Experiment with an Air Pump Joseph Wright
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment was an 18th Century intellectual movement primarily among the upper and upper-middle class philosophes, that stressed the application of reason and the scientific method to all aspects of life.
Frontispiece of Diderots Encyclopedie (1751 edition) *HINT: It is an allegory*
The Enlightenment Core Ideas
Rejection of traditional/institutional Christianity
Secularization vs. Divine Revelation
deism, atheism
Materialism
Rejection of tradition for traditions sake
Have courage to use your own understanding! Individualism/Liberty/Natural Rights
All political, religious, social, economic institutions/systems subject to rational skepticism, criticism, deconstruction Embracement of ideas of the Scientific Revolution
(inductive reasoning, empiricism, rationalism) Transition from work that revealed God to natural revelations independent of traditional Christianity
Rejection of religious intolerance, contradictions, censorship Application of Natural Laws (Newton) economy, society, politics, human behavior
Progressive & Destructive
Progress confidence in the power of reason & pursuit of perfection Urban (Parisian) movement: Salons Inevitability of Conflict: Enlightenment thinkers desire change, Ancien Regime seeks stability and preservation of power and institutions
Immanuel Kant An Answer to the Question: What is the Enlightenment? (1784)
Definition of the Enlightenment Enlightenment is man's emergence from his selfimposed immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one's understanding without guidance from another. This immaturity is self-imposed when its cause lies not in lack of understanding, but in lack of resolve and courage to use it without guidance from another. Sapere Aude! [dare to know] Have courage to use your own understanding!--that is the motto of enlightenment. PUT THIS INTO YOUR OWN WORDS
Challenges to Becoming Enlightened It is so easy to be immature. If I have a book to serve as my understanding, a pastor to serve as my conscience, a physician to determine my diet for me, and so on, I need not exert myself at all. I need not think, if only I can pay: others will readily undertake the irksome work for me. The guardians who have so benevolently taken over the supervision of men have carefully seen to it that the far greatest part of them (including the entire fair sex) regard taking the step to maturity as very dangerous, not to mention difficult. Having first made their domestic livestock dumb, and having carefully made sure that these docile creatures will not take a single step without the go-cart to which they are harnessed, these guardians then show them the danger that threatens them, should they attempt to walk alone. Now this danger is not actually so great, for after falling a few times they would in the end certainly learn to walk; but an example of this kind makes men timid and usually frightens them out of all further attempts. WHO ARE THE GUARDIANS IN THE LATE 18TH C.? WHAT DO THEY WANT?
Immanuel Kant (cont.)
Follow orders, but criticize as a scholar
Freedom vs. Control the Role of Officer, the Citizen the Pastor Nothing is required for this enlightenment, however, except freedom; and the freedom in question is the least harmful of all, namely, the freedom to use reason publicly in all matters. But on all sides I hear: "Do not argue!"
The officer says, "Do not argue, drill!" The tax man says, "Do not argue, pay!" The pastor says, "Do not argue, believe!"
Pay taxes but question the injustice
In this we have examples of pervasive restrictions on freedom.
WHAT WOULD BE HIS ENLIGHTENMENT INSPIRED ADVICE TO THESE FOLKS? IMPLICATIONS?
Preach the doctrine, but carefully arrive at your conclusions
I. Paths to the Enlightenment
A. Popularization of science
Bernard de Fontanelle (French, 1657-1757) Famous work: Plurality of Worlds
B. Skepticism?
Pierre Bayle (French, 1647-1706)
Famous work: Historical and Critical Dictionary
C. Impact of travel Literature
James Cook noble savage Cultural relativism
D. Legacy of Issac Newton
-Newtonian world machine -attempt to discover the natural laws of politics, economics, justice, religion and the arts
d. Legacy of Locke
Essay Concerning
Tabula rasa
Human Understanding
John Locke
Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas:- How comes it to be furnished?
Locke (continued)
He that attentively considers the state of a child, at his first coming into the world, will have little reason to think him stored with plenty of ideas, that are to be the matter of his future knowledge.
30 Second Pause
What do you think? Are we born with certain ideas/abilities, or are we a tabula rasa?
II. The Philosophes A. Who were they? -literary people, professors, journalists, statesmen, economists, political scientists, and social reformers -mostly from the nobility and middle class
B. The Reading Public
Expansion of literacy
Literacy rate in 1780s France Men: 47% Women: 27% Beginnings of newspapers & magazines Demand for different types of literature Growing power of educated middle class public opinion
C. Censorship
Why were they censored? Strength of censorship? Effects of censorship
Writers worked around it Readers developed taste for forbidden books
D. Paris: Heart of the Enlightenment were the Salons Conducted by salonnires Madame de Geoffrin Planning of salons Promotion of talent and creativity over nobility Survival of salons after the French Revolution Influence in political affairs
A. Baron de Montesquieu (French, 1689-1755)
or Charles de Secondat
Persian Letters 1721 - critical Church and monarchy The Spirit of the Laws 1748
Comparative study of governments Praise of England freedoms? Separation of powers Protection from absolute monarchies
B. Voltaire (French, 1694-1778)
or Francois-Marie Arouet
Philosophic Letters on the English Calas affair
Jean Calas (Protestant) accused of murdering son for becoming Catholic
Treatise on Toleration 1763
Crush the infamous thing!
Candide humor to attack
Deism- God created the universe and lets it run according to its own natural laws without any direct involvement
Voltaire
I shall never cease, my dear sir, to preach tolerance from the housetopsDoubtless, I shall never see the fruits of my efforts, but are seeds which may one day germinate.
Voltaire (continued)
Tolerance has never brought civil war; intolerance has covered the earth with carnage.
Voltaire 1694 1778 If there were no God it would be necessary to invent one. *Religion is desired for it provides a moral foundation to live on. Religion also helps to limit anti-social behavior.
I do not agree with a word you say but I will defend to the death you right to say it.
C. Denis Diderot (French, 1713-1784)
Encyclopedia 1751 Helped spread ideas Change French society
Denis Diderot
Men and their liberty are not objects of commerce; they can be neither sold nor bought nor paid for at any price.
D. Immanuel Kant
Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence! is therefore the motto of the enlightenment.
Kant (continued)
It is so comfortable to be a minor! If I have a book which provides meaning for me, a pastor who has a conscience for me, a doctor who will judge my diet for me and so on, then I do not need to exert myself.
Kant (continued) All that is required for this enlightenment is freedomnamely, the freedom for man to make public use of his reason in all matters.
E. David Hume (Scottish, 1711-1776)
Treatise on Human Nature
science of man that examined the psychological basis of human nature
F. Mary Wolstonecraft published an essay called A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792 1. Wolstonecraft promoted womens rights in education, jobs, and politics.
2. Contradictions a. If it was wrong for a monarch to have absolute power over the citizens or a slave owner to control a slave, why must women obey men? b. If reason is innate in all humans, why are women entitled to the same rights as men?
30 Second Pause What do you remember about the economic philosophy of mercantilism?
B. Francois Quesnay (French, 1697-1774)
Physiocrats Claimed to uncover natural laws that govern economics Principles 1. Only true source of wealth is land 2. Laissez-faire
let people do as they choose Dont mess with natural laws of supply & demand
Different from mercantilists
C. Adam Smith (Scottish, 1723-1790)
The Wealth of Nations (1776) 1) condemned mercantilists support of tariffs; championed free trade 2) only true source of wealth is labor
Adam Smith (Scottish, 1723-1790)
3) championed laissez-faire; also, said govt should confine itself to three tasks Protect society from invasion economic Protect citizens rights liberalism Public works
V. Political Science and the Social Contract
A. Thomas Hobbes wrote the book Leviathan in 1651. 1. The horrors of the English Civil War convinced Hobbes that all humans were naturally selfish and wicked.
2. Without governments to keep order, life would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.
3. Hobbes social contract stated that the people should give power to an absolute monarch in exchange the people gain law and order.
4. Because people acted in their own self interests, the ruler needed total power to keep citizens under control. People are naturally evil.
B. John Lockes wrote the book The Second Treatise of Government in 1640. 1. The English Civil War convinced Locke that the king should not have divine right of kings. Instead, the Parliament and the people should have power and rights.
2. In the state of nature each individual has the natural rights of life, liberty, and property. People are naturally good.
3. Lockes social contract has the people giving power to the government, in exchange the government protects the peoples natural rights.
4. If government fails to protect the natural rights of the people, the people have the right to overthrow the government.
5. Economics
a. All unused land is in the state of nature.
b. Anyone who uses the land and makes it produce something has the right to own the land since they made the land productive.
c. Those who cause the land to produce are good for society because they add to the wealth of society.
d. Those who labor for the land owners make a contract with the land owner. The land owner pays the laborer for making the land productive. If the laborer is unhappy with his pay, the laborer may make a contract with another owner.
C. Jean Jacques Rousseau wrote the Social Contract in 1762. 1. Rousseaus social contract was an agreement among free individuals to create a society and a government.
2. Society is to be governed by the general will. 3. The general will represent whatever is best for the entire community. 4. Liberty was achieved through being forced to follow what was best for all people because what was best for all was the best for the individual.
4. Rousseaus philosophy of a much broader democracy inspired the leaders of the French Revolution to overthrow the monarchy in 1789.
VI. Impact of the Enlightenment A. Belief in Progress 1. The successes of the Scientific Revolution gave people confidence that human reason can solve social problems.
2. Philosophers and reformers urged an end to slavery, social inequality, and improvements in education. 3. Through reason a better society was possible.
B. A More Secular Outlook on Life 1. No more blind acceptance of religious teachings.
2. The mysteries of the universe could be solved by mathematically explaining it.
3. Religious tolerance was promoted while religious superstition and fear declined.
C. Importance of the Individual 1. The Church and the monarchies declined in importance.
2. The belief that the government was formed by individuals to promote their welfare.
Influence of Locke on the US: Social contract Natural right Right to overthrow an abusive govt Idea of property ownership Role of the worker and the owner
Influence of Voltaire on the US: -Freedom of Speech and Freedom of Press
C. Influence of Montesquieu on the US: -separation of powers and checks and balances
Influence of Wolstonecraft on the US: -promotion of womens rights and forming womens rights groups
