

2.

Echocardiography: Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) is sufficient for most patients. If transthoracic echocardiography is negative or equivocal and clinical suspicion is high, perform TEE, which is more accurate albeit more invasive. If the patient has a prosthetic valve or staphylococcus aureus bacteremia, skip transthoracic echocardiography and go straight to TEE. The test is positive if echocardiogram detects vegetation. P.58

3.

EKG: EKG is not diagnostic for endocarditis, but it helps determine whether the vegetation has spread into the conducting system and caused heart block or conduction delays.

4.

CXR: CXR is not diagnostic, but small, patchy infiltrates suggest septic pulmonary

52

emboli. 5. Laboratory tests: Although of limited diagnostic utility, patients with infective endocarditis usually have elevated ESR and CRP, anemia of chronic disease, increased rheumatoid factor, and microscopic hematuria. In acute bacterial endocarditis, white blood cell count is elevated with a leftward shift.

What causative organism is most likely in this patient? The most common organism responsible for endocarditis in IV drug users is Staphylococcus aureus followed by streptococcus and enterococcus. Gram-negative rods (especially pseudomonas) and fungi (like candida) are less common causes.

Staphylococcus aureus usually causes acute bacterial endocarditis except in IV drug users with native healthy valves, in whom the infection tends to be more indolent.

Two of three blood cultures are positive for Staphylococcus aureus. TEE indicates tricuspid valve vegetation and tricuspid regurgitation. EKG is normal. ESR, CRP, and rheumatoid factor is elevated. Serum electrolytes are normal. What are the diagnostic criteria for infective endocarditis? Infective endocarditis is a clinical diagnosis based on the Duke criteria (Table 2-23). This patient has all three major criteria and three minor criteria for infective endocarditis.

TABLE 223 Duke Criteria for Diagnosis of Infective Endocarditis

Major criteria 1. 2. 3. At least 2 blood cultures positive for Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus viridans or bovis, enterococcus, or HACEK strainsa Echocardiogram shows a vegetation, abscess, valve perforation, or partial dehiscence of the prosthetic valve Echocardiogram documents a new valvular regurgitation.

Minor criteria 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Predisposing condition (abnormal heart valve or intravenous drug use) Fever >38 C Vascular phenomena (septic emboli, mycotic aneurysms, intracranial hemorrhage, Janeway lesions) Immune phenomena (glomerulonephritis, Osler nodes, Roth spots, elevated rheumatoid factor) Positive blood cultures not meeting major criteria Positive echocardiogram not meeting major criteria

To make the diagnosis, the patient must fulfill one of the three options: 1. 2. 3. At least 2 major criteria and 1 minor At least 1 major criterion and 2 minor criteria At least 5 minor criteria

a HACEK strains are Hemophilus species, Actinobacilli actinomycete, Cardiobacterium hominis, Eikenella, and Kingella species. Single positive blood culture or IgG titer >1:800 is sufficient for Coxiella burnetii.

What treatment should this patient receive? Bacterial endocarditis is usually fatal if left untreated. This patient with uncomplicated, native

53

valve, right-sided staphylococcus infection should receive a 2-week course of IV nafcillin (or oxacillin) and gentamycin (Table 2-24).

TABLE 224 Empiric Treatment for Infective Endocarditis Organisms Native valve endocarditis S. viridans, S. aureus, enterococci Intravenous Antibiotics Nafcillin + ampicillin + gentamycin

Right-sided endocarditis in IV drug users

S. aureus

Nafcillin + gentamycin

Early prosthetic valve endocarditis (<60 days)

Staphylococci

Vancomycin + gentamycin

Late prosthetic valve endocarditis (>60 days)

Same as native valve endocarditis

Same as native valve endocarditis

Adapted from O'Rourke et al. Hurst's The Heart: Manual of Cardiology. 11th ed. McGraw Hill, 2005.

Monitor acute phase reactants during therapy. Normalization of ESR and CRP indicates successful antibiotic treatment.

How would treatment differ if cultures grew methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus? If the culture results show methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, treat with a 6-week course of vancomycin instead.

P.59

Treatment duration of left-sided bacterial endocarditis is 6 weeks.

The patient continues to remain febrile despite 2 weeks of antibiotics, and EKG shows a prolonged PT. What complication should you suspect? Suspect paravalvular abscess in patients who continue to remain febrile or develop new conduction abnormalities despite appropriate antibiotics. This complication is more common in infective endocarditis as a result of IV drug use. Obtain a repeat TEE to evaluate for this complication. If TEE is positive, treatment is prompt surgery and IV antibiotics.

What are some other common complications of untreated infective endocarditis? Remember common complications with the mnemonic Endocarditis Complications May Never Go Away:

1.

Embolization: Left-sided vegetations can cause systemic emboli. Right-sided lesions can throw septic pulmonary emboli.

2. 3.

CHF is the most common cause of death as a result of infective endocarditis. Mycotic aneurysm: Infection can weaken and dilate blood vessel walls. The classic presentation is a painful, pulsatile mass in a febrile patient. Rupture of a cerebral

54

mycotic aneurysm can lead to intracerebral hemorrhage. Treatment is prompt surgery and 4 to 6 weeks of IV antibiotics. 4. 5. 6. Neurological complications occur in 25% to 30% of patients. Glomerulonephritis is mediated by the immune complex. Abscess (paravalvular).

Alternative 2.11.2
A 70-year-old man presents with a 2-day history of high fever and rigors. He has a history of aortic stenosis (caused by calcification) that required placement of a porcine valve 30 days ago. The murmur has increased in intensity compared to when he was discharged after surgery. Temperature is 39.3C, pulse is 120 bpm, respirations are 18/mi nute, and blood pressure is 100/75. What diagnosis should you suspect? Suspect acute bacterial endocarditis in a patient with acute onset of high fever, rigors, and a new or worsening murmur. The most common organisms responsible for endocarditis within 60 days of prosthetic valve placement are Staphylococcus epidermis and Staphylococcus aureus (see Table 2-24).

Mechanical valve (ball, disk, St. Jude) is usually selected for younger patients or those who need anticoagulation. Biologic valve (human or porcine) is usually selected in older patients with a short life expectancy or those who cannot tolerate anticoagulation.

P.60 What is the next step in management? Do not delay treatment in an attempt to isolate a specific organism because acute bacterial endocarditis is a fulminant condition. Draw the first set of blood cultures and then initiate empiric IV vancomycin and gentamycin without waiting for the culture results.

What are important noninfectious causes of heart valve vegetations?

1.

Marantic (thrombotic) endocarditis occurs in patients with advanced malignancies. Vegetations consist of platelets and fibrin. Suspect this condition when a cancer patient develops unexplained acute stroke. Diagnose with TEE and treat with unfractionated or subcutaneous heparin.

2.

Libman-Sachs (verrucous) endocarditis occurs in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Vegetations consist of platelets, fibrin, and immune complexes. Although asymptomatic, these vegetations can throw systemic emboli. Also, the damage they cause to heart valves predisposes to infectious endocarditis. Consider anticoagulation for this condition.

CASE 212 BRADYCARDIA

A 20-year-old man presents to the university health clinic with chest pain localized to his right ribs that worsens with deep inspiration. The pain is consistently reproducible with deep palpation. He does not have any other symptoms. He plays varsity basketball. An EKG is obtained (see Fig. 2-6).

55

FIGURE 27 Advanced cardiac life support guidelines for management of bradycardia.

What is the next step in management? Chest wall tenderness that increases with inspiration and is reproducible with palpation is consistent with a musculoskeletal cause. In young patients with no risk factors, further work-up is not necessary. In his case, the EKG that was obtained showed sinus bradycardia. Sinus bradycardia is a common finding in many well-trained athletes (results from increased vagal tone). No further work-up or treatment is indicated in asymptomatic patients with sinus bradycardia.

What are other causes of sinus bradycardia?

1. 2. 3.

2 As: Athletic training and Advanced age Hypos: Hypokalemia and Hypothyroidism Medications that depress sinus node function include -blockers, CCBs, digitalis, clonidine, lithium, and anti-arrhythmic drugs (amiodarone, quinidine, lidocaine, and procainamide).

56

Alternative 2.12.1
A 70-year-old man presents with resting angina that does not respond rapidly to sublingual nitroglycerin. EKG shows ST elevation in leads II, III, and aVF, as well as sinus bradycardia. Blood pressure is 80/60. P.61 What treatment is indicated for the sinus bradycardia? This patient has an inferior-wall MI, which often involves the right coronary artery. Because the right coronary artery supplies the SA node, sinus bradycardia is a common, transient finding that resolves within 24 hours. This patient, who is hemodynamically unstable, requires prompt treatment. Prepare for transcutaneous pacing. While awaiting the pacemaker, administer IV atropine (see Fig. 2-7).

FIGURE 28 EKG showing first-degree AV block. From Nettina SM. The Lippincott Manual of Nursing Practice, 7th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001.

FASTropine: Atropine makes the heart beat faster. AdenoSLOW: Adenosine makes the heart beat slower.

Alternative 2.12.2
The patient is a 78-year-old man with a history of HTN and systolic heart failure. He began experiencing fatigue and light-headedness shortly after initiating metoprolol. He does not have any other medical conditions. EKG shows left-ventricle hypertrophy and sinus bradycardia with a heart rate of 45 beats per minute. Vital signs are normal. What is the next step in management? Some patients with sinus bradycardia experience symptoms of fatigue, light-headedness, syncope, and worsening angina and heart failure. The first step in stable symptomatic patients is to identify and discontinue medications that can depress sinus node function (e.g., metoprolol). Consider using an antihypertensive that does not depress sinus node function such as an ACE inhibitor.

The patient continues to have episodes of lightheadedness and syncope despite discontinuation of metoprolol. Serum electrolyte and thyroid-stimulating hormone levels are normal. What is the next step in management?

57

P.62 First, perform carotid sinus massage (vagal maneuver) for 5 to 10 seconds. A pause in heartbeat >3 seconds indicates carotid sinus hypersensitivity as the cause of bradycardia. If carotid sinus massage is negative, consider ambulatory EKG monitoring (Holter monitor or cardiac event monitor) to correlate symptoms with EKG changes.

Make sure there are no carotid bruits prior to auscultation and do not massage both sinuses at the same time (risk of precipitating cerebral ischemia).

Holter monitor: Portable device that continuously monitors EKG for 24 hours. Cardiac event monitor: Portable device that continuously monitors EKG for 1 month.

Carotid sinus testing is negative. The patient is placed on ambulatory EKG monitoring. During symptomatic periods, EKG shows supraventricular tachycardia alternating with sinus bradycardia. What diagnosis should you suspect? Suspect sick sinus syndrome in elderly patients with heart disease and marked sinus bradycardia without any obvious cause. Sick sinus syndrome is caused by SA node dysfunction together with dysfunctional atrial and junctional foci that are unable to use their normal escape beats, which means that patients can present with recurrent sinus block or sinus arrest. More than 50% of patients experience alternating atrial tachycardia and bradycardia (tachy-brady syndrome), as is the case with this patient.

What treatment should this patient receive? Patients with persistent, symptomatic sinus bradycardia or sick sinus syndrome should receive a pacemaker to artificially stimulate the heart. This patient should also receive a -blocker or CCB after the pacemaker is implanted to control the tachyarrhythmia.

A pacemaker is also indicated if a symptomatic patient has a compelling indication not to discontinue a drug that depresses sinus node function.

What are the different methods of cardiac pacing?

1.

Transcutaneous pacing: Place pads on the external chest wall (one on the sternum and the other on the left axilla). Electrical impulses travel between the two pads and stimulate the heart muscle between them. Used only for temporary stabilization in unstable patients.

2.

Transvenous pacing: A wire is inserted into the right heart using a central venous catheter. The other end of the wire is attached to the pacemaker generator outside the body. Transvenous pacemakers serve as a bridge to permanent pacemaker placement.

3.

Permanent pacemaker: Wires are placed in the chambers of the heart as desired. The other ends of the wires usually connect to a titanium generator placed beneath the subcutaneous fat of the chest wall.

Pacemaker stimuli appear on an EKG as narrow vertical spikes.

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Alternative 2.12.3
A 55-year-old man is given a diagnosis of HTN. As part of the evaluation, an EKG is performed (see Fig. 2-8). The patient is asymptomatic. P.63

FIGURE 29 EKG showing second-degree AV block (type I mobitz). From Harwood-Nuss A, Wolfson AB, et al. The Clinical Practice of Emergency Medicine, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001.

What is the diagnosis? The EKG abnormality is a prolonged PR interval, which indicates that he has an AV block. Because a normal QRS complex follows every p wave, he has a first-degree AV block. This is a benign condition that does not require any treatment.

Alternative 2.12.4
A 55-year-old man is given a diagnosis of HTN. As part of the evaluation, an EKG is performed (see Fig. 2-9). The patient is asymptomatic.

FIGURE 210 EKG showing second-degree AV block (type 2 mobitz). From Harwood-Nuss A, Wolfson AB, et al. The Clinical Practice of Emergency Medicine, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001.

What is the diagnosis? In this EKG, the PR interval progressively lengthens until finally an impulse is blocked and a QRS complex does not follow the p wave. The patient has Type 1 (Wenkebach) second-degree

59

AV block. No treatment is necessary.

Alternative 2.12.5
The patient is a 70-year-old man with a history of systolic heart failure. An EKG is performed (see Fig. 2-10).

FIGURE 211 EKG showing third-degree AV block. From Harwood-Nuss A, Wolfson AB, et al. The Clinical Practice of Emergency Medicine, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2001.

What arrhythmia does this patient have? He has Type II (Mobitz) second-degree AV block. There is no PR interval lengthening, and a number of normal impulses are conducted. Suddenly, the P wave fails to conduct and there is no QRS complex. This condition results from a His bundle block or a block in the Purkinje fibers and usually occurs in patients with underlying heart disease. He should receive a permanent pacemaker to prevent progression to complete heart block.

P.64

Alternative 2.12.6
The patient is a 60-year-old man who was admitted to the hospital 24 hours ago with an anterior STEMI. In the cardiac care unit, the monitor detects an abnormal rhythm (see Fig. 2-11).

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FIGURE 212 EKG showing atrial fibrillation. From Smeltzer SC, Bare BG. Texbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 9th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000.

What arrhythmia does this patient have? This patient has third-degree or complete heart block. No p waves are conducted to the ventricles, so ventricular automaticity foci take control of ventricular pacemaking at a rate of 20 to 50 beats per minute. As a result, p waves and QRS complexes are completely asynchronous. Treat this patient with atropine and transcutaneous pacing followed by transvenous pacing (see Fig. 2-7). Complete heart block in the setting of an anterior MI is often permanent, so place a permanent pacemaker after the patient is stable.

Complete heart block in the setting of an inferior MI is often transient, so a permanent pacemaker is usually not necessary.

CASE 213 IRREGULAR NARROW COMPLEX TACHYCARDIA

A 76-year-old man presents with a 1-week history of intermittent palpitations. He is currently asymptomatic. He has a history of HTN that is treated with HCTZ and lisinopril. He is alert and oriented. Heart rate is 120 beats per minute, and pulse is irregular. He is afebrile. Blood pressure is 130/80. An EKG is obtained (see Fig. 2-12).

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FIGURE 213 Management of newly diagnosed atrial fibrillation.

What is the abnormal rhythm? The patient has the characteristic irregularly irregular rhythm of atrial fibrillation (AF). Multiple irritable foci fire rapidly, but the impulses do not travel very far, so EKG records a wavy baseline but no identifiable p waves. Occasional depolarizations near the AV node conduct to the ventricles, which accounts for the random narrow QRS complexes.

Symptoms of AF and other tachyarrhythmias are palpitations, shortness of breath, weakness, dizziness, and worsening angina or heart failure; however, 90% of atrial fibrillation episodes are asymptomatic.

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P.65 What are the underlying causes of atrial fibrillation? Atrial fibrillation is the most common arrhythmia in adults. It is more common in older patients, especially if they have underlying cardiac conditions such as HTN (the most common underlying disorder), CHF, CAD, MI, sick sinus syndrome, Wolf-Parkinson-White syndrome, or cardiac surgery. Noncardiac risk factors for atrial fibrillation are:

1. 2.

Lungs: pulmonary embolism, COPD, pneumonia, and obstructive sleep apnea. Endocrine: hyperthyroidism and pheochromocytoma (caused by increased -adrenergic tone).

3.

Alcohol and caffeine intake: atrial fibrillation that occurs after binging on alcohol during the weekend or holidays is termed holiday heart syndrome.

Lone atrial fibrillation: AF in patients without underlying cardiac or pulmonary disease. These patients have a lower risk of thromboembolism and mortality. Persistent atrial fibrillation: AF that fails to self-terminate for >7 days. Paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: Episodes last <7 days, but may recur. Permanent atrial fibrillation: AF that lasts for at least 1 year.

What is the next step in management? The next step in this stable patient is to control the heart rate with -blockers or CCBs (verapimil or diltiazem). Digoxin is a second-line agent for rate control except in patients with heart failure (see Fig. 2-13). Also, obtain CXR, echocardiogram, and thyroid function tests to identify possible precipitants.

FIGURE 214 EKG showing MAT. From Thaler MS. The Only EKG Book You'll Ever Need, 5th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

Approximately 75% of patients spontaneously revert to normal sinus rhythm.

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Why is cardioversion not recommended initially in stable patients with atrial fibrillation? The erratic motion of the atria leads to blood stasis, which predisposes to atrial thrombus formation. Pharmacological or electrical cardioversion can dislodge a clot from this thrombus and lead to systemic embolization, the most dangerous complication of AF.

How would initial management have differed if the patient presented with palpitations and tachycardia, and his blood pressure was 80/60 mm Hg? Initial management of an unstable patient in atrial fibrillation is urgent synchronized cardioversion (see Fig. 2-14). In these patients, the risk of death from the irregular rhythm is greater than the risk of possibly dislodging a clot.

What is synchronized cardioversion? How does it differ from defibrillation? Both synchronized electrical cardioversion and defibrillation transiently deliver electric current to depolarized cardiac cells, which allows the sinus node to resume normal pacemaker activity. External paddles or implanted devices deliver the current.

1.

Cardioversion is used to terminate atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, supraventricular tachycardias, and stable VT with a pulse. Current is delivered during the R or S wave of the QRS complex (i.e., synchronized with the R or S wave). This helps avoid delivering current during the period after ventricular depolarization (risk of precipitating VT). When used electively, patients are sedated beforehand to minimize discomfort.

2.

Defibrillation is used to emergently terminate ventricular fibrillation or pulseless VT. Electric current is unsynchronized (delivered at any time in the cardiac cycle). Electricity levels are higher than with cardioversion.

The ICD is surgically implanted under the skin. It detects abnormal rhythms and delivers the appropriate current. Originally designed to deal with ventricular fibrillation, it is now used to treat atrial and ventricular arrhythmias as well as for biventricular pacing.

P.66 P.67 The stable patient's heart rate decreases to 86 beats per minute with metoprolol. The rhythm does not spontaneously convert. No underlying cause is detected. He remains asymptomatic with the -blocker. Vital signs remain normal. What is the next step in management? If heart rate is well controlled and the patient remains asymptomatic, cardioversion is not necessary. Consider chronic anticoagulation with warfarin (target INR 2 to 3) in patients with a history of any of the following (mnemonic: CHADS): CHF, HTN, Age >75 years, DM, or Stroke (or transient ischemic attack or systemic embolus). The goal of anticoagulation is to prevent stroke.

Low-risk patient (no CHADS): Anticoagulation with aspirin is usually sufficient.

The AFFIRM and RACE trials concluded that the combination of rate control and anticoagulation is preferred to rhythm control in patients with stable atrial fibrillation.

How would management differ if the stable patient continued to experience distressing episodes of palpitations and diaphoresis or was unable to achieve adequate rate control? There are two options if a stable patient continues to experience distressing symptoms or is

64

unable to achieve adequate rate control (see Fig. 2-13):

1.

Anticoagulation followed by cardioversion: Initially administer heparin and warfarin. When the INR is 2 to 3, discontinue heparin and continue warfarin for 3 to 4 weeks. Then perform electric or pharmacologic cardioversion.

2.

TEE followed by cardioversion: Obtain TEE to rule out atrial thrombus. If no thrombus is present, proceed with electric or pharmacologic cardioversion.

Atrial fibrillation duration <48 hours: Cardiovert without anticoagulation or TEE.

Is anticoagulation necessary after successful cardioversion? Atrial fibrillation often recurs and can once again place the patient at risk for left atrial thrombus and subsequent embolic stroke. Long-term warfarin is still recommended in patients with any of the CHADS criteria.

How can you manage patients who continue to experience symptoms because of recurrent atrial fibrillation after successful or unsuccessful cardioversion? Consider maintenance anti-arrhythmic drugs in this subset of patients. Amiodarone is usually first-line except in patients with bradycardia. Other anti-arrhythmic options are flecainide, dofetilide, propafenone, and sotalol. Catheter AV node ablation is a final option for patients with refractory atrial fibrillation.

Alternative 2.13.1
The patient is a 75-year-old man with known COPD and HTN. He presents to the emergency department with dyspnea, palpitations, and light-headedness. Medications include inhaled albuterol and ipratropium, oxygen at night, inhaled steroids, and HCTZ. Vital signs are temperature 37C, blood pressure 130/80, pulse 120 bpm, respirations 20/minute, and oxygen saturation 90%. An EKG is obtained (see Fig. 2-14).

65

FIGURE 215 EKG showing supraventricular tachycardia. From Spellberg B, Ayala C. Boards and Wards, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

What is the abnormal rhythm? The patient has multifocal atrial tachycardia (MAT). At least three to four different atrial automaticity foci pace the heart at their inherent rates, but no single focus achieves pacemaking dominance. As a result, the patient develops a rapid, irregular heart rate with p waves of various shapes.

What conditions predispose to MAT? COPD is the most common underlying disorder. Other predisposing conditions include pulmonary and cardiac diseases, DM, hypokalemia, and hypomagnesemia.

P.68 How should you manage this patient? -blockers or CCBs can help slow the heart rate. The primary treatment, however, is to correct the underlying cause.

Cardioversion does not help convert MAT to normal sinus rhythm.

Wandering pacemaker: Pacemaker activity wanders from SA node to nearby automaticity foci. Like MAT, p waves are of different shapes. Unlike MAT, heart rate is 60 to 100 beats per minute. No specific therapy is required. Multifocal atrial bradycardia: P waves are of different shapes but heart rate is <60 beats per minute. Patients may need a pacemaker if the rhythm is persistent and symptomatic.

CASE 214 REGULAR NARROW COMPLEX TACHYCARDIA

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A 30-year-old man presents with palpitations and lightheadedness. An EKG is performed (see Fig. 215).

FIGURE 216 Diagnostic approach to narrow complex tachycardia.

What is the abnormal rhythm? The patient has a supraventricular tachycardia, which occurs when an irritable focus in the atria or the AV node takes over pacemaking activity, leading to a fast rate but regular rhythm. The narrow QRS complex indicates that the impulse originates above the His bundle. The lack of any discernible p waves indicates that the irritable focus is in the AV node or that the p waves are buried within the QRS complex (see Fig. 2-16).

67

FIGURE 217 EKG of Wolf-Parksinson-White syndrome. From Spellberg B, Ayala C. Boards and Wards, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

What are the mechanisms of SVT?

1.

Atrioventricular nodal re-entrant tachycardia (AVNRT): An atrial re-entry circuit that involves the AV node causes the arrhythmia. This is the most common mechanism of SVT, and is the likely cause of SVT in this patient.

2.

AV re-entrant tachycardia (AVRT): Re-entry circuit uses a bypass tract that circumvents the AV node. The cause of this rhythm is Wolf-Parkinson-White syndrome, a condition in which ventricular pre-excitation produces a delta wave right before the QRS complex. The PR interval appears shorter because of this delta wave (see Fig. 2-17).

FIGURE 218 EKG showing atrial flutter. From Spellberg B, Ayala C. Boards and Wards, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

Wolf-Parkinson-White syndrome can also cause atrial fibrillation and flutter. Avoid digoxin in Wolf-Parkinson-White syndrome because it can accelerate conduction through the AV node.

How should you manage this arrhythmia? If the patient is unstable, perform synchronized cardioversion. Otherwise, the first step is

68

carotid sinus massage, alone or in conjunction with the valsalva maneuver. If these vagal P.69 maneuvers are not successful, administer adenosine. Intravenous verapimil, diltiazem, and blockers are second-line agents if the rhythm persists despite two doses of adenosine. No chronic therapy is required for short-lived, well-tolerated attacks that respond to vagal maneuvers. Others require either long-term anti-arrhythmia drugs or radiofrequency ablation of the accessory tract.

SVT with wide QRS complexes: These can occur as a result of delayed conduction in the left or right bundle branch block. Unless you are sure this is the case, treat a wide QRS complex tachycardia as a VT. Verapimil can cause hemodynamic compromise when administered to a patient with VT.

P.70

Alternative 2.14.1
A 75-year-old man with known CHF presents to the emergency department with a 2-hour history of palpitations and light-headedness. An EKG is obtained (see Fig. 2-18).

FIGURE 219 EKG showing ventricular tachycardia. From Spellberg B, Ayala C. Boards and Wards, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

What is the abnormal rhythm? The patient's EKG shows atrial flutter. One irritable atrial focus fires at a rate of 250 to 350 beats per minute, giving rise to the identical p waves in a saw-tooth pattern. The AV node only allows one out of every two to three atrial depolarizations to conduct to the ventricles (2:1 block or 3:1 block), leading to a regular, narrow QRS complex.

What conditions predispose to atrial flutter? Predisposing factors for atrial flutter are similar to atrial fibrillation. Heart failure and COPD are the most common underlying causes. Atrial flutter in the absence of any predisposing cause (lone atrial flutter) is uncommon.

How is atrial flutter treated? Management is similar to atrial fibrillation.

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P.71

CASE 215 SUDDEN CARDIAC ARREST

A 69-year-old woman collapses in the local mall. She does not respond when a nurse who happens to be nearby asks if she can hear her. What are the initial steps in management? The initial step in an unresponsive patient is to assess whether the patient is breathing and has a pulse. Absent respirations or palpable pulses indicate cardiac arrest (abrupt cessation of normal circulation as a result of failure of the heart to contract effectively). The general sequence for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is as follows:

1.

Call for help: Ask someone to call 9-1-1 and to fetch an automated external defibrillator if available.

2.

Airway and breathing: Open the patient's airway using the head tilt/chin lift maneuver. Then look, listen, and feel for breathing. If the patient is not breathing, deliver two breaths that make the patient's chest rise.

3.

Circulation: Check for a carotid pulse. If no pulse is felt within 10 seconds, initiate chest compressions at a rate of 100 per minute. Chest compressions should compress the sternum at least 1.5 to 2 inches and allow for complete recoil.

4.

Reassess: After 30 compressions, reassess breathing. If the patient is not breathing, deliver two breaths, and then reassess pulse. If there is no pulse, deliver 30 compressions. Continue this cycle of compression and ventilation until an automated external defibrillator or paramedics arrive.

Lay persons performing CPR are advised not to check for a carotid pulse (unreliable) and instead proceed directly to chest compressions if the patient is unresponsive. Healthcare workers, however, should check for a pulse.

The patient does not have any signs of breathing or a pulse. There is no automated external defibrillator in the mall. The patient receives 30 cycles of compressions and ventilations before the paramedics arrive. The cardiac monitor shows an abnormal rhythm (see Fig. 2-19). What arrhythmia does the patient have?

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FIGURE 220 Advanced Cardiac Life Support guidelines for management of pulseless cardiac arrest.

The rhythm on the monitor is VT. VT is characterized by a succession of wide QRS complexes at a rate >100 beats per minute. VT that lasts >30 seconds is called sustained VT. Sustained VT is a life-threatening arrhythmia that can progress to ventricular fibrillation and sudden cardiac death if left untreated.

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Ventricular fibrillation: Multiple ventricular foci fire rapidly, which leads to chaotic quivering of the ventricles but no cardiac output. Most common rhythm in witnessed cardiac arrest.

P.72

Monomorphic VT: All QRS complexes are identical. Polymorphic VT: QRS complexes are different.

Fusion beat: Occasionally during VT, a p wave from the atria depolarizes a ventricle and produces a narrow QRS complex. This fusion beat confirms that the rhythm is VT and not wide-complex SVT.

What is the next step in management? The most important step for an unresponsive patient in ventricular fibrillation or pulseless VT is defibrillation. Defibrillation is preferred to synchronized cardioversion because syncing the stimulus to the QRS complex would waste valuable time. Resume CPR soon after defibrillation for 2 minutes and then reassess breathing, pulse and rhythm (see Fig. 2-20).

FIGURE 221 EKG showing ventricular fibrillation. From Smeltzer SC, Bare BG. Texbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 9th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000.

Many steps are performed at the same time during a cardiac arrest. IV placement and basic labs are usually obtained while CPR is being performed.

What defibrillation current is recommended for ventricular fibrillation or pulseless VT? Use 360 J if the defibrillator is monophasic or 200 J if the defibrillator is biphasic (mnemonic: Give TWO hundred joules with a BIphasic defibrillator.).

Make sure nobody is in contact with the patient during defibrillation.

Two minutes later, the patient still does not have a pulse. An abnormal rhythm is seen on the

72

cardiac monitor (see Fig. 2-21). What is the next step in management?

FIGURE 222 EKG showing torsades de pointes. From Spellberg B, Ayala C. Boards and Wards, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

The rhythm on the monitor is ventricular fibrillation. Treatment for ventricular fibrillation is identical to treatment for pulseless VT. The next step is to deliver another defibrillation shock using the same current. Also consider IV epinephrine or vasopressin. After the shock, resume CPR immediately for 2 minutes and then reassess (see Fig. 2-20).

Epinephrine: Dose is 1 mg; can re-administer every 3 to 5 minutes. Vasopressin: Dose is 40 units; can only administer once.

The patient receives another shock, and then CPR is resumed. She receives a dose of vasopressin once IV access is established. Two minutes later, the rhythm on the monitor still indicates ventricular fibrillation. What is the next step in management? Defibrillate again and then resume CPR immediately. Also, consider an anti-arrhythmic drug such as amiodarone or lidocaine (amiodarone preferred before lidocaine).

If the patient recovers a pulse, consider an IV infusion of the anti-arrhythmic that helped break the ventricular tachycardia/fibrillation arrest during the recover period.

Two minutes later, the rhythm on the monitor indicates sinus tachycardia. The patient still does not have a pulse. What is the next step in management? Any rhythm that is not VT or ventricular fibrillation in an unresponsive patient without a pulse is termed pulseless electrical activity (PEA). In PEA, the heart may produce adequate depolarizations, but the cardiac muscle is unable to respond to the electrical stimuli. Electric current plays no role in the management of PEA. The next step in the patient with tachycardia and PEA is epinephrine or vasopressin and continued CPR (see Fig. 2-20). Also, begin to search for the underlying reversible causes of PEA.

PEA and bradycardia: Atropine is another option in asystole or PEA with heart rate <60 beats per minute.

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P.73 What are the underlying reversible causes of PEA? Remember the six H's and the four T's:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Hypovolemia: Treat with volume infusion. Hypoxia: Treat with oxygenation. Hydrogen ions (acidosis): Treat with bicarbonate. Hyperkalemia: Treat with calcium gluconate, bicarbonate, and insulin. P.74

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Hypokalemia: Treat with potassium. Hypothermia: Treat by keeping the patient warm. Tamponade: Treat with pericardiocentesis. Tension pneumothorax: Treat with needle decompression and tube thoracostomy. Thrombosis (cardiac thrombosis or MI, and pulmonary thrombosis caused by PEA) Tablets (medications or drugs)

After 10 minutes of resuscitation, the monitor shows a flat line. What is the next step? A flat line on the monitor is called asystole. Treatment of asystole is identical to PEA. Stop resuscitation efforts if asystole persists despite therapy. Only 1% to 2% of patients in asystole survive despite adequate resuscitation.

Do not shock SPAM: Tachyarrhythmias with no role for cardioversion or defibrillation are Sinus tachycardia, PEA, Asystole, and MAT.

Alternative 2.15.2
A 68-year-old woman is admitted to the cardiac care unit after revascularization of an anterior STEMI. On day three, she is found unresponsive. Breath sounds are weak and pulses are absent. An abnormal rhythm is seen on the cardiac monitor (see Fig. 2-22).

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FIGURE 223 Interpretation of ankle brachial index (ABI).

What is abnormal rhythm? The rhythm on the monitor is Torsades des pointes. Torsades is a specific type of polymorphic VT in which the QRS complexes change constantly such that the electrical activity looks like it has been twisted into a helix. QT interval is prolonged. This abnormal rhythm is more common in women and patients with underlying heart, liver, or kidney disease. Congenital long QT syndrome is also a risk factor.

What is the next step in management? This patient is in cardiac arrest, so promptly defibrillate. The first-line medication for Torsades des pointes is IV magnesium sulfate. If IV magnesium is not successful, initiate P.75 temporary overdrive pacing. When the rhythm is corrected, identify and remove precipitating

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causes.

It is essential to distinguish Torsades from polymorphic VT because magnesium can worsen polymorphic VT.

What are common precipitating causes of Torsades des pointes?

1.

Medications: five Anti's (tricyclic Antidepressants, Anticholinergics, macrolide Antibiotics like erythromycin, Anti-arrhythmics, and nonsedating Antihistamines).

2.

Electrolyte abnormalities: particularly hypokalemia and hypomagnesemia.

CASE 216 VT IN A STABLE PATIENT

A 47-year-old man is admitted to the hospital for acute pancreatitis. He also complains of palpitations. He does not have any history of CAD or CAD risk factors. EKG is normal, and the patient is placed on a cardiac monitor. The next day, the telemetry nurse mentions that he had five nonconsecutive beats of VT over the course of 30 seconds. Vital signs are normal. How should you manage the abnormal rhythm? Nonsustained VT (NSVT) is defined as three to five consecutive ventricular impulses or 6 ventricular impulses over the course of 30 seconds. Emergent treatment is not necessary for nonsustained VT. Obtain an echocardiogram and stress test on an elective basis to evaluate for CAD. Consider a -blocker in all patients with nonsustained VT to prevent sudden cardiac death. Also consider ICD placement in patients with evidence of CAD.

Torsades in a stable patient: Defibrillation is not required; treat with IV magnesium.

How would management differ if the stable patient had sustained VT? Treat stable sustained VT with pharmacological or synchronized electrical cardioversion. Because the situation is not emergent, avoid defibrillation, which poses a risk of shocking the heart during the vulnerable period after the QRS. Consider an anti-arrhythmic drug such as amiodarone if the patient continues to experience symptomatic or recurrent VT despite cardioversion.

CASE 217 HYPOTENSION, TACHYCARDIA, AND ALTERED MENTAL STATUS (SHOCK)

A 25-year-old man is stung by a swarm of bees. His girlfriend brings him to the emergency department 25 minutes later. He complains of dyspnea and pruritis. He is oriented to person but not to place and time. His lips are swollen, and his skin is warm and flushed. Auscultation of the lungs reveals bilateral wheezes. Vital signs are temperature 37C, blood pressure 90/60, respirations 25/minute, and pulse 130 bpm. Oxygen saturation is 90%. The attending mentions that the patient is in shock. What is shock? Shock is a state of decreased tissue perfusion, which leads to decreased tissue oxygenation. Tissue hypoxia disrupts normal biochemical processes and causes end-organ failure and death unless treated promptly.

What are the three general mechanisms of shock?

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1.

Hypovolemic shock: Decreased blood volume decreased preload decreased cardiac output decreased tissue perfusion.

2.

Distributive shock: Decreased systemic vascular resistance (SVR) decreased tissue perfusion.

3.

Cardiogenic shock: Decreased heart muscle contractility decreased cardiac output decreased tissue perfusion.

P.76 What are the different sub-types of distributive shock?

1.

Septic shock: Infection massive inflammatory response increased capillary permeability and vasodilation decreased SVR.

2.

Anaphylactic shock: Exposure to allergen massive inflammatory response increased capillary permeability and vasodilation decreased SVR.

3.

Neurogenic shock: central nervous system or spinal cord injury decreased sympathetic output vasodilation decreased SVR.

4.

Addison crisis and myxedema coma (see Chapter 8: Endocrinology).

What are the clinical features of shock? The earliest stage is termed warm shock. During this period, compensatory mechanisms are able to compensate for decreased perfusion. Tachycardia is usually the earliest sign of shock. As the compensatory mechanisms are overwhelmed, patients develop four major features as a result of end-organ failure: marked hypotension (<90/40 mm Hg), lactic acidosis, oliguria (urine output <0.5 mg/kg per hour), and altered mental status.

Cardiogenic and hypovolemic shock: Skin is cool and clammy because of decreased cardiac output. Distributive shock: Skin is warm and flushed because of vasodilation; however, in late-stage sepsis, the skin is cool and clammy.

Is this patient in shock? If so, what type of shock is he suffering from? Marked hypotension, tachycardia, and altered mental status all indicate that this patient is in shock. Warm and flushed skin, angioedema, and dyspnea after a bee sting most likely indicates anaphylactic shock. Dyspnea commonly occurs in anaphylactic shock as a result of bronchoconstriction and laryngeal edema. Patients usually develop symptoms within minutes to hours of exposure.

Most common causes of anaphylactic shock (in descending order): insect bites, food allergy (especially to fish and nuts), drug reactions (especially to penicillins and NSAIDs), radiocontrast dyes, blood products, and latex.

What are the next steps in the management of this patient?

1.

ABCs (Airway, Breathing, and Circulation): Administer 100% oxygen by facemask. Consider elective intubation in this patient with dyspnea and wheezing because laryngeal edema can make it difficult to secure the airway later. Establish IV access with

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two large-bore needles in each arm. 2. Epinephrine: Administer intramuscular epinephrine while securing ABCs. There are no contraindications to epinephrine in the setting of anaphylactic shock. 3. Normal saline: Attempt to correct hypotension with a 1- to 2-L rapid bolus if the patient does not respond to the first dose of intramuscular epinephrine. 4. IV epinephrine: Administer if the patient does not respond to intramuscular epinephrine and normal saline. 5. Vasopressors: Consider norepinephrine, dopamine, or phenylephrine if hypotension is refractory to fluids and epinephrine. 6. IV antihistamines and inhaled albuterol: Administered to all patients in anaphylactic shock; these drugs are not as vital as epinephrine.

Corticosteroids are commonly administered to prevent delayed reactions; clinical trials have not demonstrated improved outcomes with this practice.

The patient responds to 100% oxygen, intramuscular epinephrine, normal saline, IV antihistamines, and inhaled albuterol. He is now breathing without any difficulties, and his blood pressure is 120/80. What discharge instructions should you give him? P.77 Monitor the patient for at least 8 hours for a recurrence before discharge. Provide the patient with an epinephrine auto-injector pen and instruct him to use it if similar symptoms recur. Consider referring the patient to an allergy specialist.

Alternative 2.17.1
A 55-year-old man presents with fever and malaise. Skin is warm and flushed. Vital signs are temperature 39C, blood pressure 69/40, pulse 125 b pm, respirations 25/minute. What is the likely cause of shock in this patient? Suspect an infectious cause of shock in this patient with fever (sepsis). Ninety percent of septic patients have fever. The other 10% of patients present with hypothermia (poor prognostic sign).

How is sepsis classified? There is a clinical continuum that ranges from systemic inflammatory response syndrome to multiple-organ dysfunction syndrome:

1.

Systemic inflammatory response syndrome: More than two of the following: fever or hypothermia, tachypnea, tachycardia, or leukocytosis.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Sepsis: systemic inflammatory response syndrome plus positive blood culture Severe sepsis: sepsis plus hypotension Septic shock: severe sepsis unresponsive to fluid resuscitation Multiple-organ dysfunction syndrome: multi-organ failure

What are the initial steps in management of this patient with severe sepsis?

1.

ABCs: Administer 100% oxygen and intubate if necessary. Establish IV access,

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preferably via a large central vein (internal jugular, subclavian, or femoral), and rapidly infuse a 1- to 2-L bolus of normal saline. 2. Cultures and antibiotics: Send specimens of blood and urine for Gram stain and culture. Then administer empiric IV antibiotics. 3. Arterial line: Allows healthcare staff to constantly monitor blood pressure and also provides easy access for frequent blood sampling.

Goals of initial resuscitation: CVP 8 to 12 mm Hg, mean arterial pressure (MAP) 65 mm Hg, mixed venous oxygen 70%, and urine output 0.5 ml/kg per hour.

MAP is the average arterial pressure during a single cardiac cycle; this is a better approximation of perfusion pressure than blood pressure. MAP > 60 is usually sufficient to sustain all organs of the body.

What antibiotics should you use? Typical empiric coverage for severe sepsis/septic shock includes vancomycin for Gram-positive coverage and either a -lactam/-lactamase inhibitor such as piperacillin-tazobactam, a thirdor fourth-generation cephalosporin such as ceftriaxone, or a carbapenem such as imipenem for Gram-negative coverage. If a causative microbe is identified later by Gram stain and culture, tailor antibiotics to the specific organism.

One hour later, blood pressure is 85/60 despite 2 L of normal saline. CVP is 3 mm Hg. What is the next step in management of the hypotension? Continue to administer normal saline boluses until CVP is 8 to 12 mm Hg. Patients with severe sepsis often need 4 to 12 L of normal saline.

P.78

Peripheral edema: This is an expected complication of massive fluid resuscitation. Its presence does not guide fluid resuscitation or imply fluid overload. Pulmonary edema: New lung crackles on auscultation or radiographic findings of pulmonary edema indicate the patient is fluid overloaded.

The patient receives 8 L of normal saline. CVP is 10 mm Hg, but 8 hours later MAP is still 54 mm Hg. What is the next step in management? If hypotension persists despite adequate fluid resuscitation or the patient develops pulmonary edema, initiate vasopressors. Start with norepinephrine or dopamine, then use vasopressin and finally phenylephrine. Consider recombinant protein C (Xigris) if hypotension persists despite fluids and vasopressors. Recombinant protein C may improve mortality in septic shock, but it is extremely expensive.

Twenty-four hours later, MAP rises to 70 mm Hg with norepinephrine and vasopressin. Mixed venous oxygen saturation is 60%. Arterial lactate has risen from 2 to 4 mg/dL. What is the next step in management? Arterial lactate is currently the most useful global measure of tissue perfusion. A rising lactate level and low mixed venous saturation indicates inadequate tissue perfusion despite normal CVP and MAP. Consider red blood cell transfusion at this stage.

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What is the prognosis of septic shock? Septic shock is the most common cause of death in the ICU. The mortality from septic shock is >40 %.

What are colloids and crystalloids? Crystalloids (normal saline or lactated ringers) and colloids (albumin or hetastarch) are equally effective as resuscitation fluids. Because a greater proportion of colloids remain in the intravascular space, smaller quantities are required compared to crystalloids. Crystalloids are used far more frequently because they are less expensive, and there is some concern that colloids can harm critically ill patients.

Alternative 2.17.2
The patient is a 38-year-old woman with ovarian cancer who completed a course of taxol and carboplatin 7 days ago. She presents with a 7-day history of fatigue, poor appetite, and intractable vomiting. She did not take the ondansetron she was prescribed to control nausea after discharge from the hospital after chemotherapy because she lost the prescription. She has also had watery diarrhea for the last 3 days. On physical examination, she is oriented to person but not to place and time. Skin is cool and clammy. Vital signs are temperature 37C, blood pressure 70/50, pulse 130 bpm, and respirations 25/minute. Oxygen saturation is 98% on room air. What is the likely cause of shock in this patient? The most likely cause in this patient with intractable vomiting and diarrhea is hypovolemic shock. Cisplatin and carboplatin tend to cause nausea in >90% of patients who do not receive anti-emetics.

What are the causes of hypovolemic shock? Hypovolemic shock can result from hemorrhage (e.g., trauma, GI bleeding, hemorrhagic pancreatitis, etc.) or fluid loss (diarrhea, vomiting, burns, third spacing).

Third spacing: fluid accumulation outside the intravascular space (ascites, peritonitis, etc.).

How is hypovolemic shock treated? Administer a 1- to 2-L bolus of normal saline. Continue to infuse boluses of normal saline to correct the fluid deficit. If the patient does not respond promptly, consider placing an P.79 arterial line to continuously monitor blood pressure. In patients with hypovolemic shock as a result of blood loss, fluid replacement should include blood products.

Vasopressors are not helpful in hypovolemic shock because the mechanism does not involve vasodilation.

Alternative 2.17.3
The patient is a 65-year-old man who is admitted to the hospital after PCI for an anterior STEMI. Fifteen hours later, blood pressure is 90/60, pulse is 120 bpm, respirations are 25/minute, and oxygen saturation is 94%. Skin is cool and clammy, and 14 cm of JVD is present. New crackles are appreciated in both lung bases. Urine output is 0.2 mg/kg per hour. What is the likely cause of shock?

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The setting and clinical manifestations indicate that this patient is in cardiogenic shock. LV failure after MI is the most common cause of cardiogenic shock. The presence of elevated JVD distinguishes cardiogenic shock clinically from other types of shock. Two thirds of patients also have pulmonary edema.

What are the next steps in management?

1.

ABCs: Place the patient on 100% oxygen. Intubation is not necessary at this time because oxygen saturation is 98% on room air.

2.

Echocardiography helps determine the cause of cardiogenic shock (pump failure as a result of LV failure versus reinfarction versus mechanical complications).

3.

Treat the underlying cause promptly once identified.

Echocardiography detects findings consistent with LV failure. There is no evidence of tamponade or other mechanical complications. What are the next steps in management?

1.

Initiate vasopressors: Dopamine is the first-line agent; if hypotension persists, add norepinephrine and phenylephrine.

2.

Consider a Swan-Ganz catheter and an intra-arterial catheter when the patient is stabilized for hemodynamic assessment to guide therapy.

Dobutamine in combination with a vasodilator like nitroprusside or nitroglycerin is an option for patients in cardiogenic shock who are not hypotensive.

What is a Swan-Ganz catheter? What are the Swan-Ganz findings in different types of shock? Swan-Ganz or pulmonary artery catheters are inserted into the right atrium and pulmonary artery. They record pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP), which is the pressure recorded when a balloon is inflated in a branch of the pulmonary artery. PCWP is a surrogate measure of left atrial pressure. The catheter also calculates hemodynamic parameters such as cardiac output and systemic vascular resistance using a thermistor that measures temperature change when warm venous blood mixes with cold injected fluid. Finally, Swan-Ganz catheters allow sampling of mixed venous blood. Swan-Ganz measurements help guide management in cardiogenic shock, and also help determine the cause of shock when unclear (Table 2-25).

TABLE 225 Hemodynamic Parameters During Swan-Ganz Catheterization Category of Shock Hypovolemic COa SVR PCWPb SVO2

Cardiogenic

Distributive

Abbreviations: CO, cardiac output; PCWP, pulmonary capillary wedge pressure; SVO2, systemic venous oxygen saturation; SVR, systemic vascular resistance. a Normal CO = 4 to 8 mm Hg. b Normal PCWP = 6 to 12 mm Hg.

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Despite the potential advantages, studies have not shown improved patient outcomes with Swan-Ganz catheterization.

PCWP is 21 mm Hg (normal 6 to 12). Hypotension, elevated PCWP, and other signs of shock persist despite vasopressors. Is there any other treatment for patients with refractory cardiogenic shock? P.80 Consider using an intra-aortic balloon pump. This mechanical device sits on the aorta and deflates just before systole (to reduce afterload) and inflates at the onset of diastole (to increase diastolic pressure). This counterpulsation helps increase cardiac output.

Hypovolemic shock: Treatment is ABCs and normal saline; give blood products if hypovolemia is caused by hemorrhage. Septic shock: Treatment is ABCs, normal saline, and antibiotics; second-line treatment is vasopressors and recombinant protein C. Anaphylactic shock: Treatment is ABCs, epinephrine, and normal saline; secondline treatment is vasopressors. All patients also get antihistamines and albuterol. Cardiogenic shock: Treatment is ABCs, correct underlying cause, vasopressors, careful with fluids if LV pressure is increased.

CASE 218 ACUTE UNILATERAL LEG SWELLING AND TENDERNESS

A 40-year-old woman presents with a 10-hour history of gradually increasing pain and swelling in her left calf. There is no history of trauma to the leg. Past medical history is unremarkable. She started taking oral contraceptive pills (OCP) 1 week ago. Her left calf is erythematous, warm and tender to palpation, and is 4 cm thicker than the right calf. Vital signs are normal. Pulses are 2+, and there is 2+ lower extremity pitting edema. What is the most concerning possibility at this time? Acute onset of swelling >3 cm, erythema, warmth, and tenderness of a lower extremity should always raise suspicion for deep venous thrombosis (DVT), particularly in this patient with a history of OCP use. Other risk factors for DVT (mnemonic: SHEA stadium) include:

Stasis: Prolonged bed rest, immobility, CHF Hypercoagulability: Inherited thrombophilia, OCPs, pregnancy, malignancy Endothelial injury: Trauma, recent surgery Age: >60 years

The most common cause of acute unilateral leg swelling and tenderness is calf muscle injury. Patients usually recall an episode of lower extremity trauma.

Half the patients with DVT have no clinical findings. Half the patients with classic signs of DVT do not actually have DVT.

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What is the next step in diagnosis? Signs and symptoms of DVT are nonspecific, so confirm the diagnosis noninvasively using compression ultrasound of the lower extremity. Lack of compressibility is sensitive and specific for DVT.

P.81

Impedance plethysmography is an alternative, noninvasive test for DVT. Although cumbersome and not widely available, it is preferred over compression ultrasound in patients with recurrent DVT. The test uses electrodes to measure opposition to flow of electric current when a thigh cuff is inflated, which helps estimate blood flow.

Ultrasound detects DVT in the femoral and popliteal vein. What is the next step? Lower extremity DVT is divided into calf vein thrombosis and proximal (thigh vein) thrombosis. Calf vein thrombosis is not clinically significant. On the other hand, proximal thrombi carry a high risk of breaking off emboli that can migrate to the pulmonary artery (pulmonary embolism). The next step is to discontinue OCPs and initiate anticoagulation with unfractionated or low molecular weight heparin and warfarin. Discontinue heparin on day five if the INR is between 2.0 and 3.0 (therapeutic range for warfarin). Continue warfarin for at least 3 months (Table 226).

TABLE 226 Duration of Anticoagulation for DVT Patient Characteristics Isolated symptomatic calf vein DVT Anticoagulation Period 612 weeks

First episode in a patient with a reversible risk factor

3 months

First idiopathic episode

612 months

DVT due to malignancy

12 months to lifelong

Recurrent episodes

Lifelong

Inherited thrombophilia

Lifelong

Abbreviation: DVT, deep venous thrombosis.

If compression ultrasound is negative but there is a high clinical suspicion for DVT, repeat the test 5 to 7 days later.

Alternative 2.18.1
A 70-year-old man presents with a 12-hour history of unilateral leg swelling. He denies any dyspnea, chest pain, cough, or hemoptysis. He has a 50-year history of smoking one to two packs of cigarettes a day. He does not have any other identifiable risk factors for DVT. Compression ultrasound detects DVT in the right lower extremity.

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What additional diagnostic tests are appropriate for this patient? Occult neoplasm is often the cause of DVT in patients with no known risk factors (idiopathic DVT). However, it is not cost-effective to perform an extensive search for cancer in all patients with idiopathic DVT. Limit cancer screening to a careful history and physical examination that includes digital rectal exam, fecal occult blood testing, and pelvic examination in women. Routine laboratory testing in such patients should include a complete blood count, serum electrolytes, liver function tests, urinalysis, CXR, and, in men 50, prostate-specific antigen.

Alternative 2.18.2
A 25-year-old man presents with right lower extremity swelling. He has a history of left lower extremity DVT 10 years ago that was treated with a 6-month course of warfarin. His father died of a pulmonary embolism (PE) at the age of 45. Compression ultrasound demonstrates a thrombus in the right popliteal and femoral veins. He has no known risk factors for DVT. What is the most likely underlying cause for this patient's recurring DVT? Suspect an inherited thrombophilia in a young patient with recurrent DVT or PE and a positive family history of thromboembolism. Inherited thrombophilia is a genetic tendency to P.82 develop DVT. Factor V Leiden is the most common cause of the syndrome accounting for 40% to 50% of cases. Other inherited thrombophilias are prothrombin gene mutation, deficiencies in protein S, protein C, antithrombin III (AT III), and the dysfibrinogenemias.

Inherited thrombophilia can cause recurrent unexplained fetal loss.

AT III deficiency: Heparin's mechanism involves activation of AT III, so patients with AT III deficiency do not respond appropriately to heparin anticoagulation.

Alternative 2.18.3
The patient is a 65-year-old man. He presents with tenderness, pain, and erythema along a vein on his right calf extending up to his thigh. There is a palpable, nodular cord with warmth and erythema. Compression ultrasound of the lower extremity is negative for the presence of DVT. What is the most likely diagnosis? This patient has signs and symptoms of superficial phlebitis (SP). A patient with SP can also have DVT because hypercoagulable states are predisposing factors for both. Rule out DVT in patients with SP extending above the knee. SP localized below the knee does not require further evaluation. Treatment of SP is supportive (heat, elevation, NSAIDs, and compression stockings).

Two weeks later, the patient develops high fever and purulent drainage at the site of the SP. What is the next step in management? The patient has developed septic thrombophlebitis. The next step in management is antibiotics and surgical exploration.

Alternative 2.18.4
A 58-year-old man presents with pain in his right knee and calf. The pain began as tightness behind his right knee. He denies dyspnea or chest pain. He has a long history of osteoarthritis. There is a small hematoma over the medial malleolus. Effusions are seen in both knees. Vitals signs are

84

normal. What diagnosis is most likely? This patient has a ruptured popliteal cyst (Baker's cyst). Popliteal cysts result from posterior herniation of a tense knee effusion in patients with underlying joint disease. The cyst causes a feeling of pressure or fullness behind the knee. Rupture of this cyst into the posterior calf muscles leads to pain and edema below the knee. The presence of a hematoma over the medial malleolus (crescent sign) distinguishes it from DVT and SP. Treatment is supportive (heat, elevation, NSAIDs, and compression stockings).

Alternative 2.18.5
A 60-year man with a history of chronic atrial fibrillation presents to the emergency department with severe pain in the left calf and foot that began suddenly 2 hours ago. There is no history of any prior pathology involving the legs. On physical examination, the extremity is pale and cold to touch. There is no palpable dorsalis pedis or popliteal pulse in the left lower extremity. Light touch, vibration and proprioception sensations are decreased to absent in the left foot. Left leg muscle strength is 1/5. On Doppler, venous signal is audible but arterial signal is not. What is the most likely diagnosis? This patient presents with the 6 P's of acute arterial occlusion:

1. 2.

Pain: Sudden onset of ischemic pain at rest. Pallor: Skin is pale below the site of occlusion. P.83

3. 4.

Poikilothermia: The skin is cold below the site of the occlusion. Pulseless: Sudden loss of previously palpable pulse distal to the occlusion; confirm lack of pulse using a Doppler device.

5.

Paresthesia: Begins with a feeling of pins and needles and progresses to sensory loss; the degree of paresthesia is a clinical indicator of limb viability.

6.

Paralysis: The degree of weakness also reflects the extent of ischemic damage.

What is the likely source of arterial occlusion in this patient? Acute arterial occlusion can result from distant emboli, acute thrombosis of a previously patent artery, or direct trauma to an artery during CV procedures. On the basis of this patient's history of atrial fibrillation, an embolus from a left atrial thrombus is the most likely source of occlusion.

What is the next step in management? This patient with rest pain, weakness, and widespread sensory loss is in acute danger of limb loss. The presence of an audible arterial signal on Doppler indicates that it is possible to salvage the limb with prompt treatment (threatened extremity). Initiate immediate revascularization with heparin followed by surgery. In the operating room, surgeons typically perform an embolectomy with the use of a Fogarty balloon catheter. They then perform arteriography to confirm vessel patency. If there are emboli in distal vessels, they may also administer thrombolytics.

How does management of a threatened extremity differ from management of a viable or a nonviable extremity?

1.

Viable extremity: There is no muscle weakness or sensory loss. Arterial and venous

85

pulses are clearly audible on Doppler. Administer heparin and then perform arteriography to plan treatment (intra-arterial thrombolytics versus surgery). 2. Nonviable extremity: There is no muscle strength or sensory function (i.e., paralysis and anesthesia). Neither arterial nor venous pulses are audible on Doppler. Prompt amputation is necessary to prevent infection, myoglobinuria and acute renal failure.

What diagnosis is more likely if the patient had pain, pallor, and poikilothermia in his toe but his feet and legs were warm with strong pedal pulses? Blue toe syndrome results from atheroemboli that occlude small vessels. The clinical presentation is pain, pallor, and poikilothermia in the toe despite strong pedal pulses and warm feet. The first step is angiography to identify the source of emboli. Treatment is surgery (endarterectomy or bypass of atheroembolic area). If arteriography does not identify any source, assume cholesterol embolization as the underlying cause.

Acute cholesterol embolization: Atherosclerosis, anticoagulants, thrombolytics, or interventional vascular techniques damage intima and expose the bloodstream to subintimal cholesterol. Showers of cholesterol crystals cause symptoms that range from isolated blue toe syndrome to a diffuse multi-organ illness. The most common sign is livedo reticularis (blue-red skin mottling in a net-like pattern that blanches). Treatment is to control CV risk factors.

The surgeon performs Fogarty catheter embolectomy and documents reperfusion during intraoperative arteriography. Two hours after surgery, the nurse notices that the patient's leg is swollen and tense. What is the next step in management? Suspect acute compartment syndrome if the patient develops a swollen tense extremity immediately after reperfusion. Reperfusion leads to muscle edema, which increases the volume and pressure within the fascial compartment. Treatment is immediate fasciotomy. Delaying fasciotomy can lead to decreased pulses, paralysis, and limb loss.

P.84

Acute compartment syndrome of the leg can also result from fractures, crush injury, a tight cast or dressing, and alcohol or drug use. The classic finding is pain on passive toe flexion that is out of proportion to the injury.

BAL and DISCC: Differential diagnosis of acute unilateral leg pain or swelling is Baker cyst, Acute arterial occlusion, Lymphangitis, DVT, Injury to calf muscle, SP, Cellulitis, and acute Compartment syndrome.

CASE 219 CHRONIC LEG PAIN

A 75-year-old man presents with a 3-month history of cramping pain in the upper two thirds of his calf. The pain begins after 10 minutes of brisk walking, causes the patient to stop walking, and resolves with rest. Popliteal and pedal pulses are diminished. The patient has smoked two packs of cigarettes a day since he was 20 years old. What is the most likely diagnosis? The most likely disease is PAD, which results from peripheral artery atherosclerosis. Risk factors for PAD are the same as those for CAD. The classic initial presentation is intermittent claudication.

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Screening: Ask all patients >70 years old or patients >50 years old with CV factors about symptoms of claudication.

On the basis of this patient's symptoms, which artery is affected? Cramping in the upper two thirds of the calf plus absent popliteal and pedal pulses indicates that the lesion is probably in the superficial femoral artery (Table 2-27). This is the most common location of peripheral atherosclerosis.

TABLE 227 Clinical Findings Based on Location of Peripheral Atherosclerotic Lesion Location of Ischemic Pain (cramps) Hip and buttocks

Affected Artery Aortoiliac (Leriche's syndrome)

Arteries With Decreased Pulses Femoral, popliteal, and pedal (bilateral)

Aortoiliac and common femoral

Thigh

Femoral, popliteal, and pedal (unilateral)

Superficial femoral

Upper two thirds of the calf

Popliteal and pedal

Popliteal

Lower one third of the calf

Pedal

Tibial or peroneal

Foot

Pulses not diminished

What is the next step in management? Calculate the ankle brachial index (ABI) in both legs with a Doppler device. ABI is the ratio of the systolic pressure at the ankle to the systolic pressure in the brachial artery. A Doppler device also provides arterial waveform tracings, which helps isolate the site of occlusion. Normal waveform is triphasic. As occlusion increases, the waveform becomes diphasic, then monophasic, and finally disappears.

Diabetes: ABI can produce a false-negative because diabetics often have calcified vessels with decreased compressibility. Consider toe-brachial index instead.

ABI is 1.1. What is the next step in management? ABI is borderline normal, but the patient's symptoms are very suspicious for PAD. The next step is to measure ABI before and after the patient has exercised on a treadmill (see Fig. 223).

P.85

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FIGURE 224 Right bundle branch block. From Spellberg B, Ayala C. Boards and Wards, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

FIGURE 225 Left bundle branch block. From Spellberg B, Ayala C. Boards and Wards, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

ABI after exercise on a treadmill is 0.7. Doppler waveform is monophasic at the level of the superficial femoral artery. How should the patient manage his condition? Initial management of a patient with PAD with intermittent claudication is conservative:

1. 2. 3.

CV risk factor control: Evaluate for and control all CV risk factors. Antiplatelet therapy: First-line is aspirin; use clopidogrel if aspirin is contraindicated. Exercise: Supervised exercise rehabilitation (30 to 45 minutes at least three times a day).

PAD is a CAD equivalent.

The patient returns 9 months later. He now has cramping right calf pain at rest. The pain improves somewhat when he hangs his leg over the side of the bed. He has not quit smoking. P.86 The right calf is smooth and shiny with very little hair on inspection. The right leg is cool to touch. There is an ulcer on the right toe and the toenail is thickened. What is the next step in

88

management? Rest pain and ulcers are signs of severe ischemia. Other signs of advanced disease are toenail thickening and cool, smooth, shiny skin with hair loss. Patients with rest pain, ulcers, or lifestyle-limiting symptoms refractory to conservative management should undergo a revascularization procedure (surgical bypass or angioplasty). Perform angiography before revascularization to define the anatomy and plan the procedure.

CT angiography or MR angiography: noninvasive alternative to conventional angiography; consider these methods in diabetics and patients with renal insufficiency to minimize the risk of contrast nephropathy.

Cilostazol: Phosphodiesterase inhibitor that causes vasodilation and inhibits platelet aggregation. It is an option for patients with lifestyle-limiting claudication who are not surgical candidates or who decline surgery.

Takayasu arteritis: Vasculitis that affects aorta and its branches. Suspect when a young Asian patient presents with systemic symptoms (fever, fatigue, weight loss, etc.) and large artery stenosis (RAS, PAD, etc.). ESR and CRP are elevated. Biopsy is not usually necessary, although histology is identical to temporal arteritis (see Chapter 9: Rheumatology). Treatment is corticosteroids.

P.87

Alternative 2.19.1
A 75-year-old man presents with hip, buttock, and thigh cramps on exertion that resolve with rest. He also complains of impotence. Femoral, popliteal, and pedal pulses are absent. ABI is 0.6. Where is the lesion most likely to be located? The patient has the classic triad of Leriche's syndrome (absent femoral pulses, impotence, and claudication in hips, buttocks, and thighs) as a result of aortoiliac atherosclerosis.

How should you treat this patient? Aortoiliac lesions tend to be more progressive than distal lesions. They also have a greater risk of distal embolization and blue toe syndrome. Most surgeons recommend a revascularization procedure before rest pain and ulceration develop.

What other conditions are often mistaken for Leriche's syndrome?

1.

Pseudoclaudication: Lumbar spinal stenosis causes hip and buttock pain that occurs with standing and is relieved by sitting straight or lying down.

2.

Endofibrosis: Professional cyclists can develop kinking of the iliac artery, which leads to symptoms of Leriche's syndrome.

3.

Osteoarthritis: Symptoms vary from day to day and with the seasons.

Alternative 2.19.2
An 80-year-old woman presents with 4 months of right leg aching and swelling. The swelling is worse at the end of the day and improves when she lies down. There is pitting edema and numerous tortuous blue vessels in the right leg. The medial malleolus is hyperpigmented. Pedal pulses are

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palpable. What is the diagnosis? The patient has chronic venous insufficiency. This disorder is most prevalent among older women. Obstructed or incompetent venous valves cause venous HTN and leg tissue hypoxia and can lead to a spectrum of five clinical findings:

1. 2.

Pain: Ranges from asymptomatic to fullness and aching to bursting leg pain on standing. Edema: Most patients present with unilateral calf edema that improves on lying down. The edema does not respond well to diuretics.

3.

Varicose veins: Ranges from small, nonpalpable, bluish discoloration to large, tortuous, and palpable veins.

4.

Hyperpigmentation: Venous HTN causes extravasation of red blood cells into the dermis, leading to dark red-brown discoloration. Hyperpigmentation usually begins at the medial malleolus but can spread to other areas of the foot.

5.

Ulcers: These are typically painful, shallow, and red with irregular margins. The usual location is over the medial malleolus.

What tests should you order to confirm the diagnosis? Findings of unilateral leg edema, varicose veins, and hyperpigmentation are sufficient to make the diagnosis, and no further testing is necessary in this case. If the presentation is less obvious, perform duplex ultrasound to confirm the diagnosis. If the patient has diminished pedal pulses, rule out coexisting PAD with ABI.

What treatment should she receive at this time? First-line therapy is daily leg elevation and compression stockings. Consider intermittent pneumatic compression pumps or a short course of diuretics for severe edema.

P.88

Compression stockings can cause severe skin necrosis in patients with co-existing PAD. Use horse chestnut seed extract instead.

Three months later, the patient complains of severe pruritis at the right medial malleolus. There is an area of dry, crusted skin over the hyperpigmented area, but no ulceration. How should you treat this complication? The patient has venous stasis dermatitis, characterized by pruritic and dry crusted skin. This complication occurs as a result of progression of chronic venous insufficiency hyperpigmentation. Treat uncomplicated venous stasis dermatitis with zinc oxide paste and topical steroids.

Patients who use bacitracin, neomycin, or sulfadiazine to treat stasis dermatitis often develop contact dermatitis to these substances. Treatment of contact dermatitis is avoidance and topical steroids.

Six months later, she presents with an ulcer on the medial malleolus. How are ulcers caused by chronic venous insufficiency treated? Cover venous ulcers with a dressing and initiate aspirin to speed ulcer healing. The three main types of dressings used are nonadherent wet to dry saline dressings, occlusive dressings, and

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the unna boot (bandages with zinc oxide paste). All three are equally effective, but patients tend to find occlusive dressings the most convenient to use. Use systemic antibiotics only if the ulcer appears infected. Consider surgical referral for non-healing or recurrent ulcers.

How do venous ulcers differ in presentation from diabetic and PAD ulcers?

1.

Diabetic ulcers: DM causes painless ulcers at areas of high pressure; foot sensation is often decreased (neuropathy).

2. 3.

PAD: causes painful ulcers on areas prone to trauma; pulses are often decreased. Venous ulcers: causes painful ulcers associated with hyperpigmentation and edema; the most common location is the medial malleolus.

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3 Pulmonary
CASE 31 UPPER RESPIRATORY SYMPTOMS
A 37-year-old man presents with a 3-day history of nasal congestion, runny nose (rhinorrhea), and cough in June. On the first day, his most troublesome symptom was a sore throat. Physical exam and vital signs are normal. What is the most likely diagnosis? The most likely diagnosis is an upper respiratory infection (URI). Also known as the common cold or acute rhinosinusitis, this disorder is caused by viral infection. Rhinoviruses, coronaviruses, and respiratory synctial viruses are the most common pathogens. Patients typically report sore throat on the first day, followed by nasal congestion, rhinorrhea, and cough. Physical exam and vital signs are usually normal.

What is the next step in management? URI is self-limiting, and no further diagnostic work-up is necessary. Treatment is symptomatic. Remember therapies that have demonstrated symptomatic benefit with the mnemonic A PINCH (Antihistamines, Pseudoephedrine, intranasal Ipratropium, Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), intranasal Cromolyn, and Heated, humidified air).

Ineffective URI therapies include vitamin C, vitamin E, echinacea, antitussives, and zinc.

P.90

Rhinitis medicamentosa: Avoid using nasal vasoconstrictors such as pseudoephedrine or oxymetazoline for >1 week because they can cause rebound rhinitis.

The patient continues to have rhinorrhea, nasal congestion, and cough productive of clear sputum after 5 days. There is wheezing on forced expiration. Vital signs are normal. What is the next step in management? Acute bronchitis is a possibility if patients have persistent cough after 5 days and/or signs of airway obstruction (wheezing). Initial symptoms are identical to URI. Diagnosis is clinical. Treatment is similar to viral rhinosinusitis (A PINCH) because viral infections account for 95% of acute bronchitis. Antibiotics are not beneficial.

Obtain a chest radiograph (CXR) to rule out pneumonia if the patient has a Vital Old Lung: Vital signs are abnormal, Older than 75 years, or Lung exam findings (Table 3-1).

TABLE 31 Adventitious Lung Sounds Sound Wheeze a Pitch High Description Whistling Continuity Continuous Interpretation Upper or lower airway obstruction

Inspiratory stridor suggests

Stridor

High

Harsh vibrating wheeze

Continuous

upper airway obstruction; expiratory stridor suggests lower airway obstruction

Rhonchi

Low

Snoring

Continuous

Secretions in large airways

Fine crackle a

High

Like rubbing a strand of hair

Intermittent

Infection/inflammation of the distal bronchi, bronchioles, or alveoli

Coarse crackle a

Low

Velcro-like

Intermittent

Infection/inflammation of the distal bronchi, bronchioles, or alveoli

Mediastinal crunch b

High

Coarse crackle synchronized with heart beat and increase during expiration

Intermittent

Air in the mediastinum (pneumomediastinum)

a Crackles are also referred to as rales or crepitus. b Also called Hamman's crunch.

Consider spirometry to rule out asthma if a patient has repeated episodes of acute bronchitis. To avoid false positives, do not perform spirometry until symptoms resolve.

Sputum characteristics do not help distinguish acute bronchitis from pneumonia because both can cause clear or purulent (yellow-green) secretions.

P.91 How would management differ if the patient presented with a 2-day history of rhinorrhea, nasal congestion, cough, fatigue, and a temperature of 38.9C in January? Unlike other viral causes of acute bronchitis and the common cold, influenza virus can also cause fever and constitutional symptoms such as fatigue and myalgias. The pretest probability of influenza virus infection in a patient with acute onset of fever, constitutional symptoms, and upper respiratory symptoms during flu season (winter) is high enough to warrant empiric therapy with a neuraminidase inhibitor (decreases symptom duration by 1 day). CXR is unnecessary unless the patient has abnormal findings on lung examination.

How would management differ if the patient with flu-like symptoms in January presented 3 days after symptom onset? Neuraminidase inhibitors are not effective if used >48 hours after symptom onset. Only symptomatic therapy is warranted in these patients. Influenza virusinduced acute bronchitis is usually self-limited in the general population.

How would management differ if the patient presented with a 10-day history of nasal congestion and rhinorrhea and had experienced episodes of rapid coughing followed by a loud inspiratory sound? The type of cough described is called a paroxysmal cough (whooping cough). Obtain cultures

of nasopharyngeal swabs or aspirates to rule out Bordetella pertussis infection in any patient with paroxysmal cough (even if they have been vaccinated in the past). First-line therapy is a macrolide such as erythromycin.

The prevalence of acute bronchitis due to Bordetella pertussis fell dramatically with the advent of dTP vaccine. In recent years however, incidence has been rising.

Alternative 3.1.1
A 57-year-old woman presents with a 2-day history of nasal congestion and rhinorrhea. Viral rhinosinusitis is diagnosed in this patient. Two weeks later, she continues to have nasal congestion and rhinorrhea. In addition, she reports maxillary facial pain increased upon bending forward, discomfort in the upper teeth, and yellowish nasal discharge. Temperature is 38.3C. Lung exam is normal. What is the next step in management? Most patients with viral URI have nose as well as sinus involvement. However, suspect secondary bacterial infection of the sinuses if symptoms persist for more than 7 to 10 days and the patient reports one or more of the following: maxillary facial pain increased on bending forward, maxillary tooth discomfort, or purulent (yellow or green) nasal discharge. Consider antibiotics for this patient with possible bacterial sinusitis. First-line choices are amoxicillin, doxycycline, or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX).

Imaging and diagnostic tests are not indicated for the diagnosis of acute sinusitis.

How would you manage the patient if symptoms of sinusitis persist for 3 months? Sinusitis that lasts for 12 weeks is termed chronic sinusitis. First-line therapy is a 3-week course of amoxicillin-clavulonate or cefuroxime. Nasal irrigation with normal saline may provide symptomatic relief and hasten recovery. Order a computed tomography (CT) scan if the patient has fewer than three episodes of chronic sinusitis each year. If CT scan confirms the presence of sinus obstruction, consider endoscopic sinus surgery.

How would management differ if the patient with symptoms of acute sinusitis is a diabetic and nasal examination demonstrates a black eschar? Maintain a high index of suspicion for mucormycosis (zygomycosis) in a diabetic or immunosuppressed patient with sinusitis. Infection of the nose and sinuses by these fungi can cause symptoms of sinusitis as well as:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Metabolic acidosis and altered mental status (due to diabetic ketoacidosis) Facial or orbital swelling (if infection spreads rapidly throughout sinuses) Blurry or decreased vision (if infection spreads to involve CN III, IV, or VI) Nasal necrosis (visible as a black eschar)

The initial step in any diabetic or immunocompromised patient with sinusitis and one or more signs of mucormycosis is to initiate prompt, empiric, antifungal therapy (amphotericin B). Next, urgently refer the patient to a head and neck surgeon to obtain sinus tissue samples. Then, obtain a CT scan or a magnetic resonance imaging scan of the head to gauge the extent of head and neck involvement.

Mucormycosis histology: tissue necrosis and branched, septate hyphae.

P.92

Alternative 3.1.2
A 22-year-old man presents with chronic rhinorrhea, sneezing, and nasal congestion. The symptoms occur year-round, but they are worse in the spring. On physical exam there is a transverse nasal crease and excoriation around the nares. The nasal mucosa is pale. The turbinates are edematous. Vital signs are normal. What is the most likely diagnosis? Suspect allergic rhinosinusitis rather than viral rhinosinusitis if the patient has upper respiratory symptoms throughout the year or many times during a particular season. Patients frequently push the tip of their nose up with the back of their hand, which leads to the formation of a transverse nasal crease (allergic salute). Pallor of the nasal mucosa and turbinate edema are common findings.

Allergic rhinosinusitis patients have increased incidence of other atopic disorders such as asthma.

How is allergic rhinosinusitis treated? The first-line measure is to minimize exposure to allergens (pollen, pets, dust mites, etc.); these measures should decrease symptoms over the next few weeks. If symptoms persist, intranasal steroids are the next line of therapy. Less effective alternatives include antihistamine decongestants (e.g., loratidine with pseudoephedrine), intranasal antihistamines, and intranasal cromolyn.

Dust mites are small organisms that feed on shed human skin; their waste products can induce an allergic response. Some measures to minimize exposure are: do not sleep on upholstery (e.g., sofas), wash clothes and bedding in hot water (cold water does not kill mites), and use dust-proof covers on pillows and mattresses.

How would management differ if the patient also reported watery eyes and had dark rings under his eyes? Watery eyes and dark rings under the eyes (allergic shiners) indicate that the patient also has concurrent allergic conjunctivitis. Allergen avoidance is still the first and most important measure. If symptoms persist despite weeks of allergen avoidance, first-line therapy is intranasal steroids plus antihistamine eye drops.

The patient takes steps to minimize allergen exposure, but symptoms persist. Over the next 12 months, he continues to report symptoms almost every day despite intranasal steroids and antihistamine decongestants. The symptoms affect his ability to sleep and work effectively. How should you manage this patient? Perform allergy testing (skin prick test) to document the presence of atopy and to identify the offending allergen. If skin testing identifies a specific allergen, consider allergen immunotherapy (indicated for patients with symptoms more than five times per week that significantly affects daily activities and is refractory to allergen avoidance and medications).

What diagnosis should you suspect if the patient with perennial chronic rhinosinusitis reported that the symptoms were exacerbated by strong odors, alcohol, and rapid changes in temperature?

The reported history should raise suspicion for vasomotor rhinosinusitis, which occurs as a result of nasal autonomic nervous system dysfunction. First-line therapy is intranasal steroids and topical azelastine (an antihistamine).

CASE 32 PERSISTENT COUGH

A 41-year-old man presents with a 4-week history of persistent nonproductive cough. He also reports runny nose, frequent throat clearing, and a feeling of liquid dripping in the back of his throat. He does not have any recent history of other upper respiratory symptoms. He does not P.93 take any medications. On physical exam, his nasopharynx has a cobblestone appearance. Lung examination is normal. Vital signs are normal. What are the most common causes of persistent cough in a nonsmoker? In descending order, the most common causes of persistent cough (duration >3 weeks) in a nonsmoker are postnasal drip, asthma, and gastroesophageal reflux disease.

What is the most likely diagnosis? This patient has the classic findings of postnasal drip. The most common underlying etiology of postnasal drip is rhinosinusitis (viral, allergic, drug-induced, or vasomotor).

A more accurate term for postnasal drip is upper airway cough syndrome (UACS).

What treatment should this patient receive? An antihistamine decongestant is the first-line medication for UACS. Ipratropium nasal spray or nasal corticosteroids are other acceptable treatments. If the patient identifies an environmental precipitant, eliminate or minimize exposure to the allergen.

When no specific cause for cough is apparent, treat empirically for UACS. Symptoms should resolve within a week of treatment.

When is a CXR indicated in the evaluation of isolated persistent cough? Obtain a CXR in all patients whose cough lasts for >8 weeks.

The patient returns 6 months later. His symptoms have not improved despite treatment for postnasal drip. His physical exam is unchanged. CXR is unremarkable. What is the next step in the workup of this patient? Asthma is the second leading cause of persistent cough in adults. Although patients typically also have a history of episodic dyspnea and wheezing, cough can be the sole manifestation of asthma (cough-variant asthma). A pattern of airflow obstruction (forced expiratory volume in 1 second/forced vital capacity (FEV1/FVC < 75%)) that is partially reversible after inhaling a short-acting bronchodilator is consistent with asthma.

This patient undergoes spirometry, which is normal. What is the next diagnostic step? Spirometry is often normal in patients with cough-variant asthma. Consider bronchoprovocation with methacholine or an exercise challenge in patients with suspected asthma and normal spirometry. Documentation of bronchial hyperresponsiveness is consistent with asthma, whereas a negative methacholine test excludes asthma from the differential diagnosis.

The patient undergoes methacholine testing. No bronchial hyperresponsiveness is demonstrated. What is the next step in the workup of this cough? The next step is to test his sputum for eosinophils to evaluate for nonasthmatic eosinophilic bronchitis. If this is not possible, an empiric trial of high doses of inhaled or oral steroids is an acceptable alternative.

The induced sputum sample does not contain excess eosinophils. What is the next step in management? Gastroesophageal reflux disease is the most common cause of persistent cough in nonsmokers after UACS and asthma. Even though this patient has no gastrointestinal symptoms, initiate a trial of proton pump inhibitors at this point.

Alternative 3.2.1
A 55-year-old patient presents with persistent cough. He has a history of hypertension and diabetes. His primary care physician started him on zestoretic (lisinopril and hydrochlorothiazide) 6 months ago. P.94 What is the most likely cause of his cough? Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors such as lisinopril can cause a nonproductive cough. If the patient cannot tolerate the cough, substitute the ACE inhibitor with an angiotensin receptor blocker. The cough should resolve within 1 day to 4 weeks of discontinuation of the ACE inhibitor.

Alternative 3.2.2
A 32-year-old man presents with cough that began after a viral URI 6 weeks ago. Physical examination of the lungs demonstrates mild wheezing on forced expiration. What is the most likely diagnosis? This patient's symptoms are probably due to postviral bronchial hyperresponsiveness. Like asthma, this transient condition can present with a persistent dry cough, dyspnea, and wheezing. Treatment is inhaled corticosteroids.

CASE 33 EPISODES OF COUGH AND DYSPNEA

A 30-year-old woman presents with episodes of dyspnea, chest tightness, and cough productive of clear sputum. She says that she has had similar episodes over the last 2 years. The episodes occur approximately twice per month, and they are sometimes triggered by vigorous exercise. She has more frequent episodes in the spring season. In addition, she reports frequent runny nose in the springtime. She has a history of eczema. This is the first time she has sought clinical attention for these episodes. She does not take any medications. She does not smoke cigarettes or drink alcohol. Physical examination is significant for bilateral wheezes on forced expiration. Vital signs are temperature 36.6C, pulse 86 beats per minute (bpm) , respirations 18/min, blood pressure 120/80. What is the most likely diagnosis? This patient has the classic asthma triad (episodes of dyspnea, cough, and wheezing). Symptoms are caused by bronchial hyperresponsiveness. Asthma is more common in patients with a history of other atopic diseases (atopic dermatitis, allergic rhinitis, etc.).

What is the next step in diagnosis? The initial test in a patient with suspected asthma is spirometry (Fig. 3-1). If spirometry

demonstrates an obstructive pattern, perform bronchoprovocation testing.

FIGURE 31 Approach to pulmonary function testing to diagnose chronic lung disease.

Office spirometry demonstrates an FEV1/FVC of 70% that increases to 90% after administration of inhaled albuterol. How would you manage her condition? Outpatient asthma management involves administering medications and avoiding precipitants:

1.

Pharmacological therapy: Guided by disease severity (Table 3-2). This patient with

mild intermittent asthma should take a short-acting inhaled -2 agonist (bronchodilator) such as albuterol to control her symptoms on an as-needed basis. 2. Avoid precipitants: Remember the six general categories of asthma triggers with the mnemonic Avoid PRECIpitants (Allergens, Physical activity, Respiratory infections, Emotional stress, Chemicals, and Irritants).

TABLE 32 Asthma Classification and Stepwise Therapy Daytime Symptom Frequency Nighttime Symptom Frequency

Severity

FEV1 or PEFR (% predicted) 80% (normal between flares)

Control Medications Inhaled short-acting bronchodilator as needed

Mild intermittent

2 times/week

Twice a month

Mild persistent

>2 times/week but <1 time/day

>2 times/month <1 time/week

80%

Add low-dose inhaled steroid

Moderate persistent

Daily

>1 time/week

6080%

Add long-acting bronchodilator

Severe persistent

Continual plus flares

Frequent

60%

High-dose inhaled steroid + long-acting bronchodilator + systemic steroids (if needed)

Abbreviations: FEV1, forced expiratory volume in 1 second; PEFR, peak expiratory flow rate. Note: Adapted from National Asthma Education and Prevention Project Expert Panel Report, 2002.

As far as possible, avoid aspirin, NSAIDs, and -blockers in patients with asthma because they can worsen bronchospasm.

Pollen avoidance: Consider an air conditioner or filter during pollen season.

The patient does not wish to stop exercising because it is a very important part of her social life. What options exist for this patient? She could take an extra dose of bronchodilator 10 minutes before exercising.

P.95 One month later, the patient is doing well. However, she is unable to tolerate the side effects of tremulousness and palpitations that accompany the additional pre-exercise -agonist dose. Is there any alternative to her current regimen? She can decrease her pre-exercise dose from two puffs to one and supplement her preexercise albuterol with a mast cell stabilizer such as cromolyn or nedocromil.

P.96 The patient returns 4 months later. She now has episodes approximately five times per week

during the daytime, which she controls with her albuterol inhaler. She also has nighttime episodes of dyspnea and wheezing about once per week. What is the next step in management? The patient now has mild persistent asthma. In addition to avoiding triggers and inhaled shortacting bronchodilators for symptom control, she should start taking a low-dose of inhaled steroids twice a day. Steroids reduce airway inflammation and remodeling.

The patient initially does well on her new regimen. Six months later however, she reports daily symptoms requiring the use of a bronchodilator despite her compliance with the prescribed regimen and avoidance of triggers. What is the next step? Patients who remain symptomatic despite adequate treatment for mild persistent asthma have moderate persistent asthma. Increase her inhaled corticosteroid dose up to the lowest dose that controls her symptoms. Also add a long-acting bronchodilator such as salmeterol to the regimen. Patients with moderate to severe asthma should also measure their peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) at home every day to monitor changes or trends in lung function.

Two months later, the patient presents to the emergency department complaining of increased dyspnea over the last hour that has not responded to -agonist inhaler at home. On physical exam, she has bilateral expiratory wheezes. Vitals are: temperature 37.1C, pulse 120 bpm, respirations 25/min, blood pressure 118/78. Peak flow is 60% of her baseline. Oxygen saturation is 88%. What should be done at this time? Reduced peak flow and dyspnea that is unresponsive to home medications indicate that the patient is having an acute asthma exacerbation. The goal of treatment is to rapidly alleviate airflow obstruction (Fig. 3-2). Administer an inhaled, short-acting, -2 agonist such as albuterol by nebulizer or metered-dose inhaler (MDI) every 20 minutes. If the response to albuterol is not immediate and marked, administer oral or intravenous (IV) steroids early. Also, administer supplemental oxygen to maintain SaO 2 >90% (Table 3-3). Monitor the response to therapy by measuring PEFR every 1 to 2 hours.

TABLE 33 Common Supplemental Oxygen Delivery Methods Maximum Delivery System FiO2 Maximum Flow Rate

Description Prongs placed in nostrils deliver oxygen at set flow rate. FiO2 varies on the basis of rate of respirations.

Nasal cannula

Up to 40%

6 L/min

Face mask

Up to 60%

10 L/min

Delivers oxygen at set flow rate. FiO2 varies on the basis of rate of respirations.

Nonrebreather

Up to 80%

15 L/min

Facemask with a reservoir bag. Delivers oxygen at set flow rate. FiO2 varies on the basis of rate of respirations.

Venturi mask

Up to 50%

10 L/min

High flow mask that can deliver oxygen at a set flow rate and FiO2.

Abbreviation: FiO2, fraction of inspired oxygen.

FIGURE 32 Acute management of asthma exacerbation.

Ipratropium: There is some evidence that adding inhaled ipratropium to the bronchodilator improves outcomes; however, this is not confirmed, and ipratropium should not be a mainstay in the management of asthma exacerbation.

10

When is measurement of arterial blood gas (ABG) indicated in asthma exacerbation? ABG analysis can be used to help assess tissue oxygenation and acidbase status (see Chapter 7: Fluids and Electrolytes). Obtain an ABG if PEFR is <25% despite initial therapy with inhaled bronchodilators, oxygen, and steroids. Obtain an ABG if the patient is too sick to perform PEFR.

P.97 P.98 One hour later, she is still dyspneic to the point where she is unable to lie supine. She has bilateral inspiratory and expiratory wheezes in all lung fields. Heart sounds are distant. She is using accessory muscles of respiration. PEFR is 20% of baseline. Blood pressure is 118/70, which falls to 100/65 during inspiration. Respirations are 32/min and pulse is 160 bpm. ABG measurements on 70% oxygen by non-rebreather are pH 7.30, PaO 2 140, PaCO 2 40. What is the next step in management? This patient is in status asthmaticus (severe attacks of asthma that respond poorly to agonists and are associated with signs and symptoms of respiratory failure). Physical signs of severe asthma are decreased consciousness, inability to lie supine, diaphoresis, and use of accessory muscles to breathe. Vital signs may demonstrate tachypnea (>30/min), tachycardia (>120/min), and pulsus paradoxus (inspiratory fall in systolic blood pressure >15 mm Hg). This patient is in imminent danger of respiratory failure. The next step is intubation, mechanical ventilation, and admission to the intensive care unit.

Normal PaCO 2 in the setting of tachypnea and accessory muscle use indicates that airway narrowing is so severe that the ventilatory demands of the respiratory center cannot be met.

What are the recommended settings for the mechanical ventilator? Patients in status asthmaticus have significant bronchoconstriction. Because bronchoconstriction limits exhalation, air can be trapped in the lungs and cause barotrauma. To prevent barotrauma, maintain a long expiratory phase, a low tidal volume, and a low rate even though these settings would allow increased PaCO 2 . This is called permissive hypercapnia.

Air trapping is the cause of distant heart sounds in status asthmaticus.

The patient recovers after a brief hospitalization. What changes should you make to her home regimen at discharge? After an oral prednisone taper, her inhaled corticosteroid dose may need to be increased. Also, discuss and write down an action plan for the patient that reviews what the patient should do if she has another exacerbation.

Base the action plan on PEFR rather than on symptoms, because patients with a history of intubation may have decreased ability to perceive dyspnea and airway narrowing.

Alternative 3.3.1
A 22-year-old woman presents with episodes of dyspnea, wheezing, and rhinorrhea approximately 1 hour after she consumes aspirin. Her medical history is significant for bacterial P.99 sinusitis that required a prolonged course of antibiotics. On physical examination, there are nasal

11

polyps. What is the most likely diagnosis? Asthma, aspirin sensitivity, and nasal polyps are the classic triad of aspirin-induced asthma. Approximately 20% of steroid-dependent asthmatics have aspirin-induced asthma.

Is there any difference in the treatment strategy for such patients? Leukotriene receptor antagonists such as montelukast are the cornerstone of therapy. This is because the pathophysiology of aspirin-induced asthma involves increased activity of leukotrienes via the 5-lipooxygenase pathway. Treat nasal polyps with nasal steroids if they are bothersome. These patients should avoid aspirin and other NSAIDs. They can usually tolerate acetaminophen and cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors.

Alternative 3.3.2
A 45-year-old nurse has experienced diagnosed asthma for the last 6 years. Her symptoms began 1 year after she began using latex at her workplace. The symptoms improve during her days off. Last year, her symptoms resolved after a month-long vacation but resumed when she began working again. What is the most likely diagnosis? The patient's history is consistent with occupational asthma. Occupational asthma develops within 2 to 5 years of exposure to an irritant in the workplace. Symptoms are worse with exposure and improve when the patient is away from the irritant. The symptoms tend to worsen with continued exposure, and the most important step in management is removing the patient from exposure to the offending irritant.

Alternative 3.3.3
The patient works as a firefighter in New York. Immediately after exposure to the dust and fumes from the World Trade Center rubble on September 11, 2001, she felt a burning sensation in her throat and nose, chest pain, dyspnea, and wheezing. Since then she has had episodic dyspnea and wheezing. She has reversible airflow obstruction documented by spirometry. What is the most likely diagnosis? This patient likely has reactive airways dysfunction syndrome. In this condition, the respiratory symptoms described above develop within minutes to hours after a single accidental inhalation of high concentrations of irritant gas, aerosol, or particles. After the acute symptoms, patients have asthma-like symptoms and airway hyperresponsiveness for a prolonged period. Treatment is a 10- to 15-day course of oral steroids followed by high-dose, inhaled steroids.

Unlike occupational asthma, the pathophysiology of reactive airways dysfunction syndrome does not involve immunological sensitization, so there is no latency period between exposure and the onset of symptoms.

CASE 34 CLINICAL SYNDROMES IN LONG-STANDING ASTHMA

A 36-year-old man has had asthma since he was 10 years old. He presents with a 2-day history of low-grade fever, malaise, and cough productive of brownish mucous cords. This is his fourth such episode in the last 2 years. CXR shows bronchiectasis. A complete blood count (CBC) is significant for eosinophilia. What is the most likely cause of his symptoms? Suspect allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) in a patient with asthma or cystic

12

fibrosis who presents with these findings. Aspergillus colonizes the airways and incites a P.100 vigorous immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated response. The immune response leads to bronchial obstruction, bronchiectasis, and eosinophilia.

What is bronchiectasis? Respiratory infections in patients with underlying lung disease can cause permanent dilation and destruction of bronchial walls and cilia. Bronchiectasis typically presents with chronic cough and foul-smelling, mucopurulent sputum. The major complications of bronchiectasis are recurrent pneumonia and hemoptysis. These complications can be prevented by adequate hydration, inhaled bronchodilators, and pulmonary toilet (chest percussion and postural drainage).

How can you confirm ABPA? Perform a skin-prick test for reactivity to aspergillus. If the skin-prick test is positive, obtain serum IgE levels and serum precipitins to aspergillus. Serum IgE levels >1000 ng/ml and positive precipitins confirms the diagnosis. If the skin-prick test is negative, perform intradermal testing for aspergillus reactivity. If this test is negative as well, then the patient does not have ABPA.

The skin-prick test is positive, and serum IgE levels are 1200 ng/ml. ABPA is diagnosed in this patient. How is ABPA treated? First-line therapy for ABPA is corticosteroids. Consider itraconazole as an adjunct to steroids in patients with recurrent symptoms or a slow response to therapy, or in an attempt to wean steroid-dependent patients from the steroids.

Alternative 3.4.1
A 52-year-old patient has had allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, and asthma of increasing severity for the last 10 years. He also has hypertension and is being treated by a neurologist for a mononeuropathy multiplex of unknown cause. During his last hospital admission, a CBC was significant for 20% eosinophils, and a CXR was indicative of patchy opacities. On physical examination, subcutaneous nodules are seen on the extensor surface of his arms. What diagnosis should you suspect? Suspect Churg Strauss Syndrome (CSS) in this patient with asthma, eosinophilia, abnormal CXR, and skin lesions (particularly subcutaneous nodules or ulcers on the extensor surfaces of the arms and elbows).

What are the clinical manifestations of CSS? There are three stages in the progression of this multisystem vasculitis:

1. 2.

Prodrome: Characterized by asthma, allergic rhinitis and atopy. Eosinophilic phase: Peripheral blood eosinophilia and eosinophilic infiltrates in the lung and gastrointestinal tract.

3.

Vasculitic phase: This life-threatening phase occurs 8 to 10 years after the prodromal phase and affects a number of organ systems including: Cardiovascular: Leading cause of death in CSS; complications include pericarditis, heart failure, and myocardial infarction. Central nervous system: Cerebral hemorrhage and infarct is the second leading cause of death after cardiovascular disease; 75% of patients have peripheral

13

neuropathy. Renal: Many patients develop hypertension (HTN) as a result of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis; 10% progress to chronic renal failure. 4. Gastrointestinal: Eosinophilic gastroenteritis can cause abdominal pain, diarrhea, and gastrointestinal bleeding. 5. Skin: Subcutaneous nodules or ulcers may form on the extensor surfaces of the arms and elbows.

How should you work this patient up for CSS? Confirm the diagnosis of CSS with surgical lung biopsy. If there are no lung infiltrates, perform biopsy of other clinically affected tissues.

P.101

Antineutrophilic cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA): limited utility in CSS because it is neither sensitive nor specific.

The lung biopsy shows eosinophilic infiltrates and necrotizing granulomas, which is characteristic of CSS. How is this condition treated? First-line treatment is high-dose steroids. Patients who are steroid-resistant may benefit from cyclophosphamide, azothioprine, and IV immunoglobulin.

CASE 35 CHRONIC, PROGRESSIVE COUGH AND DYSPNEA

A 60-year-old man presents with a 6-month history of dyspnea on exertion. His dyspnea has progressively worsened to the point where he experiences shortness of breath after walking one block. He also reports increased cough productive of white-yellow sputum over the last 10 years. He has smoked two packs of cigarettes every day for the last 30 years. Physical examination demonstrates soft breath sounds, increased expiratory phase, hyperresonance on lung percussion, and inspiratory rales at the posterior lung bases. Vital signs are temperature 36.8C, pulse 88 bpm, respirations 18/min, blood pressure 130/70. Body mass index (BMI) is 20. What is the differential diagnosis of chronic progressive cough and dyspnea?

1. 2.

Cardiac: Congestive Heart Failure (CHF) or coronary artery disease Pulmonary: asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), interstitial lung disease (ILD), or lung cancer.

What is the most likely cause in this patient? Physical findings of hyperresonance, increased expiratory phase, and soft breath sounds are highly suggestive of COPD. Earlier definitions divided COPD into chronic bronchitis and emphysema (Table 3-4).

TABLE 34 Chronic Bronchitis Versus Emphysema Chronic Bronchitis Chief complaint Productive cough Emphysema Dyspnea

14

Definition

Clinical diagnosis: productive cough for 3 months/year for 2 consecutive years; must have excluded other causes of cough

Pathological diagnosis: permanent enlargement of airspaces distal to the terminal bronchioles

Classic appearance

Blue bloater: obesity and cyanosis without digital clubbing

Pink puffer: thin patient who has dyspnea at rest but no cyanosis

What is the next step in management? History and physical exam alone is inaccurate in one third of patients. The test of choice to confirm COPD is spirometry. If spirometry demonstrates an obstructive pattern, perform bronchoprovocation challenge to distinguish between COPD and asthma (see Fig. 3-1). A patient is considered to have COPD if FEV1 is <80% predicted and FEV1/FVC is <70% predicted after bronchoprovocation.

What other tests should you order? In addition to spirometry, obtain the following tests to rule out other common causes of chronic dyspnea:

1. 2.

CBC: Normal hematocrit rules out anemia. CXR: Can detect larger lung cancers and interstitial lung disease (ILD). P.102

3. 4.

EKG: Normal EKG greatly decreases likelihood of cardiac causes. 6-Minute walk test (6MWT): Monitor pulse oximetry with ambulation.

CXR is obtained (Fig. 3-3). Hematocrit is 42%. EKG is normal. Spirometry demonstrates FEV1 of 62% and FEV1/FVC that is 65% of predicted and not reversible with inhalation of bronchodilators. Pulse oximetry is 93% and falls to 90% with ambulation. How would you classify his disease severity?

15

FIGURE 33 Chest x-ray of emphysema. From Daffner, RH. Clinical Radiology: The Essentials, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

Disease severity is staged using FEV1/FVC levels based on the GOLD criteria. On the basis of these criteria, this patient has moderate COPD (Table 3-5).

TABLE 35 Classification of COPD Disease Severity (GOLD Criteria) Stage 1 (mild) FEV1/FVC <70% FEV1 80%

2A (moderate)

<70%

5080%

2B (moderate)

<70%

3050%

3 (severe)

<70%

<30% or respiratory failure or right heart failure

16

Abbreviation: COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; FVC, forced vital capacity; GOLD, Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. Note: Adapted from Rabe KF, et al. Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of COPD2006 Update. Am J Respir Crit Care Med: 176: 532555, 2007.

GOLD: Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease

How would you describe the patient's CXR? CXR demonstrates hyperinflated lungs, flattened diaphragm, and a long, narrow heart shadow. These findings are characteristic of emphysema.

Lung volumes: Total lung capacity (TLC) and functional residual capacity. Total lung volume in obstructive disease > normal > restrictive lung disease.

CXR not sensitive for the diagnosis of mild and moderate COPD.

What measures are recommended initially in patients with COPD?

1.

Smoking cessation: This is the most important step in management, because smoking cessation is the only measure that reduces the rate of lung function decline in COPD.

2.

Medications: The initial therapy for COPD is a short-acting, inhaled -agonist (e.g., albuterol) plus a short-acting inhaled anticholinergic (e.g., ipratropium) on an as-needed basis. Unlike asthma, combining the -agonist and the anticholinergic has an additive symptomatic benefit in COPD. Unlike smoking cessation, medications do not reduce the rate of lung function decline. P.103

3.

Vaccines: Administer a single pneumococcal vaccine and annual influenza vaccine (see Chapter 1: Health Maintenance and Statistics).

4.

Pulmonary rehabilitation: Use this method to improve symptoms in patients with stage 2 or greater COPD but does not reduce rate of lung function decline.

Monitoring: Perform annual spirometry to monitor response to therapy in stable COPD. Use FEV1 rather than FEV1/FVC to monitor rate of lung function decline.

High-calorie supplements: Weight loss occurs in 20% of patients with moderate to severe emphysema. Some clinicians advocate high-calorie supplements, although studies have not documented any long-term benefit.

What therapy could you add if symptoms persist despite smoking cessation and as-needed, short-acting albuterol and ipratropium? The next step is to add a scheduled dose of tiotropium (long-acting, inhaled anticholinergic). If symptoms persist despite tiotropium, consider adding a scheduled dose of a long-acting, -2

17

agonist such as salmeterol. Like short-acting bronchodilators, long-acting bronchodilators improve dyspnea and reduce COPD exacerbations but do not reduce mortality or rate of lung function decline.

MDI versus nebulizer: Both methods of bronchodilator delivery are equally effective in both COPD and asthma.

What therapy can you consider if symptoms persist despite maximal doses of as-needed, inhaled albuterol and ipratropium as well as scheduled tiotropium and salmeterol? Consider inhaled steroids if the patient has continued symptoms or severe airflow limitation despite maximal doses of short and long-acting bronchodilators. Do not initiate steroids unless spirometry documents airflow improvement with steroids.

When is oxygen therapy indicated in patients with stable COPD? Oxygen is the only therapeutic intervention that decreases mortality in patients with COPD. Home oxygen therapy is indicated in the following patients with stable COPD:

1. 2. 3.

Resting PaO 2 of 55 mm Hg (SaO2 88%) Exercise induced desaturation to 88% Cor pulmonale or erythrocytosis

Stable COPD measures: drugs (inhaled bronchodilators, inhaled steroids), smoking cessation, pulmonary rehabilitation, oxygen, and high-calorie supplements.

P.104 The patient begins to take scheduled albuterol and ipratropium by MDI but does not stop smoking. Eight months later, he presents to the emergency department with increasing dyspnea over the last 6 hours. He is unable to lie supine because of breathlessness. He has been coughing more over the last 2 days with an increased amount of yellow sputum. Vital signs are temperature 38.7C, pulse 125 bpm, respir ations 20/min, blood pressure 120/80. Oxygen saturation is 87%. ABG is pH 7.36, PaO 2 54, PaCO 2 44. What is the differential diagnosis of acute dyspnea? Common causes of acute dyspnea are:

1. 2.

Psychiatric: panic attack Cardiac: decompensated heart failure, acute corinary syndrome (ACS), cardiac tamponade

3.

Pulmonary: Pneumothorax, Pulmonary embolism (PE), Pneumonia, COPD exacerbation, Asthma exacerbation, Obstruction of the upper airway, Bronchitis (mnemonic: Poor Paul's Pneumonia Causes Acute Onset Breathlessness)

What is the next step in management? First, correct ABCs (airway, breathing, circulation). Then perform bedside spirometry to confirm the diagnosis. Also, obtain CXR, EKG, bone natriuretic peptide (BNP), CBC, and ddimer to rule out other causes of acute dyspnea.

FEV1 and FEV1/FVC have declined from his baseline. EKG, cardiac BNP, and d-dimer are

18

normal. CXR is unchanged from baseline. What acute cause of dyspnea is most likely in this patient? The most likely cause of his symptoms is COPD exacerbation, defined as an acute worsening of symptoms accompanied by decreased lung function. COPD exacerbation usually occurs after a stressful precipitating event such as infection (bacterial or viral), bronchospasm, or excessive sedation from medications. Fever and increased purulent sputum suggest that an infection has triggered his deterioration.

How is COPD exacerbation treated? Treat COPD exacerbation with BOCA (Bronchodilators, Oxygen, Corticosteroids Antibiotics):

1.

Bronchodilators: Administer inhaled, short-acting -2 agonists and inhaled anticholinergics every 1 to 2 hours via MDI or nebulizer.

2.

Supplemental oxygen: Include this critical component of acute therapy, because hypoxemia is a defining feature of a COPD exacerbation; target arterial oxygen saturation is 60 to 65 mmHg (SaO 2 90%).

3. 4.

Corticosteroids (IV or oral). Empiric antibiotics: These are indicated if the patient has fever or increased volume and purulence of secretions; choose a 10-day course of amoxicillin, doxycyline, or TMPSMX.

A beneficial response to steroids during an acute COPD exacerbation does not predict benefit from the chronic use of steroids.

When is hospitalization indicated for patients with COPD exacerbation? Does this patient require hospitalization? Indications for hospitalization are:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Marked increased in symptom intensity Multiple comorbidities or severe background disease Poor social support at home No response to initial therapy

This patient with marked increase in symptom intensity requires hospitalization.

P.105 PaO 2 rises to 68 mm Hg on 3 L of oxygen by facemask, but PaCO 2 also rises to 59 mm Hg. The patient reports improved dyspnea and is alert and oriented to person, place, and time. What should be done about the elevation in PaCO 2 ? Patients with COPD sometimes develop hypercapnia after receiving supplemental oxygen. Do not withdraw supplemental oxygen because this hypercapnia is generally well tolerated.

Two hours later, the patient's dyspnea worsens. The pH is 7.29, PaO 2 is 55, PaCO 2 is 61, and oxygen saturation is 88%. Is there any alternative to intubation and mechanical ventilation for this patient? An alternative to intubation and mechanical ventilation in patients with COPD exacerbation is

19

noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV). NPPV reduces the risk of nosocomial pneumonia and results in shorter hospital stays compared with intubation in select COPD patients. Indications for NPPV are:

1. 2. 3.

Moderate to severe dyspnea Arterial pH <7.35 with PaCO 2 >45 mm Hg Respiratory rate 25/minute

NPPV contraindications: decreased consciousness, hemodynamic instability, and arrhythmias.

The patient is ready for discharge after a 3-day hospitalization. What follow-up measures should you recommend to reduce the risk of another exacerbation? Similar to asthma exacerbation, an oral steroid taper and a written action plan is recommended at the time of discharge after a COPD exacerbation.

The patient begins pulmonary rehabilitation. He is on continuous oxygen therapy at home, and he takes inhaled albuterol, ipratropium, and inhaled steroids. He does not quit smoking. Over the next 10 years, his dyspnea and cough continue to worsen. He now complains of chest tightness, fatigue, and lethargy. On physical examination, he appears thin, and his lips are pursed during expiration. His lower interspaces retract during inspiration. His neck veins are distended; he has 2+ pitting edema in his lower extremities. Abdominal examination is significant for ascites and his liver is felt 2 cm below the costal margin. Auscultation of the heart reveals a split S2 with a loud pulmonic component. The point of maximal impulse is in the epigastrium. Vital signs are temperature 37.2C , pulse 120 bpm, respirations 25/min, blood pressure 150/90. FEV1 is 30% of predicted, and FEV1/FVC is 50% of predicted. Hematocrit is 60%. ABG measurements are pH 7.31, PaO 2 52, PaCO 2 52. CXR shows enlarged pulmonary arteries, and EKG is significant for right axis deviation, a tall R wave in V1, S waves in V5 and V6, inverted T waves and ST depression in V1-V3, peaked P waves in lead II. What complication of COPD has he developed? The clinical findings, CXR, EKG, and laboratory tests are characteristic of right heart failure (cor pulmonale). COPD is the most common cause of cor pulmonale, which occurs as a result of pulmonary hypertension (Fig. 3-4).

20

FIGURE 34 Mechanism of cor pulmonale in COPD.

Obtain Doppler echocardiography to confirm cor pulmonale noninvasively.

What are other causes of pulmonary HTN? Pulmonary HTN is defined as pulmonary artery pressure >25 mm Hg at rest or >30 mm Hg after

21

exercise (as measured by right heart catheterization). The World Health Organization classifies pulmonary HTN on the basis of mechanism into five groups (Table 3-6).

TABLE 36 WHO Classification of Pulmonary Hypertension Group 1 Category Pulmonary artery HTN Causes Idiopathic pulmonary HTN

Collagen vascular diseases

HIV infection

Atrial or ventricular septal defect

Pulmonary venous HTN

Left-sided CHF

Pulmonary HTN due to 1 lung disease

COPD

ILD

Obstructive sleep apnea

Pulmonary HTN due to pulmonary thrombosis or embolism

Chronic PE

Schistosomiasis

Rare causes

Histiocytosis X is one example

Abbreviations: CHF, congestive heart failure; HTN, hypertension; ILD, interstitial lung disease; PE, pulmonary embolism; WHO, World Health Organization.

What is the treatment for cor pulmonale caused by COPD? The key initial measure in pulmonary HTN is to treat the underlying cause. Thus, the most important measures in cor pulmonale due to COPD are bronchodilators and oxygen. Other therapeutic options are: P.106 1. Diuretics: Use carefully because excess volume depletion can decrease cardiac output in the preload-dependent right ventricle. Discontinue diuretics if the patient develops an unexplained increase in serum blood urea nitrogen or creatinine. 2. Phlebotomy: Adjunct therapy in the subset of patients with significant polycythemia (HCT > 55%) that is resistant to reduction of hypoxemia with long-term oxygen.

22

3.

Vasodilators: Consider in pulmonary HTN and New York Heart Association class III or IV CHF refractory to oxygen and bronchodilators. Before initiating advanced therapies, perform right heart catheterization to obtain baseline pulmonary artery pressure. A calcium-channel blocker is usually the initial vasodilator therapy attempted. If pulmonary HTN persists, consider advanced vasodilator therapies (e.g., IV prostacyclin, oral bosentan, or oral sildenafil). Of these, the most widely studied advanced vasodilator therapy is IV prostacyclin (epoprostenol).

Digitalis and -blockers are generally not effective in cor pulmonale.

Are there any surgical options for patients with severe COPD? Lung volume reduction surgery may play a role in patients with upper-lobe predominant disease and decreased exercise capacity. Lung transplantation is an option for select patients under the age of 65, although it does not improve mortality.

P.107

Alternative 3.5.1
The patient with progressive dyspnea and cough productive of sputum is 46 years old. He has never smoked cigarettes. His father died of lung disease in his 40s. His grandfather and paternal uncle died of liver failure in their 30s. Spirometry reveals an obstructive pattern not reversible with bronchodilators. CXR shows bullous changes in lung bases. What is the cause of COPD? The development of COPD at an early age in a nonsmoker with a family history of lung disease and liver failure should raise suspicion for -1-antitrypsin deficiency. This autosomal, recessive, inherited condition predisposes to liver disease by the second decade and emphysema by the fourth decade of life. Treatment is IV or inhaled pooled human -1 antiprotease. Lung transplant is an option for end-stage lung disease.

Bullous changes in emphysema due to -1 antitrypsin deficiency tend to be more prominent in the lung bases (panacinar) compared to the apices (centrilobular).

CASE 36 RESTRICTIVE LUNG DISEASE

A 55-year-old man complains of increasing dyspnea on exertion and a dry cough for the last 12 months. He does not take any medications. He has never smoked cigarettes, and occupational history does not reveal any workplace irritants. Physical examination reveals fine bibasilar crackles and digital clubbing. Pulmonary function tests show decreased FEV1, decreased FVC, FEV1/FVC, decreased TLC. CXR shows diffuse interstitial opacities with basal predominance and reduced lung volume. What category of lung diseases is he suffering from? ILDs are a heterogeneous group of disorders that are characterized by certain common features including progressively increasing dyspnea, a dry cough, and a restrictive pattern on spirometry. Fine crackles are the most common physical examination finding. The typical CXR will show reticular or reticulonodular infiltrates with diminished lung volumes.

CXR can be normal in some patients with biopsy-proven ILD. Obtain high-resolution CT if there is a high index of suspicion for ILD but CXR is normal.

23

P.108 What are the causes of ILD? There are almost 200 different ILDs. The major causes are:

1.

Pneumoconioses: Years of exposure to inorganic dusts leads to chronic inflammation with resulting scarring and fibrosis. Asbestosis, silica, coal, and beryllium are among the more common etiologic agents.

2.

Hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP): Deposition of organic antigens leads to the formation of antigen-antibody complexes in the alveoli. The presentation can either be acute (4 to 6 hours after exposure, resolving within 12 hours), subacute, or chronic. Examples of hypersensitivity pneumonitis are farmer's lung (exposure to thermophilic actinomycetes in hay), pigeon fancier's lung (exposure to bird feathers and excreta), humidifier lung (exposure to thermophilic bacteria), and ABPA.

3. 4. 5.

Sarcoidosis and collagen vascular disorders Iatrogenic: cancer drugs, radiation, antibiotics, NSAIDS, -blockers, anti-arrhythmics. Idiopathic: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), acute interstitial pneumonia, desquamative interstitial pneumonia (DIP), and respiratory bronchiolitis-associated ILD are pathologically different idiopathic causes of ILD.

Asbestosis symptoms tend to occur 15 to 20 years after the initial exposure.

Patients with silicosis have an increased risk of tuberculosis.

Which ILD is most likely responsible for this patient's symptoms? This patient with basal infiltrates and no known exposures or connective tissue disorders most likely has IPF (Table 3-7). This condition tends to present in the fifth or sixth decades and is two times more common in females.

TABLE 37 Typical Anatomic Location of ILD Infiltrates

Upper lung zones

Silicosis, beryliosis

Hypersensitivity pneumonitis

Sarcoidosis

Lower lung zones

Asbestosis

Collagen vascular disease associated ILD

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (usual interstitial pneumonia)

Note: Adapted from Young VB, Kormos WA, Goroll AH. Blueprints Medicine,

24

2nd ed. Blackwell Publishing, 2001.

Digital clubbing is a common physical examination finding in IPF and asbestosis, but less common in other ILDs.

Analysis of the lung biopsy specimen shows areas of normal lung alternating with cystic fibrotic areas (honeycomb change), which confirms the diagnosis of IPF. What is this patient's prognosis? Unfortunately, IPF usually follows a relentlessly progressive course, with most patients dying of respiratory failure within 5 to 10 years of diagnosis. Treatment options are limited, and these patients should be referred early for lung transplantation.

Alternative 3.6.1
A 60-year-old female presents with a 2-week history of worsening dyspnea and dry cough. Physical exam demonstrates bilateral crackles; CXR shows diffuse interstitial infiltrates. EKG, BNP, and CBC are normal. Spirometry demonstrates a restrictive pattern. No precipitant is identified. P.109 What diagnosis should you suspect? The most likely diagnosis is acute interstitial pneumonia, which presents with explosive onset of respiratory symptoms and diffuse infiltrates and can rapidly progress to respiratory failure.

Alternative 3.6.2
A 50-year-old patient presents with chronic dyspnea, cough, interstitial infiltrates, and a restrictive pattern on spirometry. The patient has a 20-pack-year smoking history. Lung biopsy shows numerous mononuclear cells within most of the distal air spaces, and minimal fibrosis. What are the most likely diagnoses? This patient has either desquamative interstitial pneumonia or respiratory bronchiolitisassociated ILD. Both conditions tend to affect cigarette smokers in the fourth or fifth decade of life and have pathological features different from IPF. Treatment is smoking cessation and corticosteroids. Prognosis is good with adequate treatment.

Alternative 3.6.3
A 29-year-old African-American man presents with a 2-month history of dyspnea and dry cough. He does not have any environmental exposures. Spirometry reveals a restrictive pattern. CXR shows bilateral hilar adenopathy and upper lung field reticular opacities. Lung biopsy reveals noncaseating granulomas. What is the diagnosis? Bilateral hilar adenopathy and reticular opacities in the upper lung fields are highly suggestive of sarcoidosis. The presence of noncaseating granulomas on biopsy confirms the diagnosis. This multisystem disease of unknown cause is most common in African Americans between the ages of 20 and 40 (although worldwide, 75% of those affected are white). The lungs are the most commonly affected organ system (90%).

25

50% of sarcoid is detected incidentally on CXR in asymptomatic patients.

What stage of sarcoidosis does this patient have? Sarcoidosis is staged based on CXR findings:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Stage 1: Bilateral hilar adenopathy Stage 2: Bilateral hilar adenopathy + reticular opacities in upper lung fields Stage 3: Reticular opacities in upper lung field mild bilateral hilar adenopathy Stage 4: Reticular opacities in upper lung field bronchiectasis

This patient with bilateral hilar adenopathy and reticular opacities has stage 2 disease.

Nodular sarcoid: Multiple bilateral nodules with minimal hilar adenopathy. Often mistaken for lung metastates; biopsy helps differentiate between the two.

What other organ systems can sarcoidosis affect? Noncaseating granulomas can infiltrate almost any organ system. Commonly affected organs are:

1. 2.

Lymph nodes: painless hilar and peripheral lymphadenopathy occurs in ~90%. Eyes: eye lesions occur in ~25% (presenting symptom in 5%). The most common eye lesion is uveitis followed by chorioretinitis.

3.

Skin: Skin lesions occur in ~20%. The most common lesions are erythema nodosum (tender erythematous nodules on the shins as a result of inflammation of subcutaneous fat) and lupus pernio (violaceous lesions on the nose, cheeks, and ears).

4.

Kidneys: Patients often develop hypercalcemia, which leads to calcium stones. Kidney granulomas cause glomerulonephritis in <1%. P.110

5.

Other: Liver (mild increase in liver function tests), bones (polyarthralgias), heart (arrhythmias and conduction defects), and parotid gland (dry mouth), etc.

Lofgren's syndrome: Variant of sarcoidosis that presents with fever, erythema nodosum, bilateral hilar adenopathy, and migratory polyarthralgias. Females > males. Good prognosis.

What laboratory abnormalities commonly occur in sarcoidosis? Obtain the following laboratory studies in all patients. Although no single laboratory test is diagnostic, they help support the diagnosis, particularly if biopsy findings in lungs or other affected organs are inconclusive.

1. 2.

Serum ACE level: Elevated in 75% of patients. Immune tests: Patients commonly have increased serum gamma globulins and decreased skin reactivity (due to decreased delayed hypersensitivity). Nonspecific markers of inflammation such as erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and rheumatoid factor (RF) are often elevated.

3.

Serum and urine calcium: Sarcoidosis increases conversion of inactive to active vitamin D.

26

Vitamin D increases intestinal calcium absorption, which can cause hypercalcemia and hypercalciuria. 4. Other: Reflects organ system involvement (restrictive pattern on spirometry with lung involvement, mild increase in alkaline phosphatase with liver involvement, etc).

Is treatment indicated for this patient with sarcoidosis? If so, how is sarcoidosis treated? No treatment is necessary for asymptomatic patients with stage 1 or stage 2 disease on CXR. All patients with symptoms and/or stage 3 or stage 4 disease require treatment. This patient with symptomatic stage 2 disease requires treatment. First-line therapy is oral steroids. Also, correct increased urine or serum Ca +2 if present to prevent nephrolithiasis.

CASE 37 ACUTE ONSET OF DYSPNEA AND PLEURITIC CHEST PAIN

A 40-year-old woman presents with a 3-hour history of shortness of breath and chest tightness that is worse on inspiration. She was on a 15-hour bus ride 2 days ago. She does not have any known medical conditions. Her only medications are oral contraceptive pills. Her right calf is swollen and tender. Heart and lung findings are within normal limits. Stool is guaiac negative. Vital signs are temperature 38.2, pulse 121 bpm, respirations 30/min, blood pressure 142/90. SaO 2 is 93% on 2 L of oxygen via nasal cannula. CXR shows atelectasis; EKG shows sinus tachycardia with nonspecific ST and T wave changes. Cardiac BNP is 20. ABG shows pH 7.45, PCO 2 30, and PO 2 88. What is the differential diagnosis of acute dyspnea and chest pain? Common causes of dyspnea and chest pain arising over a matter of minutes to hours are:

1. 2. 3.

Cardiac: e.g., myocardial infarction, CHF exacerbation, cardiac tamponade Pulmonary: e.g., PE, pneumonia, pneumothorax, and asthma exacerbation Psychogenic: panic disorder

What is the most likely diagnosis in this patient? The most concerning diagnosis in this patient with a acute onset of dyspnea and pleuritic chest pain along with a history of immobility (long bus ride), oral contraceptive pill use, and unilateral leg swelling is PE. Cardiogenic causes are less likely in this patient with nonspecific EKG and CXR findings and a BNP of 20. Pneumothorax is less likely because typical CXR findings are absent. Asthma is less likely because there is no history of episodic symptoms.

Where do emboli to the pulmonary artery typically originate? More than 90% of pulmonary emboli originate from a thrombus in the proximal deep venous system of the lower extremities (popliteal, femoral, or iliac veins). Calf-vein thrombosis is less likely to result in PE.

P.111 What are other possible sources of emboli to the lungs? Sources of emboli to the lungs other than deep vein thrombosis (DVT) are:

1. 2. 3.

Fat embolism after long bone fractures Air embolism after central venous catheterization and trauma Amniotic fluid embolism after delivery

27

4. 5.

Septic embolism resulting from infective endocarditis Schistosomiasis

What are the signs, symptoms, CXR, EKG, and ABG findings of PE?

1.

Symptoms: Up to 40% of patients with PE are asymptomatic. The most commonly reported symptoms are nonspecific and include dyspnea, pleuritic chest pain, cough, and hemoptysis.

2.

Signs: Signs of PE are also nonspecific. The most common signs are tachypnea, tachycardia, low-grade fever, a fourth heart sound, and an accentuated pulmonic component of S2. DVT can cause pain and swelling in the affected lower extremity, but this finding is present in <30% of patients.

3.

CXR: The most frequent findings are nonspecific atelectasis and pleural effusion. Classic but uncommon findings are Westermark sign (increased lung lucency in the area of the embolus) and Hampton's hump (wedge-shaped pleural infiltrate).

4.

EKG: The classic but uncommon finding of PE is the S1Q3T3 pattern (S wave in lead I, Q wave in lead 3, and T-wave inversion in lead 3). More common findings are sinus tachycardia or nonspecific ST and T wave changes.

5.

ABG: usually show respiratory alkalosis due to hyperventilation.

Is there any decision rule to help estimate the probability that this patient has PE on the basis of history and physical findings alone? The Well's rule classifies patients solely on the basis of seven history and physical findings as low, intermediate, or high risk (Table 3-8). This patient has a score of 7.5, which places her in the high-risk category.

TABLE 38 Well's Rule for Predicting Pretest Probability of PE Variable Clinical signs or symptoms of DVT Point Score 3

HR > 100 beats per minute

1.5

Immobilization (bed rest 3 days) or surgery within last 4 weeks

1.5

Prior DVT or PE

1.5

Hemoptysis

Malignancy

PE as likely or more likely than alternative diagnosis

Abbreviations: DVT, deep vein thrombosis; HR, heart rate. Note: Low risk = 02 points, intermediate risk = 26 points, high

28

risk = >6 points.

What is the next step in management of this patient? Untreated PE carries a 30% risk of mortality. Most patients who die do so within the first few hours of the event. Therefore, it is important to initiate simultaneous anticoagulation with heparin (unfractionated or low molecular weight) and oral warfarin early in medically stable patients with a high likelihood of PE before losing precious time with confirmatory diagnostic testing.

P.112 Heparin and warfarin are initiated. How can you confirm the diagnosis of PE? Evaluate this patient with a high probability for PE using helical CT angiography of the chest and compression ultrasound of the lower extremities (Fig. 3-5).

29

FIGURE 35 Diagnostic algorithm for suspected pulmonary embolism.

What is helical CT angiography? Helical (spiral) CT is an advancement in standard CT technology. Unlike traditional CT, images are acquired more rapidly (single breath). This noninvasive test provides much better visualization of pulmonary vasculature (hence the term angiography: angio = vessel and graph = description or recording).

V/Q scan: Have subjects inhale a radionuclide like such as technetium or xenon, or inject subjects with technetium-99, and obtain an x-ray image. Suspect PE if x-ray shows V/Q mismatch, i.e., wedge-shaped area of decreased technetium-99 circulation in pulmonary vasculature (decreased perfusion due to blockage) but normal inhaled radionuclide uptake in the same area (adequate ventilation). This method is less frequently used for detection of PE since the advent of helical CT angiography.

P.113 Helical CT shows an intraluminal filling defect in the segmental pulmonary arteries, which confirms the diagnosis of PE. Lower extremity compression ultrasound identifies a thrombus

30

in the right popliteal and femoral veins. The patient is admitted to the hospital. How are heparin and warfarin therapy typically titrated?

1.

IV unfractionated heparin: Titrate on the basis of PTT level (see Chapter 10: Hematology and Oncology). Partial thromboplastin time (PTT) between 1.5 and 2.5 times the normal range is considered therapeutic (usually occurs within 24 hours after starting therapy).

2.

Warfarin: Titrate on the basis of International Normalized Ratio (INR) level. INR between 2.0 and 3.0 is considered therapeutic (usually takes 48 to 72 hours). Discontinue heparin when warfarin levels have been therapeutic for 2 to 3 days.

INR: standardized reference value for prothrombin time.

Why does warfarin take 2 to 3 days to reach therapeutic levels? Warfarin's mechanism of action involves inhibition of vitamin Kdependent clotting factors. Its anticoagulant action is delayed until normal clotting factors are cleared from the system. This is why it takes 2 to 3 days to reach therapeutic levels.

Is there any alternative to IV unfractionated heparin? An alternative to IV unfractionated heparin in this medically stable patient is low molecular weight heparin (LMWH). Like unfractionated heparin, it is overlapped with warfarin and should be discontinued when INR levels are between 2.0 and 3.0 for 2 days. Advantages of LMWH are:

1.

Outpatient management: Because LMWH administration is subcutaneous, administration does not require hospitalization.

2. 3.

Monitoring: Unlike unfractionated heparin, there is no need to monitor PTT. Complications: LMWH carries a lower risk of severe bleeding and heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (see Chapter 10: Hematology and Oncology).

Protamine: reverses bleeding caused by unfractionated heparin but not LMWH.

How long should this patient receive warfarin? Patients with a single episode of DVT and/or PE due to identifiable and preventable risk factors should continue anticoagulation with warfarin for at least 3 months. Maintain INR between 2.0 and 3.0 during anticoagulation.

Two months later, the patient presents to her primary care physician for routine monitoring. She has not experienced any signs of bleeding while on warfarin. INR is 5.5. What is the next step in management? The next step in this asymptomatic patient with supratherapeutic INR is to withhold the next 1 to 2 doses of warfarin and administer oral vitamin K (Table 3-9).

TABLE 39 Management of Supratherapuetic INR INR Bleeding Recommended Management

31

3.05.0

No

Decreased warfarin dose or omit a dose

5.09.0

No

Omit 12 doses oral vitamin K

9.0 20.0

No

Omit 12 doses + oral vitamin K + resume at lower dose

>20.0

No

Hold warfarin + IV vitamin K FFP

Any

Yes

Hold warfarin + IV vitamin K FFP

Abbreviation: FFP, fresh frozen plasma; INR, International Normalized Ratio; IV, intravenous. Note: Adapted from The Sixth ACCP Consensus Conference on Antithrombotic Therapy. Chest 119: 33S34S, 2001.

P.114 Eight months later, the patient presents at the emergency department with dyspnea, chest tightness, tachypnea, and tachycardia. Helical CT shows a new, nonmassive, pulmonary embolus. She receives IV heparin and oral warfarin. PTT is 2.0 within the first 24 hours. On day 2, she again reports dyspnea, and a repeat helical CT shows a new PE. How should you manage this patient? This patient developed a new PE despite adequate anticoagulation with heparin. In such patients, place an inferior vena cava (IVC) filter to prevent further migration of clots from the deep venous system to the lungs. Both long-term and short-term (retrievable) filters are available.

What are other indications for an IVC filter? Indications for an IVC filter are failure, damage, and contraindications:

1. 2. 3.

Failure: There is a new PE or DVT despite adequate conventional anticoagulation. Damage: Pulmonary vessels are significantly damaged. Contraindications: Recent surgery, hemorrhagic stroke, and active bleeding are absolute contraindications to conventional anticoagulation.

How long should this patient receive anticoagulation with warfarin? Patients with recurrent thromboembolism require indefinite anticoagulation.

Alternative 3.7.1
A patient has a Well's score of 8 and is suspected to have a PE. Blood pressure is 86/60 and SaO 2 is 82%. What are the first steps in the management? Hypotension and severe hypoxemia in the setting of a PE should raise suspicion for a massive PE. The initial step in an unstable patient is to correct abnormalities in the ABCs (airway, breathing, circulation):

32

Airway and breathing: Administer supplemental oxygen; intubate and mechanically ventilate the patient if necessary. Circulation: Administer normal saline judiciously because increased right ventricular afterload in this setting predisposes to right ventricular failure; if hypotension persists after 500 to 1000 mL of normal saline, consider norepinephrine (a vasoconstrictor and an inotrope).

Pathophysiology: Massive PE obstructs pulmonary blood flow, leading to pulmonary artery pressure, leading to right ventricular outflow leading to cardiac output, leading to hypotension.

What test should you order to confirm the diagnosis? Perform diagnostic testing and hemodynamic stabilization simultaneously. The initial diagnostic test for suspected massive PE is helical CT angiography or V/Q scan. If initial tests are nondiagnostic, perform pulmonary angiography (gold standard to detect PE).

Pulmonary angiography: invasive procedure similar to coronary angiography. A catheter is threaded from the femoral artery to the heart, and dye is injected into the pulmonary arteries; x-ray images are obtained to detect occlusion.

V/Q scan shows multiple large, unmatched segments of ventilation and perfusion. What is the most appropriate treatment? Treat a documented massive PE with thrombolytics. If thrombolytics are contraindicated or unsuccessful, options include catheter or surgical embolectomy.

Absolute contraindications to thrombolytics are BSBS: Bleeding (active), Stroke (hemorrhagic), Brain tumor, and Surgery within the last 2 months.

P.115

Alternative 3.7.2
A patient with acute onset of dyspnea has noticed gross blood in her stool for the last 3 weeks. Stool is guaiac-positive. Blood pressure and oxygen saturation are normal. Helical CT and compression ultrasound confirm a PE and a DVT in the lower right extremity. What treatment should this patient receive for PE? Active gastrointestinal bleeding is a contraindication to conventional anticoagulation. This patient should receive an IVC filter instead.

Alternative 3.7.3
A 22-year-old woman presents with chest tightness and dyspnea. Symptoms began after she learned that she had been laid off from her job. Her only physical findings are tachycardia and tachypnea. EKG and CXR are within normal limits. She has a history of panic disorder. What is the next step in the evaluation of this patient? Panic attack is more likely than PE in this situation. Her Well's score is 1.5. Consider serum ddimer to rule out PE in this low-risk patient. This test is sensitive, so a negative d-dimer essentially rules out PE in low-risk patients. It is not specific, so an elevated d-dimer level in a low-risk patient warrants further evaluation with helical CT and compression ultrasound before

33

initiating potentially dangerous anticoagulation.

Malignancy or history of surgery in last 3 months: d-Dimer is not useful in this population because majority will have a positive d-dimer even if DVT is absent.

Alternative 3.7.4
A tall, thin 25-year-old man with no risk factors for PE presents with sudden onset of dyspnea and right-sided chest pain. He describes the chest pain as sharp and worse with inspiration (pleuritic). Symptoms began 2 hours ago when he was out working in the yard and smoking a cigarette. He has decreased breath sounds on the right. SaO 2 is 81%. CXR is obtained (Fig. 3-6).

FIGURE 36 Chest x-ray of right-sided pneumothorax. From Daffner, RH. Clinical Radiology: The Essentials, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

What is the diagnosis? The patient has a right-sided primary spontaneous pneumothorax. This condition commonly occurs in tall, thin young smokers during strenuous activity as a result of rupture of a P.116 subpleural bleb into the pleural space, which causes air to leak into the pleural space. Pleural air can collapse the lung, which causes decreased breath sounds on the affected side. CXR is diagnostic, showing loss of normal lung markings in the periphery of the hemithorax and a well-

34

defined, visceral pleural line between the chest wall and the hilum.

How is a pneumothorax treated?

1.

Stable patient with small pneumothorax: Observation and supplemental oxygen is usually sufficient in a stable patient with a pneumothorax that occupies <15% of the hemithorax.

2.

Stable patient with a large pneumothorax: Aspirate a larger pneumothorax with a catheter threaded through an 18-gauge needle.

3.

Unstable patient or unsuccessful aspiration: If aspiration is ineffective or if the patient is unstable, insert a chest tube via an incision at the fourth or fifth intercostal space in the anterior axillary or mid-axillary line (tube thoracostomy). Tube thoracostomy is indicated in this unstable patient with a large pneumothorax.

Pneumomediastinum: a complication of primary spontaneous pneumothorax. Suspect this condition if a patient has mediastinal crunch (see Table 3-1) or subcutaneous emphysema (bulging area of skin that crackles on palpation).

Alternative 3.7.5
The patient is a 55-year-old man with end-stage liver disease. He is undergoing central venous catheterization. During the procedure, the intern positions the patient upright. The catheter connection is detached during the procedure, so he decides to remove the catheter. He notices that the patient took a deep breath while he was removing the catheter. Within a few minutes, the patient becomes extremely short of breath. Blood pressure falls to 88/60. ABG indicates hypoxemia and hypercapnia. What is the likely cause of these symptoms? Suspect air embolism in patients who develop respiratory and hemodynamic compromise shortly after central venous catheterization. The risk of catheter-related venous air embolism is increased in this patient because he was placed upright during the procedure, the catheter connection was detached, and the patient took a deep breath during catheter removal (which increases negative pressure in the thorax). It is difficult to confirm this diagnosis. Echocardiography may document air in the right ventricle. Creatinine kinase is often elevated.

How is an air embolus treated? Maintain the ABCs (airway, breathing, circulation) with mechanical ventilation, fluids, and vasopressors. Place the patient in the left lateral decubitus position (left side down), with the head positioned lower than the pelvis. If hemodynamic instability persists, consider hyperbaric oxygen.

CASE 38 ACUTE ONSET OF DYSPNEA, PLEURITIC CHEST PAIN, FEVER, AND COUGH
A 32-year-old man presents with a 2-day history of fever, shaking chills (rigor), cough productive of yellow sputum, dyspnea, and pleuritic chest pain. Past medical history is unremarkable. He has crackles, decreased breath sounds, dullness to percussion, increased tactile fremitus, and egophony at the left upper lobe. Vital signs are temperature 39C, HR 110, respirations 25, blood pressure 110/80. SaO 2 is 92%. What is the most likely cause of these symptoms? Typical community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) classically presents with abrupt onset of fever,

35

cough productive of purulent sputum, and pleuritic chest pain along with physical findings of lobar consolidation. The term pneumonia implies infection of the alveoli (lower respiratory tract). The most common pathogen in typical CAP is Streptococcus pneumoniae, followed by Hemophilus influenza and Moraxella catarrhalis.

P.117

Egophony: Ask the patient to say the letter e while you ascultate the lungs. Suspect an area of consolidation if e sounds like a over a particular area. Tactile fremitus: Ask the patient to say boy oh boy while you palpate the lungs. Suspect consolidation if increased vibration is palpated over a particular area. Suspect pneumothorax or pleural effusion if there is an area of decreased vibration.

What are atypical signs of pneumonia? Pneumonia can also present insidiously with atypical signs such as a dry cough, headache, myalgias, sore throat, and gastrointestinal symptoms (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain). Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae are the most common causes of community-acquired atypical pneumonia.

What is the next step in management? Obtain a CXR in all patients with clinical features suggestive of CAP to determine whether an infiltrate is present.

Clinical and CXR findings do not reliably differentiate typical from atypical pathogens.

CXR shows a left upper lobe consolidation (Fig. 3-7). How can you gauge the severity of this patient's pneumonia?

FIGURE 37 Chest x-ray of left upper lobe pneumonia. From Daffner, RH. Clinical Radiology: The Essentials, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

36

Use the pneumonia severity index (PSI) derived from the Prospective Investigation of Pulmonary Embolism Diagnosis (PIOPED) study to gauge pneumonia severity and appropriate triage (Table 3-10).

TABLE 310 Pneumonia Severity Index Clinical Decision Rule Class I Score Age <50, no comorbidities Mortality <1% Suggested Triage Outpatient

II

70

<1%

Outpatient

III

7190

2.8%

Brief inpatient

IV

91130

8.2%

Inpatient

>130

29.2%

Intensive care unit

Variables

Points

Demographics

Men (age in years), women (age 10), nursing home (+10)

Co-existing problems

Neoplasm (+30), liver disease (+20), CHF (+10), CVA (+10), renal disease (+10)

Physical exam

MS (+20), RR interval > 30 (+20), SBP < 90 (+20), T < 35 or T > 40 C C (+15), HR > 125 (+10)

Laboratory

pH < 7.35 (+30), BUN > 30 (+20), Na < 130 (+20), glucose > 250 (+10), HCT < 30 (+10), PaO2 < 60 or SaO2 < 90 (+10), pleural effusion (+10)

Abbreviations: CVA, cerebrovascular accident; MS = mental status; SBP = systotic blood pressure; T, temperature; BUN, blood urea nitrogen; HCT, hematocrit. Note: Adapted from Sabatine M. Pocket Medicine, 2nd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000.

How should you manage this patient's pneumonia? On the basis of clinical and demographic findings alone, this patient has a PSI of 32. Further testing is unlikely to raise his PSI score >70. Hence, further laboratory testing is unnecessary. Treat the patient empirically with a course of macrolide or doxycycline as an outpatient (Table 3-11). Symptoms should improve within 72 hours, although crackles may persist for 3 weeks.

TABLE 311 Empiric Treatment Guidelines for Pneumonia Suggested Antibiotics and Rationale

Triage

37

CAP (outpatient)

No comorbidities

Macrolidea (preferred) or doxycycline

Rationale: cover most common typical and atypical pathogens in CAP

Comorbidities or antibiotic use in last 3 months or area with high prevalence of macrolide resistant S. pneumoniae

Option 1: (macrolidea or doxycycline) + -lactam effective against S. pneumoniae b )

Option 2: Fluoroquinolonec

Rationale: adds coverage against macrolide resistant S. pneumoniae

CAP (hospitalized)

Not in intensive care unit

Option 1: azithromycin + thirdgeneration cephalosporind

Option 2: fluoroquinolonec

Rationale: adds potent coverage against macrolide resistant S. pneumoniae

Intensive care unit

(Azithromycin or fluoroquinolonec ) PLUS thirdgeneration cephalosporin

Rationale: adds potent coverage against macrolide resistant S. pneumoniae and legionella

Aspiration (outpatient)

Clindamycin

Rationale: covers oropharyngeal flora (anaerobes)

Nosocomial pneumonia or HCAP

-Lactam effective against pseudomonase + fluoroquinolonef + vancomycin

Rationale: Vancomycin adds coverage against MRSA. Other drugs add coverage against pseudomonas.

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Abbreviations: CAP, community-acquired pneumonia; HCAP, healthcare-associated pneumonia; MRSA, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. a Macrolides: use azithromycin or clarithromycin; gastrointestinal side effects and need for multiple daily doses limit usefulness of erythromycin. b -Lactams with activity against S. pneumoniae: amoxicillin-clavulonate or second-generation cephalosporin such as cefuroxime. c Fluoroquinolone: Choose between moxifloxacin, gatifloxacin, or levofloxacin. d Third-generation cephalosporin: Use ceftriaxone or cefotaxime. e -Lactams effective against pseudomonas: Options are piperacillin-tazobactam, imipenem, meropenem, cefepime, or ceftazidime. f Fluoroquinolones for nosocomial pneumonia: Use ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin.

Alternative 3.8.1
A 70-year-old nursing home resident presents with clinical findings identical to the previous patient. He has a history of end-stage liver disease secondary to hepatitis C, as well as chronic P.118 renal failure treated with intermittent hemodialysis. Physical exam, vital signs, and CXR are similar to the previous patient. What is the next step in management? This patient has a PSI score of 110 even without laboratory evaluation and therefore requires hospitalization. Obtain a CBC, serum chemistry, ABG, Gram stain, and blood and sputum culture specimens in any patient with pneumonia who requires hospitalization. After obtaining blood culture specimens, initiate empiric antibiotic therapy (target door-to-antibiotic time is 4 hours).

Elderly patients frequently present with nonspecific signs and symptoms. Tachypnea is the most sensitive finding in elderly patients with pneumonia.

The only abnormal laboratory finding is leukocytosis with a leftward shift (many band forms). What is his revised PSI score? Leukocytosis with a left shift is the most common laboratory abnormality in pneumonia. White blood cell findings are not a part of the PSI criteria, so his score remains 110.

Leukopenia sometimes occurs with pneumonia (worse prognosis).

Would you classify this patient's pneumonia as community-acquired? The following patients with pneumonia are considered to have healthcare-associated pneumonia (HCAP):

1. 2.

Healthcare workers Residents of long-term care facilities P.119

3.

Patients who were administered antimicrobials, dialysis, or chemotherapy within 30 days of infection.

4.

Patients who were hospitalized for at least 2 days within 90 days of infection.

This nursing home resident on hemodialysis has HCAP and not CAP. Patients with HCAP have

39

an increased risk of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA).

What antibiotics should you initiate? Treat with a -lactam effective against pseudomonas plus a fluoroquinolone (ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin) plus vancomycin (see Table 3-11). Tailor therapy once culture and susceptibility results return.

Nosocomial (hospital acquired) pneumonia: patients who develop pneumonia 48 hours after admission to the hospital. Empiric therapy is similar to HCAP. Ventilator associated pneumonia: patients who develop pneumonia 48-72 hours after mechanical ventilation. Empiric therapy is similar to nosocomial pneumonia and HCAP.

P.120 Blood culture shows Gram-positive diplococci in chains. Sputum culture grows mixed flora with many epithelial cells. What organism should antibiotics target? A good sputum sample has >25 polymorphonuclear leukocytes but <10 squamous epithelial cells. This patient's sputum sample is probably contaminated with oropharyngeal flora. Blood cultures are not sensitive, but a positive culture has a high positive predictive value. Tailor antibiotics against the organism identified on blood culture (S. pneumoniae).

Two thirds of positive blood cultures in pneumonia grow S. pneumoniae.

How would you interpret the blood culture if only one of two bottles shows Gram-positive cocci in clusters? Typically two sets of blood cultures are obtained. Suspect contamination of the specimen with skin flora if only one of two bottles shows Gram-positive cocci in clusters.

Alternative 3.8.2
A 50-year-old homeless man with a history of alcoholism is brought to the emergency department after he was found unconscious on the street. After regaining consciousness, the patient admits that he passed out after drinking a large amount of alcohol. He has had multiple similar episodes in the past. He also reports that over the last 2 weeks he has had slowly worsening fevers, chills, dyspnea, and cough. He denies any rigors. Dentition is poor, and sputum is foul smelling. CXR detects a right middle lobe infiltrate. PSI score is 50. What is the likely cause of his pneumonia? The patient has clinical features highly suggestive of aspiration pneumonia, which results from aspiration of oral anaerobic flora into the lungs (Table 3-12). Unlike typical pneumonia, symptoms tend to evolve over days to weeks rather than hours. Patients do not usually experience rigors. Foul-smelling sputum is a common finding. Right middle lobe infiltrates are the classic finding on CXR.

TABLE 312 Classic Demographic and Sputum Findings in Pneumonia Organism Demographic Sputum

40

Klebsiella pneumoniae

Alcoholics

Dark red, mucoid (currant jelly appearance)

Streptococcus pneumoniae

All ages

Purulent with blood (rusty)

Hemophilus influenzae

Smokers, COPD

Purulent

Mycoplasma pneumonia

Younger patients

Scant, may be purulent

Aspiration

Alcoholics, altered mental status

Foul smelling

Staphylococcus aureus

Previous influenza infection

Bloody

Note: Adapted from Young VB, Kormos WA, Goroll AH. Blueprints Medicine, 2nd ed. Blackwell Publishing, 2001.

What risk factors does this patient have for aspiration pneumonia?

1.

Alcoholism: Impaired consciousness is one of the most important risk factors for aspiration pneumonia. Alcoholism predisposes to impaired consciousness.

2.

Poor dentition: Patients with poor dentition tend to have increased anaerobic flora in their oropharynx.

Edentulous patients: Anaerobes normally reside in gingiva, so a patient with no teeth will not aspirate anaerobes.

P.121 What antibiotic should you prescribe for this patient? First-line empiric antibiotic for aspiration pneumonia is clindamycin (see Table 3-11). Alternatives include amoxicillin-clavulonate and amoxicillin plus metronidazole.

The patient's symptoms improve after a course of clindamycin. Two months later, he presents with a 3-hour history of dyspnea and cough. His friend states that he vomited after drinking a large amount of rum and may have swallowed some of his vomitus a couple of hours before his symptoms began. There are diffuse crackles over the right middle lobe. Temperature is 38.3C. What is the most likely cause of his sympto ms? The most likely cause of his symptoms is chemical pneumonitis, which frequently results from aspiration of acidic gastric contents. Unlike aspiration pneumonia, patients tend to present with abrupt onset of dyspnea, cough, low-grade fever, and infiltrates a couple of hours after the aspiration event. Treatment of chemical pneumonitis is supportive, i.e., treat the ABCs (airway, breathing, and circulation). Many clinicians also prescribe antibiotics because bacterial pneumonia is still a part of the differential diagnosis.

41

CASE 39 SOLITARY PULMONARY NODULE

A 55-year-old nonsmoker presents with symptoms of acute bronchitis. His physician thinks he may have heard some fine crackles and orders a CXR (Fig. 3-8). Past medical history is unremarkable.

FIGURE 38 Chest x-ray of solitary pulmonary nodule (coin lesion). From Webb WR, Higgins CB. Thoracic Imaging: Pulmonary and Cardiovascular Radiology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2005.

What is the finding on CXR? This patient has a solitary pulmonary nodule (coin lesion). A coin lesion is defined as a single visible lesion <3 cm wide and surrounded by normal lung parenchyma on all sides.

What is the differential diagnosis of coin lesions?

42

1. 2.

Benign causes: e.g., infectious granulomas or hamartomas Malignant causes: e.g., primary lung cancer, metastases, or pulmonary carcinoid

P.122 What is the likelihood that this coin lesion is malignant? Factors that increase the likelihood that a coin lesion is malignant are Chest imaging (irregular, spiculated border or irregular calcifications), Age >50 years (risk that a coin lesion is 50% after age 50), Smoking, and Environmental exposures (mnemonic: CASE).

Benign lesions typically have a smooth and discrete border. Suggestive calcification patterns are central, concentric, homogenous, or popcorn.

What is the next step in management? Try to obtain an old chest film. If there is no old chest film or the lesion appears to have grown in the interval period, obtain a chest CT (Fig. 3-9).

43

FIGURE 39 Diagnostic approach to solitary pulmonary nodule.

Chest CT shows a 2-cm lesion with popcorn calcification but no lymph nodes. A history of environmental exposure is unrevealing. He denies any chronic cough, hemoptysis, fevers, chills, or weight loss. What is the next step in management? The patient has an intermediate risk of malignancy because of his age. The next step in this patient with a 2-cm nodule is positron emission tomography (PET scan).

44

PET scan: Inject fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG), which is a metabolically active substance (sugar) combined with a radioactive tracer. Cancers tend to demonstrate increased uptake of metabolically active substances.

The lesion does not show increased FDG uptake on PET scan. What is the next step? Follow the lesion with serial CT scans for at least 2 years. The screening interval generally varies depending on the size of the lesion. Lesions <4 cm are generally followed with annual CT scans.

CASE 310 DYSPNEA AND HEMOPTYSIS IN A LONG-TIME SMOKER

A 55-year-old man with a history of chronic bronchitis presents with a 2-month history of increasing dyspnea and cough that has changed in character and is tinged with blood. His voice has become hoarse, and he has unintentionally lost 15 lbs in the last 2 months. He often wakes up drenched in sweat. He works as an occupational therapist. Annual PPD (i.e., purified protein derivative test, a tuberculosis (TB) skin test) was negative 1 week ago. He has a 25-pack/year history of smoking. On examination, there is digital clubbing. Vital signs are normal. What is the differential diagnosis of hemoptysis (blood-tinged cough)? The most common cause of hemoptysis is chronic bronchitis, followed by lung cancer and bronchiectasis. Less common causes include:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Infections of lung parenchyma: e.g., bacterial pneumonia, TB, mycetoma Autoimmune disorders: e.g., Goodpasture's syndrome, Wegener's granulomatosis Pulmonary vascular disorders: e.g., PE, left heart CHF, arteriovenous malformations Airway trauma and iatrogenic injury: e.g., Swan-Ganz catherization Cryptogenic (approximately 30% of cases)

What diagnosis should you suspect in this patient? This patient has a history of chronic bronchitis, which is the most common cause of hemoptysis. However, the change in the character of cough along with weight loss, night sweats, hoarseness, and digital clubbing should raise suspicion for lung cancer. The next step is to obtain a CXR in addition to CBC, serum chemistry, and liver function tests.

P.123 CXR shows mediastinal adenopathy and a 5-cm central pulmonary nodule with irregular borders. Abnormal laboratory findings are elevated calcium and anemia. What is the next step in the evaluation of this lesion? Perform chest CT with contrast to define the extent of the mass and to detect intrathoracic lymph node metastases. Lung cancer most commonly metastasizes to the liver, adrenal glands, P.124 brain, and bones. Therefore, extend the chest CT to include the liver and adrenal glands. Also, obtain a head CT and a radionuclide-enhanced bone scan.

Evaluation can be limited to chest CT in asymptomatic patients with no clinical, laboratory, or CXR findings to suggest advanced disease.

CT scan shows a spiculated central mass and two lymph nodes. No extrathoracic metastases

45

are seen. What is the next step in management? Tissue samples of the lesion and associated lymph nodes are necessary to define the type and stage of lesion. Cytology of an early morning sputum specimen occasionally yields malignant cells in central lesions. In most cases, central lesions require fiber-optic bronchoscopeguided bronchial washings, brushings, or biopsy. Lymph nodes can be sampled with a bronchoscope (transbronchial needle aspiration) or a mediastinoscope (bronchoscope inserted through an incision above the sternum).

How would you obtain tissue samples if the patient had a peripheral lesion? Bronchoscopes cannot access peripheral lesions because they do not extend further than the secondary branches of the bronchial tree. Obtain tissue samples using CT-guided transthoracic needle biopsy or video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS).

What are the different types of bronchogenic carcinoma? Four histological types account for 95% of lung cancer diagnoses (listed in descending order):

1. 2. 3. 4.

Adenocarcinoma (bronchoalveolar carcinoma is an important subtype) Squamous cell carcinoma Large cell carcinoma Small cell carcinoma (oat cell carcinoma is the most common subtype)

Adenocarcinoma and hemoptysis: Hemoptysis is less common because adenocarcinomas are usually peripheral. Small cell carcinomas and hemoptysis: Small cell carcinomas are usually central, but hemoptysis is less common because small cell carcinomas grow and invade through submucosal tissues.

Bronchoscopy with biopsy reveals a squamous cell carcinoma. Two lymph nodes are positive for malignancy. How is nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treated? NSCLC responds poorly to chemotherapy alone. Potentially curative surgery is the mainstay of treatment for stage 1 and 2 NSCLC (Table 3-13). Surgery is also an option for a limited number of patients with disease in mediastinal lymph nodes (stage 3A). Treatment of stage 3B and stage 4 NSCLC is primarily palliative (chemotherapy, radiation, and other palliative measures).

TABLE 313 Non Small-Cell Lung Cancer Staging and Treatment Stage I Spread Isolated lesion Treatment Surgery + chemotherapy

II

Hilar node spread

Surgery + chemotherapy and radiation

IIIA

Mediastinal spread, but resectable

Neo-adjuvant chemotherapy and radiation followed by resection

46

IIIB

Mediastinal spread but unresectable

Palliative care

IV

Metastatic

Palliative care

Note: Adapted from Sabatine M. Pocket Medicine, 2nd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000.

Stage 3 NSCLC: To assess whether patient is a candidate for surgery, perform spirometry to evaluate preoperative lung function and refer to a thoracic surgeon.

Why does this patient have hypercalcemia? Lung cancer can cause a number of paraneoplastic syndromes (Table 3-14). These result from production of biologically active substances by the tumor or in response to the tumor. The most likely cause of hypercalcemia in this patient with squamous cell carcinoma and no bony metastases is production of parathyroid hormonerelated peptide.

TABLE 314 Common Paraneoplastic Syndromes in Lung Cancer Systemic Skin Weight Loss, Anorexia Digital clubbing

Trousseau syndrome (migrating superficial phlebitis)

Endocrine

Hypercalcemia: caused by ectopic PTH-related peptide; most frequent in squamous cell carcinoma.

Hyponatremia: caused by ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) production, which leads to the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (see Chapter 7 : Fluids and Electrolytes); most frequently observed in small cell cancer.

Heme

Anemia

Neurological

Lambert-Eaton Myasthenic Syndrome (LEMS): Antibodies against presynaptic calcium-channels lead to decreased acetylcholine release and subsequent weakness.

Peripheral neuropathy

Digital clubbing: Loss of the normal angle between fingernail and nailbed as a result of subungal soft tissue thickening occurs in 30% of lung cancer patients.

P.125 What is the most likely cause of hoarseness in this patient with lung cancer?

47

The most likely cause of hoarseness is compression of the recurrent laryngeal nerve by the tumor (Table 3-15).

TABLE 315 Syndromes Resulting From Direct Extension of Lung Cancer

Superior vena cava syndrome

Compression of the superior vena cava causes headache, dyspnea, upper extremity and facial swelling, and dilated neck veins. Superior vena cava syndrome is most commonly caused by small cell lung cancer.

Pancoast syndrome

An apical (superior sulcus) lung tumor can compress C8, T1, and T2 cervical nerve roots. This leads to ipsilateral Horner's syndrome (facial ptosis, anhidrosis, miosis), and ipsilateral hand pain and weakness. Evaluate such a tumor with magnetic resonance imaging rather than chest computed tomography imaging to assess the extent of invasion; this syndrome is most commonly caused by squamous cell carcinoma.

Hoarseness

Compression of the recurrent laryngeal nerve is more common with a left-sided tumor and leads to hoarseness.

Alternative 3.10.1
A non-smoker with no known environmental exposures is diagnosed with lung cancer. What histologic sub-type is most likely? Smoking causes approximately 90% of lung cancers. Other important environmental risk factors for lung cancer are asbestos, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nickel, radon, and arsenic. Bronchoalveolar carcinoma is the most common histologic subtype in patients with no known risk factors.

Alternative 3.10.2
A 75-year-old nonsmoker with a history of asbestos exposure during World War II presents with progressive dyspnea, hemoptysis, and weight loss. CXR demonstrates a large pleural effusion and thickened pleura. What diagnosis should you suspect? Malignant mesothelioma is an aggressive cancer that arises from the mesothelial surfaces of the pleural and peritoneal cavities. The most important risk factor is history of asbestos exposure. Cigarette smoking does not increase risk of mesothelioma. Pleural effusion and thickening are the most common radiographic findings. Suspect malignant mesothelioma in a patient with a history of asbestos exposure. Prognosis is dismal.

P.126

Alternative 3.10.3
A 64-year-old patient is diagnosed with small cell lung cancer (SCLC). How does the treatment strategy differ from NSCLC? SCLC is classified as limited or extensive. Regardless of stage, SCLC is considered metastatic at diagnosis, so surgery is not beneficial. Unlike NSCLC, SCLC is highly responsive to chemotherapy. Limited-stage SCLC is typically treated with a platinum and etoposide regimen plus prophylactic cranial irradiation. Late-stage SCLC is typically treated with irinotecan and etoposide but not radiation. Note that although chemotherapy provides palliative benefit and

48

prolongs survival, it is not curative. SCLC tends to relapse within months despite appropriate treatment.

CASE 311 DYSPNEA AND HEMOPTYSIS IN A RECENT IMMIGRANT

A 22-year-old Indian man undergoes CXR for low-grade fever and mild cough. He is in India and has recently been accepted to a graduate program in the United States. He does not smoke cigarettes. CXR shows an ill-defined consolidation in the right upper lobe and enlarged right upper lobe lymph nodes. What do the CXR findings suggest? The CXR findings describe a Ghon complex characteristic of primary pulmonary TB infection. Primary TB is often completely asymptomatic. Low-grade fever is the most common early symptom.

The patient's physician recommends that he undergo therapy for active TB. However, the patient does not follow up with his physician in India because he begins to feel better. A few weeks later, he relocates to the United States. Eight months later, he presents to the student health clinic with 3 weeks of dyspnea, hemoptysis, low-grade fever, night sweats, and weight loss. During a screening drive at the university 1 week ago, his HIV test was negative. On physical examination, there are distant hollow breath sounds in the right apex (amphora). What is the most likely diagnosis? Suspect reactivation TB in a patient with constitutional symptoms and risk factors (Chapter 1: Health Maintenance and Statistics). Hemoptysis and dyspnea are signs of advanced disease.

What is the next step in management? Obtain a CXR. Nine out of ten cases of reactivation TB involve infiltrates in the apical posterior lung segments. Other common CXR findings of reactivation TB are cavities, air fluid levels, and pleural thickening or effusions.

P.127 CXR demonstrates thickened pleura in the right upper lobe and multiple bilateral calcified nodules. What is the next step in diagnosis? CXR is not particularly sensitive or specific at differentiating active from latent disease. The next step is to obtain three sputum samples. Evaluate the sputum with culture and an acid-fast stain (to detect M. tuberculosis bacilli). A positive acid-fast stain or culture indicates active disease. In addition, place the patient in respiratory isolation.

Sputum culture is more sensitive to indicate active disease, but detection of acid-fast bacilli is more rapid.

Sputum is positive for the presence of acid-fast bacilli. How is active TB treated? Multidrug therapy for 6 to 12 months is required because of the risk of drug resistance. The recommended initial regimen is a combination of four drugs (RIPES): Rifampin, Isoniazid (INH), Pyrazinamide, and Ethambutol (or streptomycin). If the organism is susceptible to rifampin and INH, discontinue the latter two drugs after 2 months.

Compliance with therapy is the major determinant of successful treatment.

49

What baseline studies are recommended prior to starting anti-TB treatment? Monitor liver enzymes (major toxicity of INH), platelets, and serum creatinine prior to initiating therapy. If ethambutol is chosen, also test visual acuity and red-green discoloration (risk of optic neuritis). INH can cause peripheral neuropathy, so prescribe vitamin B6 to patients with predisposing conditions such as diabetes mellitus, alcoholism, or renal failure.

Monitoring is not necessary during treatment if baseline labs are normal.

The patient complains that his urine is bright red-orange while on therapy. What is the likely cause of this finding? This is a common and typically harmless side effect of rifampin that should resolve after the treatment regimen is completed. Advise the patient not to wear contact lenses during treatment because these can be stained red-orange as well.

The patient stops taking his drugs after 3 months of therapy because he is feeling better. He returns to India, so the health department cannot enforce treatment. Six months later, he is admitted to a hospital in India because of headache, confusion, vomiting, and inability to move his right eye laterally (cranial nerve 6 palsy). What is the likely cause of these findings given his history? The presentation is consistent with TB infection that has spread to the meninges. Perform lumbar puncture to evaluate the cerebrospinal fluid for TB infection. TB infection that has spread hematogenously to other organs is called miliary TB. Common organ systems affected are the lungs, gastrointestinal tract (peritonitis, cholecystitis), adrenals, and spine (Pott's syndrome). A multidrug regimen is also required for miliary TB.

CASE 312 PLEURAL EFFUSION

A 72-year-old patient with a 40-pack/year history of smoking is evaluated for mild dyspnea of recent onset. He has also had cough and mild hemoptysis over the last 4 months. Physical examination is significant for dullness to percussion, diminished breath sounds, decreased tactile fremitus, and a friction rub on the right side. Vitals signs are normal. CXR is obtained (Fig. 3-10). PPD is negative, and sputum does not show any acid-fast bacilli.

50

FIGURE 310 Chest x-ray of large pleural effusion. From Daffner, RH. Clinical Radiology: The Essentials, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

What is the abnormal finding on the CXR? The patient has a large pleural effusion (excess fluid in the pleural space). Pleural effusion results from either excess production or impaired removal of pleural fluid.

P.128 How much fluid is required to produce this patient's symptoms and CXR findings? Healthy individuals have <1 mL of fluid between the visceral and parietal pleura. Small effusions are usually only evident on lateral decubitus films. On a lateral decubitus film, small effusions are <1.5 cm, moderate effusions are 1.5 to 4.5 cm thick, and large effusions are >4.5 cm. At least 300 mL of fluid is required to produce the blunted costophrenic angles seen in this patient's upright CXR, and at least 500 mL is required to produce this patient's symptoms.

What kinds of fluid can accumulate in the pleural space? Four types of fluids can accumulate in the pleural space:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Serous fluid (hydrothorax) Blood Chyle Pus (empyema)

What are the causes of a pleural effusion? Pleural effusions are classified as transudates or exudates:

1.

Transudates occur when the rate of pleural fluid formation exceeds the rate of lymphatic clearance. Excess fluid can result from increased capillary hydrostatic pressure (e.g., CHF) or decreased plasma oncotic pressure (e.g., cirrhosis or nephrotic syndrome). Because the pleural capillary endothelium is intact, protein content of pleural fluid is low (<3.0 mL).

2.

Exudates typically exhibit elevated protein content, unlike transudates. There are three

51

major mechanisms of exudate formation. They are: i. Damage to the pleural lining (e.g., bacterial pneumonia, viral infection, collagen vascular disorders, and mesothelioma) ii. iii. Blockage of lymphatic drainage (e.g., metastatic disease) Movement of fluid from the peritoneal space (e.g., chronic pancreatitis, chylous ascites, and peritoneal carcinomatosis)

PE can cause transudates or exudates.

P.129 What is the next step in determining the cause of this pleural effusion? Perform thoracentesis to obtain a sample of pleural fluid for analysis. This patient has a large effusion, so physical exam (dullness to percussion) is sufficient to guide needle placement. Thoracentesis in this patient is also therapeutic, as it will at least temporarily relieve some of his symptoms.

Insert the needle in the superior border of the rib to avoid damaging the neurovascular bundle.

Consider ultrasound-guided thoracentesis if the patient is obese or if the effusion is small or loculated.

How can pleural fluid analysis differentiate between a transudate and an exudate? The fluid is considered an exudate if any of the following are present (Light's criteria):

1. 2. 3.

Pleural fluid protein/serum protein (albumin) > 0.5 Pleural fluid LDH/serum LDH > 0.6 Pleural fluid LDH > 200 international units (IU)

What other lab tests are commonly ordered if pleural fluid analysis demonstrates an exudate? Consider the following additional pleural fluid analyses if the patient has an exudate: glucose (decreased in bacterial infections), pH (decreased in bacterial infections), Gram stain and culture (may identify pathogen), cell count with differential, amylase (increase in pancreatic effusions), adenosine deaminase activity (increase in effusions due to TB), and cytology (positive in malignancy).

The patient has an exudate; there is no evidence of infection, and cytology is negative. What is the next diagnostic step? The next step is CT scan. If CT scan is nondiagnostic, consider pleural biopsy because this patient has a high pretest probability of lung cancer despite negative cytology.

CT scan and subsequent work-up confirm the presence of lung cancer. He has repeated symptomatic pleural effusions requiring multiple therapeutic thoracenteses. What measure can you recommend for this patient? Pleural effusions due to malignancy are often large and recurrent because the underlying

52

cause is difficult to treat. Consider pleurodesis (attaching the two pleural surfaces so no fluid can accumulate between them). Pleurodesis can be achieved surgically or by instillation of chemicals such as talc, bleomycin, or tetracycline/doxycyclin.

Alternative 3.12.1
A patient with known CHF has a small, asymptomatic pleural effusion seen on lateral decubitus but not on upright CXR. How should you manage this pleural effusion? Observation is generally recommended for small asymptomatic effusions that occur in the setting of a known cause of transudates like CHF.

Alternative 3.12.2
A patient is admitted to the hospital for a bacterial pneumonia. Antibiotics are started in the emergency department. Lateral decubitus CXR indicates a pleural opacity that does not flow freely. P.130 What is the most likely cause of the pleural effusion? Pleural effusions that occur in the setting of pneumonia are most likely to be exudates. An exudate that occurs in the setting of pneumonia is called a parapneumonic effusion. Parapneumonic effusions are further categorized as follows:

1.

Simple parapneumonic effusion: Initially, damage to pleural lining causes sterile fluid accumulation, so pH, LDH, cell count, and glucose levels are normal. Treatment of the underlying pneumonia usually resolves simple parapneumonic effusions.

2.

Complicated parapneumonic effusion: Persistent pleural inflammation causes leakage of bacteria into the pleura. As a result, characteristic biochemical findings develop, such as decreased pH (due to lactate and carbon dioxide production), decreased glucose (because bacteria utilize glucose), and increased LDH (due to increased cell turnover). Cell count usually demonstrates increased neutrophils. Gram stain and culture are often positive. Antibiotics alone are usually insufficient (also require tube drainage)

3.

Empyema (fibrinopurulent stage): Progressive inflammation leads to fibrin formation, which causes septations and loculations. Lysis of bacteria by neutrophils leads to pus formation. Characteristic biochemical markers may or may not be positive. Treat with antibiotics, tube drainage, and administration of fibrinolytics into the pleural cavity.

What is the next step in management? The next step is to order a contrast-enhanced chest CT. This test enhances the pleural surface, which helps distinguish an uncomplicated parapneumonic effusion from a complicated parapneumonic effusion with an empyema.

Chest CT shows a loculated parapneumonic effusion with thickened parietal pleura. What is the next step in management? Any suspected parapneumonic effusion >10 mm requires thoracentesis. Tap parapneumonic effusions <10 mm if they are loculated or CT scan shows thickened parietal pleura (because both these findings are suspicious for empyema).

Tap: medical slang typically used to describe withdrawal of peritoneal fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, or pleural fluid.

53

Gross pus is seen during thoracentesis. Analysis of the pleural fluid reveals an exudate with pH 7.18 and glucose 50. Gram stain and culture are negative. What is the next step in management? The finding of gross pus during thoracentesis is diagnostic of empyema, regardless of other pleural fluid findings. Drain the effusion and administer at least 4 to 6 weeks of broad-spectrum antibiotics. Also, consider administration of fibrinolytic agents into the pleural cavity. If radiologic findings or clinical symptoms do not improve within 7 days, consider VATS. If VATS is unsuccessful, treat with open surgery (thoracotomy).

CASE 313 SEVERE HYPOXEMIA IN AN INTENSIVE CARE UNIT PATIENT

A 48-year-old woman is admitted to the intensive care unit for treatment of septic shock. She has a history of pancreatic cancer. Fluids and antibiotics are initiated. Twenty-four hours later, she becomes very dyspneic and tachypneic. Bilateral rales are heard on physical exam. There are no murmurs. Jugular veins are 4 cm. PaO 2 is 100 on 60% FIO 2 . PaCO 2 is 35. She is intubated and mechanically ventilated. CXR is obtained (Fig. 3-11).

FIGURE 311 Acute respiratory distress syndrome. From Daffner, RH. Clinical Radiology: The Essentials, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

What is the most likely cause of the severe hypoxemia? The most likely diagnosis acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). ARDS typically presents with rapidly worsening dyspnea and hypoxemia requiring increasingly higher

54

P.131 concentrations of supplemental oxygen. Symptoms typically occur 24 to 48 hours after an inciting event that injures lung parenchyma. Physical examination usually reveals cyanosis, tachycardia, tachypnea, and diffuse rales. Mechanical ventilation is almost universally required. This patient has all three diagnostic criteria for ARDS:

1. 2. 3.

Bilateral fluffy infiltrates on CXR (appearance similar to CHF) Severe hypoxemia (PaO 2 /FIO 2 < 200) No evidence of increased left atrial pressure (if measured, pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP) is <18 mm Hg).

What is the most likely cause of ARDS in this patient? Septic shock is the most common cause of ARDS, particularly among alcoholics. Sepsis causes the release of endotoxins and other microorganism into the blood stream, which can trigger a sequence of events that are toxic to parenchymal cells.

What are other common causes of ARDS? Common causes of ARDS are TIP TABS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Trauma Ingestions of drugs Pneumonia (even in the absence of septic shock) Transfusion of >15 units of blood products Aspiration of gastric contents, hydrocarbons, or water (drowning). Burns Septic shock

How is ARDS treated?

1. 2.

Treat the underlying cause (in this case, treat septic shock aggressively). Mechanical ventilation: Administer low tidal volumes to minimize barotrauma. Include positive end expiratory pressure to minimize intrapulmonary blood shunting.

3.

Glucocorticoids: The underlying mechanism is inflammation, so glucocorticoids are often administered. Not all studies have shown improved outcomes.

P.132

If PaO 2 /FIO 2 is between 200 and 300 but other criteria for ARDS are met, the patient has acute lung injury. Treatment is the same as ARDS.

What is this patient's prognosis? ARDS carries a 35% to 40% mortality rate. Most patients die from the underlying cause of ARDS and not from respiratory failure.

Alternative 3.13.1

55

A septic patient in the intensive care unit develops worsening dyspnea and increasing oxygen requirements. He has a history of mitral stenosis. CXR shows bilateral fluffy infiltrates. How can you determine the etiology of his decline? Both cardiogenic pulmonary edema due to mitral stenosis and ARDS secondary to sepsis are possible because both share similar clinical and radiographic features during the first several days. Perform echocardiography to document the ejection fraction. If ejection fraction is within normal limits and diastolic function is normal, ARDS is more likely.

Ejection fraction is 30%. What is the next step in the diagnostic evaluation? The patient has CHF, but concurrent ARDS is also possible. Consider monitoring the PCWP by inserting a Swan-Ganz catheter into the pulmonary artery. The PCWP value is a surrogate marker for left atrial pressure and can help guide fluid administration.

Swan-Ganz catheterization in the intensive care unit has never been shown to improve mortality, and PCWP is not always a reliable marker of left atrial pressure.

CASE 314 SNORING AND DAYTIME SOMNOLENCE

A 55-year-old man presents with a 2-year history of progressively worsening daytime somnolence. He recently crashed his car into a tree because he fell asleep at the wheel during the day. He was terminated from his job because of frequent napping. He does not find the naps refreshing. His wife reports that he snores loudly every night. Past medical history is significant for hypertension controlled with hydrochlorothiazide. On physical examination, he has a low-hanging soft palate. His neck is wide, and his BMI is 33. Vital signs are within normal limits. What is the most likely cause of his symptoms? Suspect obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) in a patient with snoring and excessive daytime sleepiness. OSA results from airway obstruction, so look for physical findings of nasal obstruction, a low-hanging soft palate and large uvula, enlarged tonsils or adenoids, and retrognathia or micrognathia. OSA is more common in men. An enlarged neck circumference and obesity are other risk factors for OSA.

What are the complications of OSA? OSA can cause diminished alertness, HTN, cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, lipid abnormalities, and pulmonary vascular disease.

What testing is indicated to evaluate for OSA in this patient? Polysomnography is indicated in this patient with a high pretest probability of OSA whose symptoms substantially affect daily activities. Polysomnography monitors sleep stages, respiratory effort, airflow, SaO 2 , EKG, body position, and limb movements.

Consider cheaper tests such as overnight home oximetry in patients with daytime somnolence who have a lower pretest probability of OSA.

P.133 Polysomnography documents a number of episodes of oxygen desaturation accompanied by arousals. Respiratory efforts continue during these episodes. The patient is diagnosed with OSA. How do you recommend this patient manage his condition? The patient should lose weight and avoid alcohol and other sedatives. Nasal CPAP (continuous positive airway pressure) is a noninvasive therapy for OSA. If lifestyle measures and nasal

56

CPAP are ineffective, consider surgery to relieve areas of obstruction.

Alternative 3.14.1
A 50-year-old man presents with fatigue and daytime somnolence. He was fired from his job at the local Dunkin Donuts because he kept falling asleep during the day. His wife mentions that he snores very loudly. Vital signs are temperature 37.2C, pu lse 77 bpm, respirations 8/min, and blood pressure 160/90. SaO 2 is 88% on room air, and BMI is 45. What additional test is indicated at this time? Consider the diagnosis of obesity-hypoventilation syndrome in morbidly obese patients with hypoventilation. OSA is a very common coexisting condition, so concurrent symptoms of OSA increase the likelihood of Pickwickian syndrome. The exact mechanism of Pickwickian syndrome is unknown.

The prototypical obese hypersomnolent man was described in the Charles Dickens novel The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club.

What diagnostic test should you order next? Order an ABG in patients with suspected Pickwickian syndrome. Daytime hypercapnia (increased PaCO 2 ) due to hypoventilation is the diagnostic hallmark of this disorder. Hypoxemia is another common feature (also due to hypoventilation).

ABG shows hypoxemia and hypercapnia. What additional tests should you order? Order additional tests urgently to screen for other causes of hypoventilation as well as to assess for the presence of complications or coexisting conditions:

1. 2.

CBC: because hypoxemia can stimulate excessive erythrocytosis Serum electrolytes, creatine phosphokinase: to screen for other causes of respiratory muscle weakness

3. 4.

Thyroid function tests: because hypothyroidism can cause hypoventilation EKG, CXR, and pulmonary function tests: to screen for other underlying heart and lung diseases

5.

Polysomnography: to screen for concurrent OSA

How is obesity-hypoventilation syndrome treated? The most important measure in obesity-related hypoventilation is weight loss. Other measures include phlebotomy (if HCT >65%) and treatment of complicating/coexisting conditions such as OSA.

Alternative 3.14.2
A 25-year-old woman presents with a 2-year history of frequent sleep attacks during the day. She finds the naps refreshing. She often has vivid and frightening dreams just as she is falling asleep or waking up. Sometimes, she is unable to move and collapses just as she falls asleep. She undergoes a sleep latency test, which demonstrates three periods of REM-onset sleep. What is the diagnosis? Narcolepsy usually begins in the second or third decade. Like OSA, it leads to daytime somnolence. Unlike OSA, patients may have hypnagogic hallucinations (vivid dreams just as

57

the P.134 patient is falling asleep or waking up) and cataplexy (sudden episodes of bilateral muscle weakness). Two or more periods of REM-onset sleep during a sleep latency test is diagnostic of narcolepsy.

Patients with narcolepsy find daytime naps refreshing, whereas patients with OSA do not.

How is narcolepsy treated? Treat daytime sleepiness with modafinil or other amphetamine-like compounds. Treat cataplexy with -hydroxybutyrate. Nonpharmacological measures include scheduled daytime naps, good sleep hygiene, and avoidance of drugs that produce daytime sleepiness.

58

4 Gastroenterology
CASE 41 DIFFICULTY SWALLOWING SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
A 45-year-old woman presents with a 3-year history of difficulty swallowing (dysphagia) both solids and liquids. She describes the dysphagia as a sensation of food getting stuck substernally a few seconds after she swallows. The dysphagia has gotten worse over the last 12 months, and she reports a 10-lb weight loss this past year. She also complains of substernal burning after meals and occasional regurgitation of food contents. She complains of bad breath (halitosis) despite good oral hygiene. She has taken proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) in the past without any relief. What are the causes of dysphagia?

1.

Oropharyngeal dysphagia presents with a sensation of food getting stuck immediately after swallowing. Patients often report coughing or choking after a meal. Symptoms are localized to the cervical region. Causes include oropharyngeal tumor, zenker diverticulum, myasthenia gravis, inflammatory myopathies, and thyrotoxicosis. P.136

2.

Esophageal dysphagia presents with a sensation of food getting stuck a few seconds after swallowing. Symptoms are localized to the suprasternal notch or substernal region. Dysphagia that begins with difficulty swallowing both solids and liquids suggests a motility disorder (achalasia, diffuse esophageal spasm (DES), nutcracker esophagus, or isolated lower esophageal sphincter (LES) hypertension). Dysphagia that begins with difficulty swallowing solids but not liquids suggests mechanical obstruction (esophageal web, ring, stricture, or tumor).

3.

Functional dysphagia has no identified cause after a complete diagnostic evaluation.

Dysphagia = difficulty swallowing Odynophagia = painful swallowing Globus sensation = feeling of lump in throat even between meals in the absence of dysphagia or odynophagia

What is the most likely cause of this patient's dysphagia? This patient's symptoms suggest that an esophageal cause is responsible for her symptoms. Dysphagia with both solids and liquids indicates an esophageal motility disorder. Heartburn, regurgitation, halitosis, and weight loss are characteristic symptoms of achalasia (see Fig. 4-1).

FIGURE 41 Causes of esophageal dysphagia.

What is the pathophysiology of achalasia? Achalasia is an idiopathic degeneration of myenteric plexus neurons in the distal esophagus. Neurons that cause smooth muscle relaxation are preferentially affected, while those that lead to smooth muscle contraction are spared. As a result, the LES does not adequately relax, and the distal esophagus loses its normal peristaltic function.

What is the next step in diagnosis? Order a barium swallow (see Fig. 4-2). The classic finding in achalasia is a dilated esophagus that terminates in a beak-like narrowing caused by the persistently contracted LES (see Fig. 43). If the barium swallow is positive, confirm the diagnosis with esophageal manometry. Manometry findings of achalasia are increased resting LES pressure, incomplete LES relaxation after swallowing, and aperistalsis in the lower esophagus (Table 4-1).

TABLE 41 Manometry Findings in Specific Esophageal Motility Disorders Peristalsis Amplitude/Duration

Disorder

Peristalsis Frequency 80% of contractions are peristaltic

LES Resting pressure 1035 mm Hg above intragastric pressure

Normal

Mean amplitude 40160 mm Hg

Achalasia

Aperistalsis in distal esophagus

Aperistalsis in distal esophagus

Increased resting LES pressure, incomplete relaxation

DES

>30% of distal esophageal contractions are aperistaltic

Frequent multipeaked contraction waves with increased amplitude in distal esophagus

Normal

Nutcracker esophagus

Normal

>30% of distal esophageal contractions with increased amplitude and duration

Normal

Isolated hypertensive LES

Normal

Normal

Increased resting LES pressure

Abbreviations: LES, lower esophageal sphincter; DES, diffuse esophageal spasm.

FIGURE 42 Diagnostic approach to dysphagia.

FIGURE 43 Barium swallow: achalasia. From Jarrell BE. NMS Surgery Casebook, 1st ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2003.

Pseudoachalasia: Other conditions can cause abnormalities identical to achalasia. Most common among these are malignancies and Chagas' disease. Perform upper endoscopy in all patients with achalasia to rule out malignancy.

Upper endoscope: Also called an esophagogastroduodenoscope (EGD), this scope has a light and a camera at the tip and is used to visualize the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum.

Barium swallow and esophageal manometry confirm the diagnosis of achalasia. There is no evidence of malignancy on endoscopy. How is achalasia treated? Unfortunately, there is no way to halt neuron degeneration in achalasia. Current therapies all aim to decrease LES pressure.

1.

Good surgical candidates: On the basis of patient preference and the availability of physicians with the necessary expertise, perform either pneumatic balloon dilation of the LES or modified Heller myotomy (a surgical procedure that weakens the LES by cutting the muscle fibers). At least half the patients who undergo pneumatic dilation will require another treatment in 5 years. Most patients who undergo Heller myotomy develop gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).

2.

Poor surgical candidates: These patients can take nitrates and/or calcium channel blockers before meals. If pharmacotherapy fails to control their symptoms, consider injecting botulinum into the LES during endoscopy. Botulinum poisons excitatory acetylcholine-producing neurons.

Patients with achalasia have an increased risk of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), but surveillance EGD is not recommended because it is not cost-effective.

P.137 The patient undergoes pneumatic dilation. Shortly after the procedure, she complains of

dyspnea and severe pain in the chest and epigastrium that increases with inspiration and swallowing. Auscultation of the chest reveals a crunching sound (Hamman's crunch). What complication should you suspect? The most serious complication of pneumatic dilation is esophageal rupture. Suspect an intrathoracic esophageal rupture if a patient develops dyspnea, chest pain, epigastric pain, or back pain that increases with inspiration and swallowing. Common presenting signs are tachycardia, tachypnea, and Hamman's crunch (indicates mediastinal emphysema due to leakage of air from the esophagus to the mediastinum).

Cervical perforation causes neck pain, hoarseness, sternocleidomastoid muscle tenderness, and cervical subcutaneous emphysema (smooth bulging of the skin overlying the neck that crackles on palpation).

P.138 What are the next diagnostic steps?

1.

Posterior-to-anterior and lateral chest radiograph (CXR): This initial test in suspected esophageal rupture often detects subcutaneous or mediastinal emphysema. CXR may be negative for up to 1 hour after rupture.

2.

Contrast esophagography should be obtained if x-rays are positive or negative. In case of positive x-rays, this test confirms the diagnosis. In case of negative x-rays, the test can decrease likelihood of a false-negative x-ray. Use a water-soluble contrast agent (Gastrografin) first because extravasation of a large amount of barium contrast into the mediastinum can P.139 cause severe inflammation (mediastinitis). Gastrografin is very sensitive at detecting large perforations, but barium is more sensitive for small perforations. Consider barium to rule out a small perforation if Gastrografin esophagography is negative.

3.

CT scan should be used if esophagography is negative because contrast esophagraphy can miss 10% of ruptures. Some centers obtain a CT scan before esophagography.

How is esophageal perforation managed?

1.

Medical management comprises no oral intake (nothing per oral (NPO)), total parenteral nutrition, intravenous (IV) broad-spectrum antibiotics, and drainage of fluid collections. This method is indicated only in the subset of patients who are hemodynamically stable and do not have any intrapleural or intraperitoneal contrast extravasation; in addition, the rupture must be diagnosed within 24 hours of the event.

2.

Surgery is indicated for all other patients.

This patient with signs of mediastinal emphysema will probably have contrast extravasation and require surgical repair.

Alternative 4.1.1
The patient is 45-year-old woman who presents with intermittent dysphagia to solids and liquids over the last year. She has visited the emergency department three times in the same period for P.140 chest pain, and she has had a negative cardiac evaluation all three times. She undergoes EGD, which does not show any structural abnormalities. What is the next step in management?

Intermittent dysphagia to both solids and liquids suggests that this patient may have a motility disorder such as DES, nutcracker esophagus, or hypertensive LES. Esophageal motility disorders commonly cause chest pain with negative cardiac and endoscopic findings. The next step in management is esophageal manometry.

More than 30% of distal esophageal contractions on esophageal manometry are nonperistaltic. There are frequent contraction waves with multiple peaks and increased amplitude. Peristaltic contractions are interspersed between waves. LES response is normal. What is the diagnosis? The manometry findings are diagnostic of DES (see Table 4-1).

The classic barium swallow radiograph in DES is a corkscrew pattern (see Fig. 4-4). This finding is neither sensitive nor specific.

FIGURE 44 Barium swallow: diffuse esophageal spasm (corkscrew pattern). From Eisenberg R. Gastrointestinal Radiology: A Pattern Approach, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1990.

What therapy is recommended? Many potential therapies may benefit patients with DES, but the ideal therapy and often their mechanism of effect is unknown. Calcium channel blockers and tricyclic antidepressants are generally the initial therapy for DES, nutcracker esophagus, and hypertensive LES. Second-line options are botulinum injection, phosphodiesterase inhibitors, nitrates, and peppermint.

P.141

CASE 42 DIFFICULTY SWALLOWING SOLIDS BUT NOT LIQUIDS

A 50-year-old woman with a history of schizophrenia presents with difficulty swallowing solids but not liquids. She ingested two bottles of drain cleaner 2 months ago. The ingestion required admission to the intensive care unit (ICU). She smokes a pack of cigarettes a day and drinks a six-pack of beer almost every day. What is the most likely cause of her symptoms? Ingestion of alkaline agents such as battery fluids, drain cleaners, and other household cleaning products leads to caustic esophageal injury. More than 70% of patients with injuries severe enough to necessitate ICU admission develop dysphagia weeks to months later as a result of esophageal stricture.

Alkali ingestions damage the esophagus more than acid ingestions. Acid ingestions damage the stomach more than alkali ingestions.

What are other important causes of esophageal stricture?

1.

Proximal and mid-esophageal strictures: Common causes are caustic ingestions, pillinduced stricture (e.g., alendronate, iron, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)), trauma, and malignancy. Eosinophilic esophagitis is an uncommon but frequently tested condition.

2.

Distal esophageal strictures: Most common cause is chronic GERD and Barrett's esophagus (see Case 46: Chronic Epigastric Discomfort, Heartburn, and Regurgitation). Collagen vascular diseases are another common cause (see Chapter 9: Rheumatology).

What is the next diagnostic step? Perform either barium swallow or EGD in patients with suspected stricture. The utility of barium swallow prior to EGD is an area of debate. Consider barium swallow as the initial test for dysphagia when symptoms suggest:

Achalasia: In older studies, barium swallow was more sensitive. Esophageal stricture, web, or ring: EGD may miss subtle narrowing. Zenker diverticulum: EGD may be hazardous.

Barium swallow shows an area of intraluminal narrowing. EGD confirms the finding of an esophageal stricture. What is the usual treatment for this complication? Treat dysphagia due to esophageal stricture with esophageal dilation.

What treatment is the patient likely to have received immediately after her ingestion? Patients with acute caustic ingestions usually require EGD to assess the degree of injury. If there is only mild mucosal edema and superficial ulcers, the patient can consume a liquid diet and advance to regular foods in 24 to 48 hours. This patient probably had more severe injuries

(deep ulcers or necrosis). Such patients maintain fasting and are admitted to the ICU to monitor for life-threatening complications.

The following are contraindicated immediately after a caustic ingestion: 1. Emetics: Emesis re-exposes esophagus to caustic agent. 2. Neutralizing agents: Neutralization causes thermal injury. 3. Nasogastric (NS) intubation: Induces retching and emesis.

What are important acute life-threatening complications of caustic ingestion?

1.

Esophageal perforation and mediastinitis present with severe retrosternal or back pain; treatment is emergent surgery. P.142

2.

Gastric perforation and peritonitis present with abdominal tenderness, rebound, and rigidity; treatment is emergent surgery.

3.

Respiratory distress and shock: Refer to Chapter 2: Cardiology and Chapter 3: Pulmonary.

The dysphagia resolves with two esophageal dilation treatments. The patient returns 20 years later with a 3-month history of progressive dysphagia. Initially, she had trouble swallowing only solids, but now she has difficulty with liquids as well. She does not have much of an appetite, and she has lost 25 lbs in the last 3 months. What is the suspected diagnosis? Progressive dysphagia and weight loss are extremely suspicious for esophageal cancer. Caustic alkali injury to the esophagus greatly increases the risk of Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the esophagus 15 to 20 years after the original injury. Major risk factors for SCC in the United States are smoking, alcohol, and achalasia. In other countries, ingestion of betel nuts, extremely hot tea, and nitrosamines are responsible for a significant proportion of esophageal SCC.

Perform surveillance endoscopy every 1 to 3 years beginning 15 to 20 years after caustic injury to screen for esophageal cancer.

What diagnostic workup is recommended? Establish the diagnosis using endoscopy with biopsy. If the biopsy is positive, obtain abdominal and chest CT scans to search for distant metastases. If CT detects metastases, the patient has stage 4 disease and the work-up is complete. If CT scans are negative, measure size and invasion of the tumor using endoscopic ultrasound (EUS).

EUS: An ultrasound probe attached to the tip of an upper endoscope or colonoscope helps visualize extraintestinal structures such as pancreas, liver, and lymph nodes. A needle passed through a channel on the endoscope can pierce the stomach or intestine to biopsy any abnormal extraintestinal lesions (fine-needle aspiration).

What is the overall prognosis for patients with SCC of the esophagus? Overall 5-year survival is only 15% because patients tend to present at later stages. Potentially curative esophagectomy is an option for patients at stage I and stage IIa. For most patients,

10

however, the primary goal of treatment is palliation of pain and dysphagia.

Symptoms, work-up, and prognosis of esophageal adenocarcinoma and SCC are similar.

Alternative 4.2.1
A 22-year-old man presents with difficulty swallowing solids but not liquids. He has a history of asthma and allergic rhinitis. EGD demonstrates a stricture with concentric rings in the mid esophagus. What is the most likely diagnosis? The most likely diagnosis is eosinophilic esophagitis. This uncommon condition is most frequent in boys and young men. The classic finding on EGD is multiple concentric rings in the midesophagus that give it the appearance of a trachea. Biopsy demonstrating eosinophil infiltrates is diagnostic. In addition to dilation of the stricture, consider oral fluticasone. Also, consider allergy testing and recommend that the patient avoid any identified allergens.

Alternative 4.2.2
The patient is a 45-year-old woman with a 6-month history of intermittent dysphagia to solids but not liquids. She describes the dysphagia as a sensation of food getting stuck substernally a few seconds after she swallows. She does not have any other symptoms. P.143 What is most likely diagnosis? Intermittent esophageal dysphagia to solids but not liquids suggests mechanical obstruction due to an esophageal web or ring (Schatzki ring). Esophageal webs typically occur in the upper esophagus and contain squamous epithelium. Esophageal rings typically occur at the gastroesophageal junction and contain both squamous and columnar epithelium.

Plummer-Vinson syndrome: dysphagia due to upper esophageal web + iron deficiency anemia. Recent studies have questioned whether this syndrome truly exists.

Barium swallow shows an area of lower esophageal obstruction. EGD confirms the diagnosis of a lower esophageal ring. How are esophageal webs and rings treated? Treat esophageal webs and rings with endoscopic dilation. Acid suppression with a PPI may reduce recurrences of both esophageal webs and rings.

CASE 43 DYSPHAGIA, COUGH, AND CHOKING AFTER SWALLOWING

A 75-year-old man presents with a 3-month history of coughing and choking immediately after swallowing food and at night. He also reports difficulty swallowing for the past 12 months, and localizes symptoms to his neck. He often has undigested food regurgitate into his mouth hours after eating. He denies any other symptoms. Neurological examination is normal. What diagnosis should you suspect? Suspect a Zenker diverticulum in this patient with chronic oropharyngeal dysphagia but no weakness or neurological symptoms. Regurgitation and halitosis are common symptoms. A Zenker diverticulum is an out-pouching of the upper esophageal mucosa in an area of weakness between the lower pharyngeal constrictor and cricopharyngeal muscle. It typically results from increased oropharyngeal pressure due to an abnormal upper esophageal sphincter that resists the passage of food.

11

Aspiration pneumonia: a common complication of oropharyngeal dysphagia caused by aspiration of gastric contents during coughing or choking.

How do you confirm the diagnosis and treat this condition? Diagnose this condition using barium swallow. Treatment is surgical or endoscopic esophagomyotomy (to correct the UES dysfunction) and diverticulectomy.

What are other types of esophageal diverticula? Other esophageal diverticula are midesophageal and epiphrenic diverticula. Most midesophageal and epiphrenic diverticula do not usually require any treatment.

1.

Midesophageal diverticula: Pulmonary tuberculosis causes mediastinal scarring and hilar adenopathy, which results in diverticula by traction.

2.

Epiphrenic diverticula: Lower esophageal motility disorders cause out-pouching of the lower esophageal mucosa.

CASE 44 CHRONIC EPIGASTRIC DISCOMFORT

A 32-year-old man presents with a 6-month history of burning epigastric pain between meals and at night. Eating and antacids usually resolves his symptoms. He does not have any other medical problems and does not take any medications. He does not smoke or drink alcohol. Vital signs are normal. The attending physician asks you for the differential diagnosis of dyspepsia. P.144 What is dyspepsia? The term dyspepsia refers to chronic and recurrent upper abdominal discomfort. There are three patterns of discomfort:

1.

Ulcer or acid-like dyspepsia: burning epigastric pain that is affected by food and may improve with acid-suppressing medications and antacids.

2.

Gastroesophageal reflux-like dyspepsia: burning epigastric pain accompanied by heartburn (burning substernal chest pain) and regurgitation; work-up and management differs from other patterns of dyspepsia.

3.

Functional dyspepsia (non-ulcer dyspepsia): epigastric fullness, bloating, early satiety, and nausea.

Acute abdominal pain: Pain progressively increases over hours to days. Chronic abdominal pain: Pain has not changed for months to years. Subacute abdominal pain: Pain is neither acute nor chronic.

What is the differential diagnosis of dyspepsia? The most common cause of dyspepsia is functional dyspepsia, followed by peptic ulcer disease (PUD). Other important causes of dyspepsia are:

1. 2.

Gastric: gastric cancer and gastritis Biliary: cholelithiasis and cholecystitis

12

3. 4.

Pancreatic: chronic pancreatitis and pancreatic pseudocyst Intestinal: malabsorption, mesenteric ischemia, and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)

History and physical do not reliably distinguish functional dyspepsia from PUD.

What cause of dyspepsia do his symptoms suggest? Burning epigastric pain related to meals suggests that the patient may have PUD. The term peptic is a misnomer because peptic ulcers can be duodenal or gastric. This patient's symptoms are typical for duodenal ulcers, which cause pain between meals and improve with food and antacids. Gastric ulcers tend to cause symptoms immediately after meals and are not relieved by food or antacids.

duOdenal ulcers are more common in blood type O and have lOw malignant potential. gAstrIc ulcers are more common in blood type A and hIgh malignant potential.

What causes PUD?

1. 2. 3.

Helicobacter pylori infection and NSAIDs are the most common causes of PUD. Zollinger-Ellison syndrome (ZES) is rare cause of PUD. Smoking may increase the risk of PUD.

Contrary to popular belief, diet and alcohol are not risk factors for PUD.

How is dyspepsia managed in patients <45 years of age? First, determine whether the patient has alarm findings for gastric cancer. Obtain EGD if the patient has any of the following alarm findings:

1. 2. 3.

Jaundice: Check LFTs. Anemia or gastrointestinal bleeding: Check CBC and fecal occult blood test (FOBT). Protracted vomiting: Check serum electrolytes. P.145

4. 5. 6.

Progressive dysphagia or odynophagia Unintentional weight loss Palpable mass or lymphadenopathy

Age >45 years: EGD is indicated in all patients with dyspepsia to rule out cancer.

Lab studies are normal. He does not have any alarm symptoms. What is the next step? Find out whether the patient smokes cigarettes, drinks alcohol, or takes NSAIDs, and have him discontinue them.

13

This patient does not have alarm symptoms, does not smoke or drink, and has not recently taken any medications other than antacids. What is the next step? The next step in management is serology to test for H. pylori infection (see Fig. 4-5). If serology is positive, initiate H. pylori eradication therapy. There are many regimens to eradicate H. pylori. One such regimen is amoxicillin + clarithromycin + PPI for 10 to 14 days. Between 4 and 6 weeks after the patient completes treatment for H. pylori, confirm eradication with urea breath test or stool antigen test.

FIGURE 45 Workup of dyspepsia.

If initial serology is negative for H. pylori, initiate a trial of PPIs.

P.146 H. pylori serology is positive. The patient completes a 14-day course of amoxicillin, clarithromycin, and omeprazole. Stool antigen test confirms eradication of H. pylori. The

14

patient remains symptomatic. What is the next step in management? Initiate a trial of PPIs. If symptoms persist despite 8 weeks of PPIs or recur rapidly after PPI cessation, perform EGD.

The patient responds well to PPIs. Two years later, he presents to the emergency department with a 2-hour history of severe, diffuse abdominal pain. He has been taking ibuprofen for the last 2 weeks. On physical exam, his abdomen is tender with involuntary guarding (rigid abdomen) and rebound tenderness. Vital signs are temperature 37C, pulse 110 beats per minute (bpm), respirations 20/min, and blood pressure 110/70. What is the most likely cause of his symptoms? Suspect chemical peritonitis due to ulcer perforation in any patient with a history of PUD who presents signs of a diffuse acute abdomen. Recent NSAID use is the likely cause of perforation in this patient. Perforated peptic ulcer is an emergency because secondary bacterial infection of the peritoneum can lead to septic shock.

Acute abdomen (peritonitis): acute onset of severe abdominal pain and rebound tenderness; suggests inflammation of an abdominal organ(s) and peritoneum. Many causes of acute abdomen require emergent surgical management.

The most common laboratory findings in patients with perforated peptic ulcers are leukocytosis and a mildly elevated serum amylase.

What is the next step in diagnosis? Obtain upright or decubitis abdominal radiographs. Free air under the diaphragm is diagnostic of a perforated ulcer (see Fig. 4-6). If abdominal radiograph is normal but clinical suspicion of perforation is high, obtain abdominal CT scan. If abdominal x-ray or CT scan is positive, evaluate the severity of bleeding with upper GI series (fluoroscopy images obtained after contrast ingestion). Use Gastrografin contrast initially because barium can cause peritonitis if it extravasates into the peritoneum.

15

FIGURE 46 Abdominal x-ray showing free air under the diaphragm. From Jarrell BE. NMS Surgery Casebook, 1st ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2003.

P.147 Abdominal radiographs show free air under the diaphragm, which confirms the diagnosis of a perforated peptic ulcer. There is no leakage identified on upper GI series. What are the next steps in management? Medical management is often sufficient for stable patients who present within 12 hours of symptom onset and do not have any leakage documented on upper GI series (i.e., no brisk bleeding). Medical management of perforated peptic ulcer is as follows:

1.

Fluids and electrolytes: correct any hypotension with IV normal saline; correct electrolyte imbalances.

2. 3. 4.

IV PPIs or H2-blockers NG suction Antibiotics: cover anaerobes, enteric Gram-negative rods, and oral flora with a

16

combination of ampicillin, metronidazole, and a third-generation cephalosporin (or fluoroquinolone). 5. Reassess: Monitor the patient closely in the ICU for deterioration, increased abdominal pain, tenderness, rigidity, or signs of shock (e.g., hypotension, increased pulse or increased temperature); any deterioration is an indication for emergent surgery.

The patient recovers with medical management. Two years later, he presents with a 4-week history of nausea, early satiety, and epigastric fullness after meals. Over the last 7 days, he also reports persistent vomiting after meals. The emesis contains partially digested food contents. He has lost 10 lbs over the past month. Physical examination is significant for a succussion splash over the epigastric area. Vital signs are normal except for a pulse of 110 bpm. Serum potassium is low and bicarbonate is high. What is the most likely complication? The clinical presentation is consistent with gastric outlet obstruction. Outlet obstruction causes epigastric fullness, nausea, and vomiting after meals, which results in weight loss, dehydration, metabolic alkalosis, and hypokalemia. A succussion splash is sometimes heard over the epigastric area.

What is the next step in management? Confirm the diagnosis by measuring the quantity of residual gastric contents aspirated during NG suction. A residual volume of 250 to 300 mL establishes the diagnosis. If the residual volume is lower, confirm gastric outlet obstruction with a saline load test.

Saline load test: Administer 750 mL of normal saline into the stomach. Perform NG aspiration 30 minutes later. Retention of 400 mL indicates a positive test.

270 mL of foul-smelling gastric contents are aspirated, which confirms the diagnosis. What are the next steps in management?

1.

Medical management: Initial management is similar to perforated peptic ulcer (fluids and electrolytes, IV PPIs or H2-blockers, antibiotics, and NG suction to decompress bowel).

2.

Evaluate nutritional status: After performing initial steps, obtain serum albumin (marker of nutritional status); consider supplemental nutrition if albumin is low.

3.

EGD: After 24 to 72 hours of medical management, obtain EGD to define the extent of the obstruction and biopsy to rule out gastric cancer.

4.

Endoscopic dilation: If the obstruction does not improve after 5 to 7 days, consider endoscopic dilation.

5.

Surgery: If obstruction persists despite dilation, consider surgery.

Complications of PUD (mnemonic: POP Blood): Perforation, Obstruction, Penetration (ulcer penetrates into other organs like pancreas and causes inflammation of that organ), and Bleeding (slow or rapid).

P.148

Alternative 4.4.1
A 32-year-old man presents with 4 months of burning epigastric pain between meals relieved by food and antacids. He also reports foul-smelling watery diarrhea and steatorrhea. He does not take NSAIDs, smoke cigarettes, or drink alcohol. Serology is negative for H. pylori. His symptoms persist despite 8 weeks of daily esomeprazole. He then undergoes EGD, which shows multiple ulcers, one of

17

which is in the jejunum. What diagnosis should you suspect? Suspect ZES in the following patients with peptic ulcers:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Multiple ulcers refractory to medical therapy Distal duodenal or jejunal ulcers Diarrhea Family history of parathyroid, pituitary, or pancreatic tumors (MEN-1 syndrome)

What causes ZES? How can you confirm the diagnosis? The cause of ZES is a pancreatic gastrinoma that releases excessive gastrin and stimulates acid hypersecretion. The tumor also inactivates pancreatic enzymes, which leads to malabsorptive diarrhea (foul-smelling watery diarrhea with steatorrhea). See Figure 4-7 for the diagnostic approach to ZES.

FIGURE 47 Diagnostic approach to Zollinger-Ellison syndrome (ZES).

18

P.149 The patient discontinues esomprezole for 1 week. Fasting serum gastrin is 1500 pg/mL and gastric pH is 2.5, which confirms the diagnosis. What are the next steps? Perform somatostatin receptor scintigraphy (octreotide scan) to localize the tumor and detect liver metastases. If octreotide scan does not localize the primary tumor, perform EUS. Obtain serum PTH, prolactin, FSH, LH, and growth hormone levels to exclude MEN-1 syndrome (refer to Chapter 8: Endocrinology).

How is gastrinoma treated?

1.

Metastases or MEN-1 syndrome: Medically manage with high-dose PPIs, octreotide, interferon alpha, and chemotherapy (low cure rate).

2.

No metastases and no evidence of MEN-1: Main treatment is surgery (high cure rate).

Alternative 4.4.2
The patient is a 32-year-old man with 4 weeks of epigastric burning and bloating that sometimes occurs during meals and sometimes between meals. Antacids occasionally relieve symptoms. He drinks at least a six-pack of beer every day. He takes aspirin every day because he heard it is good for the heart. He sometimes notices blood when he vomits after heavy drinking. What is the next step in management? This patient has dyspepsia and an alarm symptom (GI bleeding). The next step in management is EGD.

On endoscopy, the stomach appears diffusely inflamed. There are subepithelial hemorrhages, petechiae, and erosions. Biopsy reveals numerous neutrophil infiltrates. There is no ulcer or mass suggestive of gastric cancer. What is the diagnosis? The patient has endoscopic findings of gastritis (injury and inflammation of the gastric mucosa). Erosions, petechiae, hemorrhage, and neutrophil infiltrates indicate that the patient has acute gastritis. Acute gastritis often presents with dyspepsia and/or upper GI bleeding. Unlike acute gastritis, chronic gastritis is associated with mononuclear infiltrates and is typically asymptomatic.

Gastropathy: epithelial cell damage and injury but no inflammation. Gastritis: epithelial cell damage and injury with inflammation.

What risk factors does this patient have for acute gastritis? Both alcohol and NSAIDs can damage the gastric mucosa, and these agents are likely to be the inciting causes in this patient (Table 4-2). Treatment is to discontinue the offending agents and to take acid-suppressing drugs (PPIs or H2-blockers) for symptomatic relief. Also, consider testing for H. pylori and administer eradication therapy if the test is positive.

TABLE 42 Etiologies of Gastritis/Gastropathy

Major causes of acute gastritis (erosive,

Chemical injury (NSAIDs, alcohol, bile acids): Treatment is to discontinue offending agent and take oral H2-blockers or

19

hemorrhagic gastritis)

PPIs for symptomatic relief.

Mucosal hypoxia (stress gastritis due to trauma, burns, or sepsis): Prevent by administering oral H2-blockers (not PPIs) to all critically ill patients. Early initiation of enteral feeding also reduces the risk of stress gastritis. If clinically significant bleeding develops, treat with intravenous H2-blockers or PPIs.

Portal hypertension: Reduce recurrences of bleeding with propanolol or nadolol. If these are unsuccessful, consider TIPS.

Major causes of chronic gastritis (nonerosive gastritis)

H. pylori : Almost 50% of the population has chronic H. pylori infection with gastritis, but only 15% of patients with chronic gastritis develop peptic ulcers. H. pylori ulcers often cause dyspepsia whereas H. pylori gastritis rarely causes dyspepsia. Chronic H. pylori gastritis increases the risk of gastric adenocarcinoma and gastric lymphoma.

Pernicious anemia: Autoimmune destruction of parietal cells by antiparietal antibodies leads to achloridia and vitamin B12 malabsorption. Achloridia stimulates hypergastrinemia, which leads to gastritis. Pernicious anemia increases risk of gastric adenocarcinoma and carcinoid, so perform EGD with biopsy at the time of diagnosis.

Uncommon causes of gastritis

Infections: Bacterial infection is rare but can cause lifethreatening necrotizing gastritis that requires emergent surgery. Immunosuppressed patients may develop viral or fungal gastritis.

Granulomatous gastritis: Tuberculosis, syphilis, sarcoidosis, and Crohn's disease can cause gastritis with granulomatous inflammation.

Eosinophilic gastritis: Gastritis due to idiopathic eosinophilic infiltration responds to corticosteroids.

Lymphocytic gastritis: There is no effective therapy for gastritis due to idiopathic lymphocytic infiltration.

Menetrier's disease: Idiopathic condition where patients develop giant, thickened gastric folds, which leads to dyspepsia and protein malabsorption (manifests with diarrhea and anasarca). Treatment is directed at symptoms.

Abbreviations: EGD, esophagogastroduodenoscope; NSAIDs, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs; PPI, proton pump inhibitors; TIPS, transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt.

Alternative 4.4.3
The patient is a 32-year-old male who complains of epigastric pain, fullness, bloating, early satiety, and nausea occurring over the last 12 months. He does not have any diarrhea or alarm findings. Physical examination and vital signs are normal. Serology is negative for H. pylori. Daily esomeprazole only partially relieves his symptoms. EGD is normal. Serum electrolytes, LFTs, and

20

CBC are all normal. What is the diagnosis? Patients with dyspepsia in the absence of any identifiable structural cause are classified as having functional dyspepsia, a diagnosis of exclusion. Symptoms must be present for at least 3 months to make this diagnosis. No drug consistently improves symptoms. The recommended strategy for patients with functional dyspepsia is acknowledgement that their symptoms are real and reassurance that the disorder is not life threatening.

P.150

CASE 45 CHRONIC EPIGASTRIC DISCOMFORT AND WEIGHT LOSS

A 50-year-old woman presents with a 3-month history of progressively worsening dyspepsia and anorexia. The symptoms were initially provoked by eating food but are now constantly present. She has unintentionally lost 15 lbs in the last 3 months. Physical examination is significant for an enlarged periumbilical lymph node (Sister Mary Joseph node) as well as an enlarged left supraclavicular lymph node (Virchow node). Stool is guaiac-positive. What is the most likely finding on endoscopy? Unintentional weight loss is an alarm symptom for gastric cancer in patients with dyspepsia. The likelihood of gastric cancer is very high in this patient with other suspicious signs including constant symptoms, GI bleeding, an enlarged periumbilical lymph node, and an enlarged left supraclavicular lymph node (Table 4-3).

TABLE 43 Physical Signs of Gastric Adenocarcinoma

1. Physical signs of lymphatic spread 2.

Sister Mary Joseph node: enlarged periumbilical lymph node Virchow node: enlarged left supraclavicular lymph node

Physical signs of peritoneal spread

1. 2. 3.

Krukenberg tumor: enlarging ovarian mass Blumer's shelf: mass in rectal cul-de-sac Ascites: due to peritoneal carcinomatosis

Physical signs of intestinal spread

1.

Gastrocolic fistula: feces in emesis or undigested material in stool

Paraneoplastic signs (not specific for gastric cancer)

1. 2. 3.

Leser-Trelat sign: diffuse seborrheic keratoses Acanthosis nigricans: hyperpigmented, velvety patches on skin folds Trousseau syndrome: migrating thrombophlebitis

Early gastric cancer is usually asymptomatic, so most patients already have advanced disease at the time of diagnosis.

Endoscopy with biopsy confirms the diagnosis of gastric adenocarcinoma. What tests should you order to stage gastric adenocarcinoma? P.151 Order abdominal and chest CT scans to detect distant metastases. If CT scan detects liver lesions, consider laparoscopic biopsy to verify whether or not they are metastatic lesions. Many

21

centers use EUS to define tumor size and nodal involvement.

Gastric adenocarcinoma morphologies: 1. Superficially spreading: Early gastric cancer is confined to mucosa or submucosa. Prognosis is excellent. 2. Linitis plastica: Diffuse, full thickness extension leads to a rigid, atonic leather bottle appearance. Prognosis is dismal. 3. Polypoid 4. Ulcerating

What are the risk factors for gastric adenocarcinoma? Established risk factors for gastric adenocarcinoma are:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Diet with high N-nitroso and salt intake and low vitamin C and -carotene intake Chronic gastritis due to H. pylori infection and pernicious anemia Surgery: Partial gastric resection increases risk of cancer after approximately 15 years. Smoking Blood type A

The association between gastric ulcer and gastric cancer is controversial. The current recommendation is to biopsy any gastric ulcer to detect early gastric cancer.

Chronic H. pylori infection is implicated in 35% to 90% of gastric cancers but <1% of patients with chronic H. pylori infection develop gastric cancer.

What malignancies can occur in the stomach besides adenocarcinoma?

1.

Gastric lymphoma is the second most common gastric malignancy after adenocarcinoma. Most gastric lymphomas are non-Hodgkins B-cell lymphomas. More than half arise from mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue. Clinical presentation and EGD appearance are similar to adenocarcinoma, so biopsy is necessary to distinguish between the two. After diagnosis, stage using abdominal CT, chest CT, and EUS.

2.

Gastric carcinoid is a rare gastric malignancy. Pernicious anemia and MEN-1 are risk factors. Early carcinoids are typically asymptomatic. Carcinoids that metastasize to the liver may release excessive serotonin, leading to carcinoid syndrome. Symptoms of carcinoid syndrome are blushing, tricuspid, or pulmonary stenosis; diarrhea; and bronchospasm. Carcinoids can occur anywhere in the GI tract, so endoscopy is not sufficient to rule out the diagnosis if the patient has symptoms of carcinoid syndrome. Diagnose carcinoid by P.152 documenting elevated urinary 5-HIAA (end-product of serotonin metabolism). If results are equivocal, obtain whole-blood serotonin levels.

3.

Stromal tumors: Two thirds of GI stromal tumors occur in the stomach. Leiomyomas are benign stromal tumors, and leiomyosarcomas are malignant stromal tumors.

22

Appendix: This is the most common location of carcinoids (low metastasis rate). Ileum: Ileal carcinoids have the highest rate of metastasis.

Approximately 75% of stage 1 mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphomas regress completely with H. pylori eradication.

Alternative 4.5.1
The patient is a 70-year-old man with a history of peripheral artery disease and stable angina. He complains of severe upper abdominal cramping approximately 1 hour after meals for the last 6 months. The pain occasionally radiates to his back. The fear of these cramps has caused him to decrease his food intake considerably, and he has lost 15 lbs in the last 3 months. He has smoked a pack of cigarettes every day for the last 40 years. EGD is unremarkable. Serology as well as biopsy does not reveal any evidence of H. pylori infection. Serum amylase and lipase are normal. Albumin is low but other LFTs are normal. There is an upper abdominal bruit. There is no tenderness, guarding, or rebound. What diagnosis should you suspect? Maintain a high index of suspicion for chronic mesenteric ischemia in any patient with a history of atherosclerosis who complains of food-induced dyspepsia and unintentional weight loss. Symptoms result from mesenteric atherosclerosis (intestinal angina). Abdominal examination is typically benign except for an upper abdominal bruit in 50%. Patients may also report nonspecific GI symptoms like nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and constipation. Negative EGD rules out PUD, gastritis, and gastric cancer. Normal lab tests decrease the likelihood of biliary and pancreatic causes.

Risk factors for coronary artery disease and chronic mesenteric ischemia are the same.

How is this condition diagnosed and treated? Perform mesenteric duplex ultrasound to screen for mesenteric atherosclerosis. If the results are equivocal or positive, perform mesenteric angiography to confirm the diagnosis and define the anatomy. Treatment is either surgery or percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA) with or without stent placement.

No large controlled trials have compared surgery versus PTA versus PTA + stent.

CASE 46 CHRONIC EPIGASTRIC DISCOMFORT, HEARTBURN, AND REGURGITATION

A 32-year-old man presents with episodes of burning substernal pain (heartburn), burning epigastric pain (dyspepsia), and regurgitation of acid material into his mouth. The symptoms are worse after a heavy meal and recumbency. He has no other symptoms. He does not take any medications. He smokes a pack of cigarettes every day and drinks a six-pack of beer on the weekends. Vital signs are normal. What is the most likely diagnosis? Dyspepsia in the presence of heartburn and regurgitation are characteristic of GERD.

23

Water brash: hypersalivation in response to reflux (uncommon).

P.153 What is the pathophysiology of GERD? Heartburn and dyspepsia result from esophagitis due to excessive gastric acid in the esophagus. The pathophysiology involves a combination of decreased LES tone (which causes excessive reflux of gastric contents into the esophagus) and esophageal dysmotility (which leads to decreased clearance of gastric contents from the esophagus).

Nonerosive GERD: Most patients with uncomplicated GERD do not have overt esophagitis. Symptoms result from hypersensitivity to physiological amounts of gastric acid.

What are the next steps in management? The history is typical for uncomplicated GERD. There are two options in such patients:

1.

Step-up approach: Start with lifestyle measures and antacids as needed. If symptoms persist, add an over-the-counter H2-blocker or PPI to the regimen. Increase the dosage over the next few weeks until symptoms are controlled.

2.

Step-down approach: Start with lifestyle measures, antacids as needed, and a potent dose of H2-blocker or PPI. Taper down the dose until the lowest dose that controls symptoms is reached.

Perform EGD only if symptoms persist despite therapy or the patient has any of the alarm findings for gastric cancer described earlier.

What lifestyle measures are recommended to decrease symptoms of GERD? Remember lifestyle measures with the mnemonic WASTED:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Weight loss: Obesity is a risk factor for GERD. Alcohol avoidance Salivation: Use chewing gum and lozenges to increase saliva (neutralizes gastric acid). Tobacco: Avoid cigarettes because they increase stress on the sphincter. Elevate the head of the bed. Diet: Avoid fatty foods, chocolate, and peppermint.

The patient's symptoms improve with lifestyle measures and daily PPIs. What is the next step in management? Discontinue acid-suppressing medications after 8 weeks of successful empiric therapy. If the patient's symptoms do not recur for at least 3 months off medications, the patient can take the acid-suppressing drugs intermittently on an as-needed basis. Otherwise, restart the previously effective regimen.

H2-blockers: Generic name ends with tidine (e.g., ranitidine). PPIs: Generic name ends with prazole (e.g., pantoprazole).

24

The patient's symptoms recur in 2 weeks. He restarts the previous regimen. Over the next few years, he requires continually increasing frequency and dosages of PPIs to relieve symptoms. What are the complications of long-standing GERD? Inflammation and repair can lead to:

1.

Peptic stricture: Suspect peptic stricture if the patient develops esophageal dysphagia to solid foods. Diagnose with barium swallow and/or EGD. Treat with dilation.

2.

Barrett's esophagus: Chronic GERD can cause replacement of the normal stratified squamous epithelium with columnar epithelium. Although asymptomatic, this metaplastic change greatly increases the risk of esophageal adenocarcinoma. Consider screening endoscopy for all patients with longstanding GERD (see Fig. 4-8).

Reflux of gastric contents into the tracheobronchial tree and lungs can lead to:

1.

Asthma, chronic cough: Refer to Chapter 3: Pulmonary. P.154

2.

Aspiration pneumonia: If GERD is the suspected cause, obtain cytologic aspirates using bronchoscopy. The characteristic finding is lipid-laden macrophages.

3.

Laryngitis: Suspect laryngitis when a patient with long-standing GERD complains of chronic hoarseness, cough, frequent throat clearing, or sore throat in the absence of infection. Rule out structural causes with a laryngoscope. Treat with a high dose PPI for 12 weeks. If the patient does not respond, evaluate for a pulmonary or allergic cause.

4.

Laryngeal cancer: SCC may occur in patients with chronic GERD-induced laryngitis. The major risk factors however, are smoking and alcohol.

25

FIGURE 48 American College of Gastroenterology recommendations for surveillance endoscopy in patients with Barrett's esophagus.

Complications of long-term PPI use: osteoporosis, pneumonia, Clostridium difficile infection, and gastric polyps.

Adding a promotility agent to the acid-suppressing regimen may improve symptoms for some patients with GERD. However, side effects limit their widespread use. Examples are bethanechol, metoclopramide, domperidone, and cisapride (not available in the United States unless GI physician enrolls patient in the compassionate drug program).

The patient undergoes screening endoscopy. There is no columnar metaplasia or dysplasia. The endoscopy report does mention that the patient has a sliding hiatal hernia. What is the significance of this finding? Type 1 (sliding hiatal hernia) accounts for 95% of hiatal hernias. A wide diaphragm ring allows the gastric cardia (gastroesophageal junction) to herniate upward, which predisposes to GERD. No specific therapy is necessary except control of GERD.

P.155 What treatment option exists for patients with refractory symptoms? Consider antireflux surgery for the following patients with GERD:

1.

Persistent esophagitis: Heartburn, regurgitation, or dyspepsia persist despite maximal medical therapy.

2. 3.

Persistent complications: Complications persist despite maximal medical therapy. Paraesophageal hiatal hernia (types II, III, and IV): Gastroesophageal junction remains in place, but other parts of stomach herniate through diaphragm ring. Type II requires surgery even if asymptomatic. Types III and IV require surgery if symptomatic.

Preoperative evaluation: Perform manometry (to rule out other causes) and esophageal pH monitoring. Surgery does not benefit patients with visceral hyperalgesia (pH monitoring documents that symptoms occur despite adequate acid control).

BRAVO pH monitor: Implant capsule in esophagus. Capsule collects pH data and transmits data wirelessly to a pager-sized receiver worn by patient.

What surgical procedure is typically performed for refractory GERD? The most commonly performed surgery for GERD is laparoscopic fundoplication (stomach fundus is sutured around the cardia, and the diaphragm defect is closed).

CASE 47 ACUTE ONSET OF DIFFUSE, CRAMPING ABDOMINAL PAIN

A 53-year-old man presents with 12 hours of nausea, vomiting, and cramping abdominal pain. He had an appendectomy 3 months ago. On physical exam, the abdomen is distended, and there are highpitched bowel sounds. Abdominal percussion demonstrates a low-pitched drum-like sound (tympany).

26

The rectal vault is empty. There are no abdominal masses. Vital signs are temperature 37C, pulse 110 bpm, respirations 12/min, and blood pressure 100/70. What diagnosis should you suspect? Suspect bowel obstruction when a patient presents with acute onset of nausea, vomiting, and diffuse cramping abdominal pain obstipation (no passage of gas or feces). Common physical signs of obstruction are abdominal distension, tympany, an empty rectal vault, and high pitched or absent bowel sounds. Distension proximal to the obstruction causes reflex vomiting and decreased absorption, which leads to dehydration, hypokalemia, and metabolic alkalosis.

Proximal versus distal obstruction: Obstruction proximal to the jejunum: severe nausea and vomiting but minimal abdominal distension because the dilated proximal small intestine acts as a reservoir. Obstruction distal to jejunum: severe abdominal distension but minimal nausea and vomiting.

Partial versus complete obstruction: Partial obstruction: Patients can pass gas and may have bowel movements. Complete obstruction: Classic symptom is complete obstipation; in reality, patients may pass residual gas or stool distal to the obstruction.

What are the next steps in diagnosis?

1.

Obstructive series: The initial diagnostic tests to evaluate for obstruction are upright CXR and supine and upright abdominal x-rays. In small bowel obstruction (SBO), abdominal xrays show multiple air-fluid levels and no air in the colon (see Fig. 4-9). In large bowel obstruction (LBO), the bowel is filled with air and dilated proximal to the obstruction with P.156 no air in the distal colon. Upright CXR is obtained to rule out bowel perforation (free air under the diaphragm). If abdominal films are positive, further work-up is unnecessary.

2.

CT scan: Order an abdominal CT scan with oral and IV contrast if obstructive series is nondiagnostic.

3.

GI series: If both obstructive series and CT scan are nondiagnostic, order an upper or lower GI series with water-soluble contrast depending on whether you suspect SBO or LBO.

27

FIGURE 49 Abdomen x-ray showing SBO. From Ayala C, Spellberg B. Boards and Wards, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

Occasionally, patients with SBO have feculent emesis due to bacterial overgrowth (bacteria ferment and break down food debris).

Abdominal x-ray shows multiple air-fluid levels, dilated loops of small bowel, and no air in the colon, which confirms the diagnosis of SBO. What is the most likely cause of obstruction in this patient? Three fourths of SBOs result from extrinsic compression by adhesions that form after abdominal surgery (Table 4-4). Postoperative adhesions are the most likely cause in this patient who recently had an appendectomy.

TABLE 44 Etiologies of Bowel Obstruction in Adults

Extrinsic compression

1. 2. 3.

Postoperative adhesions: Most common cause. Hernia: Second most common cause; inguinal hernia always requires surgery. Volvulus: Causes LBO more frequently than SBO.

1. 2. 3. Intrinsic compression 4.

5.

Cancer: CRC, SI cancers, metastatic melanoma, and metastatic breast cancer. Radiation enteritis Crohn's disease: Patients may develop strictures, which lead to SBO. Gallstones: Gallstones occasionally obstruct the intestines via an enteric-biliary fistula in patients with cholelithiasis or cholecystitis. Abdominal radiograph may show air in the biliary tree (pneumobilia). Surgery is the recommended treatment. Fecal impaction: Treat with a mineral oil enema and/or

28

manual disimpaction.

Abbreviation: CRC, colorectal cancer; LBO, large bowel obstruction; SBO, small bowel obstruction; SI, small intestine.

How is SBO treated? Initial therapy for stable patients is supportive (mnemonic: Nine Inch Nails Rock):

1. 2.

NPO: fasting. IV fluids and electrolytes: Obtain IV access to determine the degree of dehydration by measuring serum electrolytes, hematocrit, and urine output; administer normal saline until the patient is euvolemic and correct electrolyte imbalances. P.157

3. 4.

NG suction: Perform NS suction to prevent further bowel distension. Reassess: Frequently reassess the patient for strangulation (signs of acute abdomen or shock), which is an indication for emergent surgery. Some centers also use serial CT scans to detect early signs of bowel ischemia. Serial abdominal films are not helpful.

Strangulation: SBO increases intraluminal pressure, which can cut off blood flow and cause perforation, peritonitis, and septic shock. Closed loop obstruction (lumen occluded at two points) increases the risk of strangulation.

The patient's pain, nausea, and abdominal distension improve over the next 24 hours with fluids and NG suction. NG suction is discontinued. Over the next 4 hours, signs and symptoms of SBO recur. What is the next step in management? Surgery is indicated for patients who fail medical management (continued symptoms despite 12 to 24 hours of NG suction or prompt recurrence after discontinuing suction).

Alternative 4.7.1
A 53-year man presents with a 12-hour history of cramping abdominal pain. Physical examination is significant for abdominal distension, hyperactive bowel sounds, and an empty rectal vault. Abdominal x-ray is obtained (see Fig. 4-10).

29

FIGURE 410 Abdomen x-ray showing cecal volvulus. From Eisenberg R. Gastrointestinal Radiology: A Pattern Approach, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 1990.

What is the diagnosis? The abdominal film shows a large, kidney-shaped mass extending into the left upper quadrant (coffee bean sign), which is diagnostic of LBO caused by a cecal volvulus. Volvulus is defined as twisting of a segment of bowel on its mesenteric attachment, which can lead to obstruction. The cecum is the most common location of volvulus.

What is the next step in management? Treatment of cecal volvulus is emergent surgery to untwist (detorse) the volvulus.

P.158

30

What diagnosis would be more likely if Figure 4-11 was the patient's abdominal film?

FIGURE 411 Abdomen x-ray showing sigmoid volvulus. From Ayala C, Spellberg B. Boards and Wards, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2007.

The abdominal x-ray demonstrates a collection of gas extending from the pelvis to the right upper quadrant (bent inner tube sign). This finding is characteristic for a sigmoid volvulus, which is the second most common location of volvulus. Sigmoid volvulus is more common in elderly and institutionalized patients. Treatment is to untwist the volvulus with a sigmoidoscope. Surgery is reserved for refractory or recurrent cases.

Alternative 4.7.2
A 65-year-old male with a history of CHF presents with a 6-hour history of nausea, cramping abdominal pain, and diarrhea. He admits to using heroin recently. Physical exam demonstrates abdominal distension, tympany, and hypoactive bowel sounds. Vital signs are temperature 36.8C, pulse 110 bpm, respirations 25/min, blood pressure 130/80, and SaO 2 91%. Abdominal x-ray is obtained (see Fig. 4-12).

31

FIGURE 412 Abdomen x-ray showing pseudo-obstruction. From Mulholland MW, Lilemoe KD, et al. Greenfield's Surgery: Scientific Principles and Practice, 4th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006.

What diagnosis should you suspect? Although the patient presents with many signs and symptoms of obstruction and abdominal x-ray shows colon dilatation, there is air in the entire GI tract. Also, the patient has hypoactive bowel sounds, which is unusual in bowel obstruction. Suspect acute colonic pseudo-obstruction (Ogilvie's syndrome) as the cause of his symptoms.

Hyperactive bowel sounds, small bowel air-fluid levels, and lack of air in the distal colon and rectum suggest mechanical obstruction but they may occur in Ogilvie's syndrome as well. Diarrhea is a paradoxical finding in this condition.

32

What factors predispose this patient to developing Ogilvie's syndrome? Ogilvie's syndrome results from large bowel paralysis. The pathogenesis is unknown, but most cases occur in older patients with a history of trauma, surgery, underlying medical illnesses (cardiac disease, infection, and neurologic diseases), and retroperitoneal masses (malignancy or hemorrhage). Among patients with risk factors, the risk of Ogilvie's syndrome increases with electrolyte abnormalities (hypokalemia, hypocalcemia, and hypomagnesemia) and certain medications (opiates, epidural analgesics, etc.). This patient has a history of CHF and recently used heroin, which increases the likelihood of developing Ogilvie's syndrome.

P.159 What is the next step in management? Obtain a CT scan of the abdomen or lower GI series with water-soluble contrast (contrast enema) to confirm the diagnosis and rule out mechanical obstruction or toxic megacolon.

CT scan of the abdomen does not show any signs of mechanical obstruction or submucosal edema and colon wall thickening characteristic of toxic megacolon. Colon diameter is 7 cm. How should you treat this patient with Ogilvie's syndrome? Most patients recover with removal of precipitants and supportive measures:

1.

Remove precipitants: In this patient, treat the underlying CHF and make sure he does not receive any more narcotics or anticholinergics. Correct electrolyte imbalances.

2.

Supportive care: Supportive care involves Nine Inch Nails Rock + Rectal tube + Position. Make sure the patient is NPO and administer IV fluids. Place an NG tube with suction and a Rectal tube with drainage to decompress the bowel. Place the patient in a Prone position and periodically move him from side to side to promote gas expulsion. Reassess every 12 to 24 hours with serial physical exams and abdominal x-rays.

Postoperative ileus: Paralytic ileus is a physiological response for up to 24 hours after abdominal surgery. Treatment is to remove precipitants, NPO, and IV fluids. If abdominal cramping, distension, or obstipation persist for more than 2 to 5 days, rule out bowel obstruction with abdominal radiograph.

The patient continues to have symptoms 24 hours later despite supportive measures and removal of precipitants. Cecal diameter is now 10 cm. What is the next step in management? Administer neostigmine (an acetylcholinesterase antagonist) if the patient continues to have symptoms despite 24 hours of conservative therapy or cecal diameter increases to 10 cm. Symptoms should improve within 30 minutes. Place the patient on a cardiac monitor and P.160 have atropine available to administer if the patient develops a symptomatic bradyarrhythmia due to neostigmine.

Two hours after administering neostigmine the patient is still symptomatic. What is the next step in management? Patients who continue to have symptoms or colon dilation despite neostigmine should undergo colonoscopic decompression. If colonoscopy fails, refer for surgical decompression.

Alternative 4.7.3
The patient is a 65-year-old man presents with a 6-hour history of severe diffuse cramping abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting. He has a history of atrial fibrillation and peripheral vascular disease.

33

Abdominal examination is benign. Vital signs are temperature 36.8C, pulse 115 bpm, respirations 25/min, and blood pressure 110/70. What diagnosis should you suspect? Maintain a high index of suspicion for acute mesenteric ischemia when patients with risk factors for thrombosis or embolism (hypercoagulable state, atrial fibrillation, atherosclerosis, etc.) present with severe abdominal pain out of proportion to physical exam findings. Although initial findings are benign, patients can develop signs of acute abdomen as ischemia progresses. FOBT may be positive late in the course of the illness.

Laboratory tests are nonspecific. Common findings include increased white blood cells (WBCs), increased hematocrit (due to dehydration), and metabolic acidosis (due to lactic acidosis).

What are the types of acute mesenteric ischemia?

1.

Mesenteric artery embolism: most common cause of acute mesenteric ischemia (due to cardiac embolism to the superior mesenteric artery); onset of symptoms is more sudden and painful than other types.

2. 3.

Mesenteric artery thrombosis: due to atherosclerosis. Mesenteric vein thrombosis: associated with hypercoagulable states, portal HTN, malignancy, and trauma.

4.

Nonocclusive mesenteric ischemia: due to splanchnic hypoperfusion in patients who are critically ill or have severe atherosclerosis; 25% deny abdominal pain.

What are the next steps in management of patients with suspected mesenteric ischemia? The initial step is to stabilize the patient and to obtain an obstructive series (to rule out mechanical obstruction). If obstructive series is negative, the next test depends on whether or not the patient has a hypercoagulable state or acute abdomen (see Fig. 4-13).

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FIGURE 413 Algorithm for diagnosis of acute mesenteric ischemia.

Mesenteric angiography is the gold standard for establishing the diagnosis and cause of acute mesenteric ischemia.

Abdominal plain films do not reveal any signs of obstruction. The patient does not have any risk factors for hypercoagulability. He undergoes mesenteric angiogram, which is diagnostic for mesenteric artery embolism. How are the different causes of acute mesenteric ischemia (AMI) treated? AMI is associated with a high mortality (overall mortality is 70%; after bowel infarction, mortality is >90%). Initial therapy for all types of acute mesenteric ischemia is stabilization, broadspectrum antibiotics, and NG tube placement. After these initial steps, management strategies for the different types of AMI are as follows:

1.

Mesenteric artery embolism: Standard treatment is surgical embolectomy. An alternative to surgery is thrombolytics and papaverine (a vasodilator). After recovery, long-term use of warfarin can prevent recurrence. P.161

2.

Mesenteric artery thrombosis: If angiography shows good collateral flow, consider heparin

35

and observation. If collaterals are insufficient, treat with a papaverine drip and emergent surgery. After recovery, long-term use of aspirin can prevent recurrence. 3. Mesenteric vein thrombosis: Treatment is heparin followed by surgery. After recovery, long-term use of warfarin can prevent recurrence. 4. Nonocclusive mesenteric ischemia: Treatment is IV papaverine. Some clinicians also use heparin. After recovery, long-term use of aspirin can prevent recurrence.

Unstable patients with acute abdomen: Surgery is required regardless of the type of AMI; avoid vasopressors because they worsen ischemia.

Drip: medical slang for continuous infusion.

CASE 48 ACUTE LEFT LOWER QUADRANT PAIN

A 75-year-old man presents with 3 days of abdominal pain localized to the left lower quadrant (LLQ) and mild nausea. Past medical history is unremarkable. Physical examination is significant for LLQ tenderness. There is a palpable mass in the LLQ. Stool is guaiac-negative. Vital signs are temperature 38.4C, pulse 90 bpm, respirations 18/m in, and blood pressure 120/80. The only significant laboratory finding is a WBC count of 11,500 cells/cubic mm with a left shift. P.162 What is most likely cause of the patient's current symptoms? The most common cause of LLQ pain and tenderness in elderly patients is diverticulitis, which results from inflammation of diverticula. Pain is initially mild, so most patients present days rather than hours after symptom onset. Approximately 50% of patients have a palpable mass. Patients often have a low-grade fever and mild leukocytosis.

What are diverticula? Diverticula are pouches in weak areas of the colon wall near blood vessels. They result from increased intraluminal pressure. Patients with diverticula are termed as having diverticulosis. Diverticulosis may be asymptomatic (detected incidentally on colonoscopy or barium enema) or present with symptoms similar to IBS. Incidence of diverticulosis increases with age. No imaging is recommended to diagnose suspected diverticulosis. Prevent complications of diverticulosis with increased fiber intake.

Complications of diverticulosis: 1. Painless rectal bleeding: 95% are self-limited, 5% are massive. 2. Diverticulitis: caused by infection/inflammation of a microperforated diverticulum.

What is the next step in this patient with suspected diverticulitis? CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis is the preferred test to diagnose diverticulitis. This test can also detect complications of diverticulitis. In addition to CT scan, obtain abdominal and chest radiographs to rule out other causes of abdominal pain. Colonoscopy and barium enema are contraindicated during the initial stages of acute diverticulitis because they can cause perforation.

Complications of diverticulitis: POP A Fistula (Perforation, Obstruction, Peritonitis,

36

Abscess, and Fistulas).

CT scan confirms uncomplicated diverticulitis. How is this condition treated? First, triage patients for outpatient versus inpatient management. Criteria for admission are:

1. 2.

Elderly patients, immunosuppressed patients, or patients with severe comorbid diseases Patients with signs of acute abdomen, high fever, or WBC count

Admit this elderly patient to the hospital and treat with NPO, IV fluids, and IV antibiotics (clindamycin or metronidazole to cover anaerobes plus a third-generation cephalosporin or fluoroquinolone to cover Gram-negative aerobes). Symptoms should resolve in 2 to 3 days. Surgery is indicated after 72 hours if symptoms or leukocytosis worsens or fails to improve after 72 hours.

Outpatient treatment of diverticulitis: Clear liquids and a 7- to 10-day course of amoxicillin-clavulanate or ciprofloxacin and metronidazole.

Symptoms improve within 2 days. The patient is ready for discharge. What should you recommend after resolution of symptoms? Recommend colonoscopy 2 to 6 weeks after recovery to evaluate the extent of diverticulitis and to rule out other conditions like cancer. Instruct the patient to consume a high fiber diet to prevent recurrences.

Some physicians recommend that patients avoid nuts and seeds, which can theoretically lodge in the diverticulum and cause another episode of diverticulitis. There is no convincing evidence to support this recommendation.

What is the risk of recurrence after an episode of diverticulitis treated medically? Diverticulitis recurs in one third of patients treated medically. Consider elective surgical resection after more than two episodes because recurrences carry a higher risk of complications.

P.163

Consider elective surgery after the first attack in the following groups: 1. Diverticulitis patients with complications 2. Immunosuppressed patients 3. Patients <40 years old (controversial)

Two months later, the patient complains that he has been passing air and stool through his penis when he urinates. Occasionally, he passes urine through his rectum. What is the most likely complication? The patient has developed a fistula between the bladder and the colon (colovesical fistula). Diagnose with sigmoidoscopy followed by barium enema. If these studies are nondiagnostic perform abdomen and pelvis CT scan. Treatment is elective surgery.

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Alternative 4.8.1
A 70-year-old man presents with diffuse, cramping LLQ pain. The pain began approximately 24 hours ago. At 16 hours after the onset of pain, he noticed small amounts of bright red blood per rectum (hematochezia) followed by a small amount of bloody diarrhea. Past medical history is significant for peripheral vascular disease and MI 5 years ago. LLQ tenderness is the only abnormal finding on physical examination. Vital signs are normal. The only significant laboratory finding is a WBC count of 11,500 cells/cubic mm with a left shift. What is the most likely diagnosis? The most likely diagnosis is acute ischemic colitis, caused by a sudden decrease in blood flow to watershed areas of the colon. Patients are usually elderly and report acute onset of abdominal pain (most commonly in the LLQ) followed by small amounts of hematochezia and bloody diarrhea within 24 hours (Table 4-5). Vital signs are usually normal and mild leukocytosis is the only laboratory abnormality.

TABLE 45 Acute Ischemic Colitis Versus Acute Mesenteric Ischemia Location of Abdominal Pain Acute ischemic colitis Lateral (usually left lower quadrant) GI Bleeding Hematochezia and bloody diarrhea

Acute mesenteric ischemia

Periumbilical or diffuse

Occult blood late in course

What diagnostic tests are indicated? Consider fecal leukocytes and stool culture to rule out infectious diarrhea. Consider an abdominal plain film to rule out obstruction and perforation. Patients with advanced ischemic colitis may have distension and pneumatosis (intestinal air) on abdominal plain films. CT scan of the abdomen often establishes the diagnosis. Perform colonoscopy only if the etiology is unclear despite history, physical, abdominal film, and CT scan.

Colonoscopy findings in acute ischemic colitis are pale mucosa, petechiae, blue-based ulcers, and bluish hemorrhagic nodules. On barium enema, these hemorrhagic nodules may appear as thumbprints (may also be seen in AMI).

Abdominal plain film is nondiagnostic, but CT scan shows segmental thickening of bowel wall indicative of acute ischemic colitis. What treatment is indicated? Treat supportively with NPO, IV fluids, broad-spectrum IV antibiotics, and an NG tube if the patient has an ileus. Approximately 80% to 90% of patients recover with supportive care alone. Some patients may progress to gangrene and perforation, so frequently reassess for excessive bloody diarrhea or acute abdomen (peritonitis). Clinical deterioration is an indication for surgical management.

P.164

CASE 49 ACUTE RIGHT LOWER QUADRANT PAIN

A 20-year-old woman presents with pain in the right lower quadrant (RLQ). Her symptoms began as

38

periumbilical pain 7 hours ago. She is sexually active and occasionally uses condoms. On physical exam, there is RLQ tenderness and rebound tenderness. Palpation of the LLQ elicits pain in the RLQ (Rovsing sign). Vital signs are temperature 38.4C, pulse 90 bpm, respirations 20/min, and blood pressure 110/80. Leukocyte count is 11,500 cells/cubic mm. Human chorionic gonadotropin (-hCG) is negative. What diagnosis do her symptoms suggest? Periumbilical pain followed by signs of acute abdomen in the RLQ is the classic presentation of acute appendicitis. Tenderness is most prominent at McBurney's point (two thirds of the distance between the umbilicus and the anterior superior iliac spine). Patients often have nausea, vomiting, constipation, a low-grade fever, and leukocytosis.

Signs of appendicitis: Rovsing sign: Palpation of LLQ elicits RLQ pain. Psoas sign: Passive extension of the right hip elicits RLQ pain. Obturator sign: Internal rotation of the right hip elicits RLQ pain.

Atypical presentations of appendicitis: Pelvic appendix: Genitourinary symptoms and pain is felt below McBurney's point or in the LLQ; obturator sign is positive. Retrocecal appendix: Dull ache rather than tenderness is felt in RLQ; Psoas sign is positive. Pregnancy: Subcostal or periumbilical tenderness is felt because the appendix is displaced.

Always rule out adnexal causes in females with lower abdominal pain. Obtain -hCG to rule out pregnancy in all women of childbearing age (Chapter 14: Primary Care Gynecology and Urology).

What is the pathophysiology of appendicitis? Obstruction of the appendix lumen by lymphoid hyperplasia, a fecalith, foreign body, inflammation, or neoplasm obstructs the flow of blood and lymphatics. Bacteria proliferate in the diseased appendix, leading to appendiceal inflammation. The inflamed, necrotic appendix can perforate (usually after 24 to 48 hours), leading to either diffuse peritonitis or localized abscess formation. Although it can occur at any age, appendicitis is most common between the ages of 10 and 30 years.

-hCG (pregnancy test) is negative. What is the next step in management? The next step is emergent appendectomy. Do not delay surgery to perform confirmatory testing if the clinical presentation is characteristic. Try to correct fluid and electrolyte imbalances prior to surgery.

If the presentation is less obvious, perform CT scan to confirm the diagnosis.

During the operation, a 1.5-cm appendil carcinoid is detected. No adjacent lymph nodes are

39

found. What is the next step in management? Appendil carcinoids can obstruct the appendiceal lumen and cause appendicitis. Treatment with appendectomy is sufficient. Patients with tumors >2 cm or lymph node involvement should undergo more extensive surgery (right hemicolectomy).

Approximately 10% to 20% of patients have a normal appendix at surgery, which is acceptable because the risk of perforation outweighs the risk of surgery.

P.165

Diverticulitis in the cecum can present exactly like appendicitis. The diagnosis is clarified by CT scan or during surgery.

Alternative 4.9.1
A 20-year-old woman presents with a 5-day history of RLQ pain, nausea, and vomiting. Physical examination is significant for RLQ tenderness and a palpable abdominal mass. Vital signs are temperature 39C, pulse 90 bpm, respirations 20/min , and blood pressure 120/80. Leukocyte count is 12,000 cells/cubic mm. -hCG is negative. What is the next step in management? This patient presents with signs of appendicitis that has perforated and formed an abscess (palpable abdominal mass). Surgery is difficult in this setting. At this time, confirm the diagnosis with a CT scan and treat this stable patient medically (NPO, IV fluids, and IV antibiotics). If an abscess is detected, perform percutaneous drainage. Prevent recurrences with elective appendectomy 6 to 8 weeks after recovery.

CASE 410 CHRONIC EPISODES OF DIFFUSE, CRAMPY, ABDOMINAL PAIN

A 30-year-old woman presents with episodes of diffuse, cramping, abdominal pain occurring over the last 12 months. The episodes occur about twice a week. The pain is often accompanied by diarrhea, which she defines as frequent loose stools of small to moderate volume. She has noticed mucus in her stool but not blood. The stool is not foul smelling. Sometimes she has constipation rather than diarrhea. During this episode, stool is hard and pellet-shaped. Defecation often improves her abdominal discomfort. She denies anorexia, weight loss, or difficulty swallowing. She does not take any medications. Physical examination and vital signs are normal. What is the most likely diagnosis? The patient's symptoms are suggestive of IBS, the most commonly diagnosed GI disorder. Patients present with a variety of GI complaints, but the primary symptoms are chronic abdominal pain and altered bowel habits. Patients may also report abdominal bloating.

Rome Criteria for IBS: Recurrent abdominal pain or discomfort at least 3 days of the month for at least 3 months accompanied by at least two of the following: 1. Altered stool appearance 2. Altered stool frequency 3. Symptoms improve with defecation

Subtypes of IBS are diarrhea-predominant IBS, constipation-predominant IBS, mixed IBS

40

(diarrhea and constipation), and unsubtyped IBS.

What is the next step in management? This patient's symptoms are consistent with mixed IBS. She does not have any alarm symptoms. Limit diagnostic testing to CBC, serum electrolytes, FOBT celiac panel.

What are alarm findings that would warrant further diagnostic testing? Remember alarm findings that warrant further diagnostic testing with the mnemonic DOLLAR: Dysphagia, Odynophagia, Large-volume diarrhea, Loss of weight, Anorexia, and decreased RBCs (anemia or GI bleeding).

Laboratory testing is normal. Stool is guaiac-negative. How is IBS treated?

1.

Education and reassurance: This is the most important intervention in the management of IBS. Acknowledge that the patient's symptoms are real and explain that they are in part P.166 caused by visceral hypersensitivity and an imbalance in the brain-gut connection. Reassure her that although there is no simple cure for this chronic condition, IBS does not degenerate into a serious illness or have any effect on mortality.

2.

Dietary modification: Consider an empiric trial of lactose avoidance. Avoid excessive caffeine. If bloating is a symptom, avoid foods that increase flatulence. If the patient complains of constipation in the absence of bloating, try to increase fiber intake.

3.

Behavioral therapy: Although psychosocial distress does not cause IBS, patients with anxiety, depression, and somatization often perceive symptoms as more severe. Psychotherapy, hypnosis, and biofeedback may benefit motivated patients.

4.

Pharmacologic therapy: Consider medications as a short-term adjunctive measure during severe symptom flares. Treat bloating with antispasmodics like dicyclomine. Treat diarrhea with loperamide (use cautiously in this patient with mixed constipation and diarrhea). Tricyclic antidepressants and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are an option if the patient also suffers from depression.

Tegaserod: Serotonin-4 agonist improves GI motility and may improve symptoms in constipation-predominant IBS.

Alosetron (serotonin-3 antagonist) has been approved for diarrhea-predominant IBS. Poses risk of ischemic colitis and severe constipation, so consider only for the small subset of patients with intolerable symptoms unresponsive to conventional therapy.

Emerging data suggest altered bacteria in the small intestine play a role in IBS. Treatment with antibiotics and probiotics is a promising new strategy to treat IBS.

CASE 411 ACUTE DIARRHEA

A 23-year-old female presents with a 2-day history of diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and mild abdominal cramps. She describes her stools as watery and unformed occurring three to four times a day. She does not have any abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, or blood in her stool. She denies recent travel, sick contacts, antibiotic use, or hospitalization. She is a vegan; she has never had sexual intercourse or used IV drugs. She works at home as a software designer. Physical exam and vitals are normal.

41

What is the differential diagnosis of acute diarrhea? The number one cause of acute diarrhea is infections (viral > bacterial > parasitic). Other common causes are medications, food intolerance, inflammatory bowel disease, and ischemic colitis (in elderly patients). Carcinoid syndrome and thyrotoxicosis are uncommon etiologies.

What is the next step in management? Most cases of diarrhea are benign and self-limited. This patient with mild watery diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and mild abdominal cramping most likely has a viral gastroenteritis. The next step for this stable patient with no concerning findings on history and physical exam is to advise supportive measures such as adequate nutrition, rehydration, and loperamide on an as-needed basis. Avoid dairy products because infectious enteritis often temporarily causes lactose malabsorption.

Diarrhea: 3 loose or watery stools per day Acute diarrhea: duration 14 days Persistent diarrhea: duration 15 to 30 days Chronic diarrhea: duration >30 days

P.167 When are diagnostic tests indicated in patients with acute diarrhea? Remember the indications for diagnostic testing in patients with acute diarrhea using the mnemonic BAD SHIT:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Bloody stools Age 70 years or recent Antibiotic use Duration >48 hours Severe abdominal pain Hypovolemia (or >6 unformed stools/day) or recent Hospitalization Immunosuppression Temperature >38.5C

When is empiric antibiotic therapy indicated for patients with acute diarrhea? Consider empiric therapy with an oral fluoroquinolone after obtaining samples for initial diagnostic tests if the patient has any of the following (mnemonic: BaD sHIT):

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Bloody stools Duration >7 days Hypovolemia or frequency >8 stools/day Immunosuppression Temperature >38.5C or mild to moderate Traveller's diarrhea (refer to Chapter 1: Health Maintenance and Statistics).

The patient returns to the clinic 2 days later. Her diarrhea has worsened and she now has nine watery stools per day. On physical examination, skin turgor is decreased. Temperature is 37C

42

and heart rate is 90 bpm. Blood pressure is 120/80 supine but falls to 100/60 in the standing position. What is the next step in management? This patient has had diarrhea for 4 days (>48 hours). She has nine stools per day and signs of hypovolemia (decreased skin turgor and orthostatic hypotension). The next step is to sample stool for occult blood and fecal leukocytes:

1. 2.

Negative FOBT and fecal leukocytes: Consider empiric oral fluoroquinolone. Elevated fecal leukocytes: Perform stool culture. Consider empiric oral fluoroquinolone while waiting for the results of the stool culture. If stool culture is positive, tailor antibiotics on the basis of the particular microorganism (Table 4-6).

TABLE 46 Common Infectious Causes of Diarrhea in Immunocompetent Patients Organism Bacteria associated with fever and bloody diarrhea (inflammatory diarrhea) Nontyphoidal salmonella First Choice Antibiotic

Usually not indicated

Campylobacter

Erythromycin (only for severe infection)

Escherichia coli 0157:H7 (enterohemorrhagic)

Antibiotics contraindicated

Enteroinvasive E. coli

Oral fluoroquinolone

Yersinia

Oral fluoroquinolone

Shigella

Oral fluoroquinolone

Bacteria associated with watery diarrhea a (noninflammatory diarrhea)

Vibrio cholerae

Doxycyclin

Clostridium perfringens

Not indicated

Enterotoxigenic E. coli

Oral fluoroquinolone

Staphylococcus aureus

Usually not indicated

Clostridium difficile

Metronidazole

Parasite associated with fever and bloody diarrhea (inflammatory diarrhea)

Entamoeba histolytica

Metronidazole

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Parasites associated with watery diarrhea (noninflammatory diarrhea)

Cryptosporidium

Usually not indicated

Giardia lamblia

Metronidazole

Cyclospora

Trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole

a Viruses that cause watery diarrhea are Norwalk virus, rotavirus, enterovirus, and adenovirus. No antimicrobial is necessary. Notes: SBO: voluminous watery diarrhea, periumbilical cramps, bloating, nausea, or vomiting; fecal leucocytes not elevated (noninflammatory diarrhea). LBO: invasion of colon tissue causes fever, and bloody diarrhea, also known as dysentery; fecal leukocytes are elevated (inflammatory diarrhea). Elevated fecal leukocyte levels indicate inflammatory diarrhea or inflammatory bowel disease. Common source of E. coli 0157:H7 is undercooked beef; produces symptoms within 2 days due to Shiga-like toxin; antibiotics increase risk of hemolytic uremic syndrome and thrombocytopenia purpura. Shigella symptoms are caused by Shiga toxin; patients often have tenesmus. Vibrio cholera: stool often described as voluminous rice water diarrhea. Staphylococcus aureus and Norwalk virus produce symptoms hours after consuming contaminated food due to preformed toxin; major presenting symptom is vomiting. Salmonella typhi causes typhoid fever (systemic signs, salmon color spots on trunk).

When should you test a patient for ova and parasites? Also test for ova and parasites with three separate specimens on consecutive days in the following situations (Ova & Parasites Thrive In Bad Daycare):

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Waterborne Outbreak in community Persistent diarrhea Travel (recent) Immunosuppression Bloody diarrhea with negative fecal leukocytes Daycare center job

Alternative 4.11.1
A 60-year-old woman was hospitalized 5 days ago for treatment of a diabetic foot infection. On the first day in the hospital, clindamycin was initiated. The patient now complains of eight to nine watery stools per day, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal cramps relieved by defecation. On physical examination, skin turgor is decreased. Temperature is 38.6C. Other vital signs are normal. P.168 What diagnostic test is indicated in addition to fecal leukocytes and FOBT? Order an assay for C. difficile cytotoxin when a patient presents with acute diarrhea during or shortly after hospitalization or antibiotic administration. C. difficile colonizes the gut after antibiotics alter the normal gut flora. The most commonly implicated antibiotics are clindamycin and ampicillin.

Spectrum of C. difficile infection: 1. Asymptomatic: Most patients are asymptomatic carriers.

44

2. Mild diarrhea without colitis: Second most common presentation is mild watery diarrhea without fever, leukocytosis, or dehydration. 3. Colitis without pseudomembranes: Five to 15 watery stools per day, fever, and abdominal cramps are relieved by defecation. 4. Pseudomembranous colitis: Symptoms are the same as colitis without pseudomembranes. Patient also has white-yellow plaques on colon mucosa. Fulminant colitis: Rarely, patients may present with obstruction, toxic megacolon, or perforation.

C. difficile cytotoxin assay is positive. How is C. difficile infection treated? Discontinue clindamycin and other antibiotics. Correct any fluid and electrolyte imbalances. Avoid loperamide and opiates. Antibiotics are only indicated for patients with symptoms of colitis or persistent diarrhea. This patient with symptoms of colitis should receive a 10- to P.169 14-day course of metronidazole. If symptoms do not resolve with metronidazole, use oral vancomycin. If the patient develops signs of peritonitis, surgical management is indicated.

Pregnancy is a contraindication to metronidazole. Pregnant patients with C. difficile colitis should take oral vancomycin.

Prevention of hospital-acquired C. difficile infection: Wear gloves prior to contact with infected patients. Wash hands with soap and water after removing gloves.

CASE 412 CHRONIC DIARRHEA

A 24-year-old Caucasian female presents with a 6-month history of diarrhea. She reports three to four watery stools a day. She has not noticed any blood in her stools. She also reports decreased appetite and a 5-lb weight loss. She sometimes takes Imodium (loperamide), which partially controls her symptoms. She tried a trial of lactose avoidance, which failed to control her symptoms. She has not taken any other medications or been hospitalized in the past year. She does not have any other medical problems. Physical examination and vital signs are normal. What initial workup is indicated for this patient with chronic diarrhea? History and physical often suggests a possible cause for chronic diarrhea (Table 4-7). Because a specific cause is not apparent in this case, order the following initial tests:

1.

CBC and differential: identifies anemia (indicates chronic GI bleeding versus chronic inflammation), leukocytosis (indicates inflammation), and eosinophilia (indicates allergy versus collagen vascular disease versus parasite infection versus eosinophilic gastritis versus cancer).

2. 3. 4.

FOBT: identifies GI bleeding. Thyroid function tests: hyperthyroidism can cause chronic diarrhea. Serum electrolytes and LFTs: May identify liver abnormalities or systemic conditions associated with diarrhea such as DM.

5.

Total protein and albumin: indicators of general nutritional status.

TABLE 47 Causes of Chronic Diarrhea in Immunocompetent Adults

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Inflammatory diarrhea

Classic presentation: Fever, hematochezia, abdominal pain pertinent travel history, recent antibiotic use, recent hospitalization, or history of radiation.

Causes: 1. 2. 3. Chronic infections Inflammatory bowel disease Radiation enteritis

Secretory diarrhea

Classic presentation: Voluminous diarrhea that does not decrease with fasting.

Causes: 1. 2. 3. Laxative abuse Bile salt malabsorption (e.g., after cholecystectomy) Hormonal tumors (VIPoma, carcinoid, medullary thyroid carcinoma, ZES)

Malabsorptive diarrhea

Classic presentation: Voluminous pale, greasy, foul-smelling diarrhea and weight loss despite adequate food intake. Many patients do not present with classic symptoms.

Causes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Bacterial overgrowth Small bowel mucosa disorders (celiac sprue, tropical sprue, Whipple's disease) Pancreas insufficiency (chronic pancreatitis, pancreatic carcinoma, cystic fibrosis) Small bowel resection Lymphatic obstruction (intestinal lymphoma, intestinal tuberculosis, carcinoid)

Osmotic diarrhea

Classic presentation: History of fat-free foods, lactulose, antacids, or symptoms worse with dairy produ