"Homo sapiens" redirects here. For other uses, see Homo sapiens (disambiguation) .

This article is about modern humans. For other human species, see Homo. For othe r uses, see Human (disambiguation).

Human[1] Temporal range: 0.1950 Ma Pre

O S D C P T J K Pg N

Pleistocene Recent

Human male and female

Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[2]

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Primates

Family: Hominidae

Tribe: Hominini

Genus: Homo

Species: H. sapiens

Binomial name

Homo sapiens Linnaeus, 1758

Subspecies

Homo sapiens idaltu Homo sapiens sapiens

Synonyms

Species synonymy[1][show]

Humans (known taxonomically as Homo sapiens,[3][4] Latin for "wise man" or "know ing man")[5] are the only living species in the Homo genus of bipedal primates i n Hominidae, the great ape family. Anatomically modern humans originated in Afri ca about 200,000 years ago, reaching full behavioral modernity around 50,000 yea rs ago.[6] Humans have a highly developed brain, capable of abstract reasoning, language, i ntrospection, and problem solving. This mental capability, combined with an erec t body carriage that frees the hands for manipulating objects, has allowed human s to make far greater use of tools than any other living species on Earth. Other higher-level thought processes of humans, such as self-awareness, rationality, and sapience,[7][8][9] are considered to be defining features of what constitute s a "person".[10][11] Like most higher primates, humans are social animals. Humans are uniquely adept at utilizing systems of communication for self-expression, the exchange of ideas , and organization. Humans create complex social structures composed of many coo perating and competing groups, from families to nations. Social interactions bet ween humans have established an extremely wide variety of values, social norms, and rituals, which together form the basis of human society. With individuals wi despread in every continent except Antarctica, humans are a cosmopolitan species . In January 2011, the human population was estimated to be about 6.91 billion.[ 12] Humans are noted for their desire to understand and influence their environment, seeking to explain and manipulate phenomena through science, philosophy, mythol ogy, and religion. This natural curiosity has led to the development of advanced tools and skills, which are passed down culturally; humans are the only species known to build fires, cook their food, clothe themselves, and use numerous othe r technologies. The study of humans is the scientific discipline of anthropology .

Contents [hide] 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Evolution 2.2 Paleolithic

2.3 Transition to civilization 3 Habitat and population 4 Biology 4.1 Anatomy 4.2 Physiology 4.3 Genetics 4.4 Life cycle 4.5 Race and ethnicity 4.6 Diet 4.7 Sleep 5 Psychology 5.1 Consciousness and thought 5.2 Motivation and emotion 6 Society and culture 6.1 Sexuality and love 6.2 Gender roles 6.3 Society, government, and politics 6.4 Trade and economics 6.5 War 6.6 Material culture and technology 6.7 Language 6.8 Spirituality and religion 6.9 Philosophy and self-reflection 6.10 Art, music, and literature 7 References 8 External links Etymology Further information: Man (word) and List of alternative names for the human spec ies The English adjective human is a Middle English loanword from Old French humain, ultimately from Latin hmnus, the adjective form of hom "man". The word's use as a noun (with a plural: humans) dates to the 16th century.[13] The native English t erm man is now often reserved for male adults, but the term "mankind" is occasio nally used to refer to the species generally in Modern English. This use is cons idered by many to be obsolete.[14] The word is from Proto-Germanic *mannaz, from a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root *man-, a cognate to Sanskrit manu-. The generic name Homo is a learned 18th century derivation from Latin hom "man", ultimately "earthly being" (Old Latin hem, a cognate to Old English guma "man", f rom PIE *d emon-, meaning 'earth' or 'ground').[15] History Evolution Main article: Human evolution Further information: Anthropology, Homo (genus), and Timeline of human evolution

Plesiadapis

A reconstruction of Australopithecus afarensis, a human ancestor that had develo ped bipedalism, but which lacked the large brain of modern humans

Craniums 1. Gorilla 2. Australopithecus 3. Homo erectus 4. Neanderthal (La Chapelle aux Saints) 5. Steinheim Skull 6. Euhominid Scientific study of human evolution is concerned, primarily, with the developmen t of the genus Homo, but usually involves studying other hominids and hominines as well, such as Australopithecus. "Modern humans" are defined as the Homo sapie ns species, of which the only extant subspecies is known as Homo sapiens sapiens . Homo sapiens idaltu (roughly translated as "elder wise human"), the other know n subspecies, is now extinct.[16] Homo neanderthalensis, which became extinct 30 ,000 years ago, has sometimes been classified as a subspecies, "Homo sapiens nea nderthalensis"; genetic studies now suggest that the functional DNA of modern hu mans and Neanderthals diverged 500,000 years ago.[17] Similarly, the discovered specimens of the Homo rhodesiensis species have been classified by some as a sub species, but this classification is not widely accepted. Anatomically modern humans first appear in the fossil record in Africa about 195 ,000 years ago, and studies of molecular biology give evidence that the approxim ate time of divergence from the common ancestor of all modern human populations was 200,000 years ago.[18][19][20][21][22] The broad study of African genetic di versity headed by Dr. Sarah Tishkoff found the San people to express the greates t genetic diversity among the 113 distinct populations sampled, making them one of 14 "ancestral population clusters". The research also located the origin of m odern human migration in south-western Africa, near the coastal border of Namibi a and Angola.[23] The evolutionary history of primates can be traced back 65 million years. Primat es are one of the oldest of all surviving placental mammal groups. The oldest kn own primate-like mammal species (those of the genus Plesiadapis) come from North America, but inhabited Eurasia and Africa on a wide scale during the tropical c onditions of the Paleocene and Eocene. Molecular evidence suggests that the last common ancestor between humans and the remaining great apes diverged 48 million years ago. The gorillas were the first group to split, then the chimpanzees (genus Pan) spl it off from the line leading to the humans. The functional portion of human DNA is approximately 98.4% identical to that of chimpanzees when comparing single nu cleotide polymorphisms (see human evolutionary genetics). Therefore, the closest living relatives of humans are gorillas and chimpanzees, as they share a relati vely recent common ancestor.[24] Humans are probably most closely related to two chimpanzee species: the Common C himpanzee and the Bonobo.[24] Full genome sequencing has resulted in the conclus ion that "after 6.5 [million] years of separate evolution, the differences betwe en chimpanzee and human are ten times greater than those between two unrelated p eople and ten times less than those between rats and mice".[attribution needed] Current estimates of suggested concurrence between functional human and chimpanz ee DNA sequences range between 95% and 99%;[25][26][27][28] Early estimates indi cated that the human lineage may have diverged from that of chimpanzees about fi ve million years ago, and from that of gorillas about eight million years ago. H owever, a hominid skull discovered in Chad in 2001, classified as Sahelanthropus tchadensis, is approximately seven million years old, and may be evidence of an

earlier divergence.[29] Human evolution is characterised by a number of important changesmorphological, d evelopmental, physiological, and behaviouralwhich have taken place since the spli t between the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. The first major mo rphological change was the evolution of a bipedal locomotor adaptation from an a rboreal or semi-arboreal one,[30] with all its attendant adaptations (a valgus k nee, low intermembral index (long legs relative to the arms), reduced upper-body strength). The human species developed a much larger brain than that of other primates typi cally 1,400 cm in modern humans, over twice the size of that of a chimpanzee or g orilla. The pattern of human postnatal brain growth differs from that of other a pes (heterochrony), and allows for extended periods of social learning and langu age acquisition in juvenile humans. Physical anthropologists[who?] argue that th e differences between the structure of human brains and those of other apes are even more significant than their differences in size. Other significant morphological changes included the evolution of a power and pr ecision grip,[31] a reduced masticatory system, a reduction of the canine tooth, and the descent of the larynx and hyoid bone, making speech possible. An import ant physiological change in humans was the evolution of hidden oestrus, or conce aled ovulation, which may have coincided with the evolution of important behavio ural changes, such as pair bonding. Another significant behavioural change was t he development of material culture, with human-made objects becoming increasingl y common and diversified over time. The relationship between all these changes i s the subject of ongoing debate.[32][33] The forces of natural selection have continued to operate on human populations, with evidence that certain regions of the genome display directional selection i n the past 15,000 years.[34] Paleolithic Further information: Recent African Origin, Archaic Homo sapiens, Upper Paleolit hic, and Early human migrations

Artistic expression appeared in the Upper Paleolithic: The Venus of Doln Vstonice figurine, one of the earliest known depictions of the human body, dates to appro ximately 29,00025,000 BP (Gravettian). Anatomically modern humans evolved from archaic Homo sapiens in Africa in the Mi ddle Paleolithic, about 200,000 years ago. By the beginning of the Upper Paleoli thic period (50,000 BP [Before Present]), full behavioral modernity, including l anguage, music and other cultural universals had developed. The out of Africa migration is estimated to have occurred about 70,000 years BP. Modern humans subsequently spread to all continents, replacing earlier hominids : they inhabited Eurasia and Oceania by 40,000 years BP, and the Americas at lea st 14,500 years BP.[35] A popular theory is that they displaced Homo neanderthal ensis and other species descended from Homo erectus[36] (which had inhabited Eur asia as early as 2 million years ago) through more successful reproduction and c ompetition for resources.[37] The exact manner or extent of the coexistence and interaction of these species is unknown and continues to be a controversial subj ect.[citation needed] Evidence from archaeogenetics accumulating since the 1990s has lent strong suppo

rt to the "out-of-Africa" scenario, and has marginalized the competing multiregi onal hypothesis, which proposed that modern humans evolved, at least in part, fr om independent hominid populations.[38] Geneticists Lynn Jorde and Henry Harpending of the University of Utah propose th at the variation in human DNA is minute compared to that of other species. They also propose that during the Late Pleistocene, the human population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs no more than 10,000, and possibly as few as 1,000 resulting in a very small residual gene pool. Various reasons for this hyp othetical bottleneck have been postulated, one being the Toba catastrophe theory .[39] Transition to civilization Main articles: Neolithic revolution and Cradle of Civilization Further information: History of the world

The rise of agriculture, and domestication of animals, led to stable human settl ements.

The path followed by humans in the course of history Until c. 10,000 years ago, most humans lived as hunter-gatherers. They generally lived in small nomadic groups known as band societies. The advent of agricultur e prompted the Neolithic Revolution, when access to food surplus led to the form ation of permanent human settlements, the domestication of animals and the use o f metal tools for the first time in history. Agriculture encouraged trade and co operation, and led to complex society. Because of the significance of this date for human society, it is the epoch of the Holocene calendar or Human Era. About 6,000 years ago, the first proto-states developed in Mesopotamia, Egypt's Nile Valley and the Indus Valleys. Military forces were formed for protection, a nd government bureaucracies for administration. States cooperated and competed f or resources, in some cases waging wars. Around 2,0003,000 years ago, some states , such as Persia, India, China, Rome, and Greece, developed through conquest int o the first expansive empires. Influential religions, such as Judaism, originati ng in West Asia, and Hinduism, a religious tradition that originated in South As ia, also rose to prominence at this time. The late Middle Ages saw the rise of revolutionary ideas and technologies. In Ch ina, an advanced and urbanized society promoted innovations and sciences, such a s printing and seed drilling. In India, major advancements were made in mathemat ics, philosophy, religion and metallurgy. The Islamic Golden Age saw major scien tific advancements in Muslim empires. In Europe, the rediscovery of classical le arning and inventions such as the printing press led to the Renaissance in the 1 4th and 15th centuries. Over the next 500 years, exploration and colonialism bro ught great parts of the world under European control, leading to later struggles for independence. The Scientific Revolution in the 17th century and the Industr ial Revolution in the 18th19th centuries promoted major innovations in transport, such as the railway and automobile; energy development, such as coal and electr icity; and government, such as representative democracy and Communism. With the advent of the Information Age at the end of the 20th century, modern hu

mans live in a world that has become increasingly globalized and interconnected. As of 2010, almost 2 billion humans are able to communicate with each other via the Internet,[40] and 3.3 billion by mobile phone subscriptions.[41] Although interconnection between humans has encouraged the growth of science, ar t, discussion, and technology, it has also led to culture clashes and the develo pment and use of weapons of mass destruction. Human civilization has led to envi ronmental destruction and pollution, producing an ongoing mass extinction of oth er forms of life called the holocene extinction event,[42] that may be further a ccelerated by global warming in the future.[43] Habitat and population Further information: Human migration, Demography, and World population See also: City, Town, Nomad, Camping, Farm, House, Watercraft, Infrastructure, A rchitecture, Building, and Engineering

Humans often live in family-based social structures and create artificial shelte r. Early human settlements were dependent on proximity to water and, depending on t he lifestyle, other natural resources used for subsistence, such as populations of animal prey for hunting and arable land for growing crops and grazing livesto ck. But humans have a great capacity for altering their habitats by means of tec hnology; through irrigation, urban planning, construction, transport, manufactur ing goods, deforestation and desertification. Deliberate habitat alteration is o ften done with the goals of increasing material wealth, increasing thermal comfo rt, improving the amount of food available, improving aesthetics, or improving e ase of access to resources or other human settlements. With the advent of largescale trade and transport infrastructure, proximity to these resources has becom e unnecessary, and in many places, these factors are no longer a driving force b ehind the growth and decline of a population. Nonetheless, the manner in which a habitat is altered is often a major determinant in population change. Technology has allowed humans to colonize all of the continents and adapt to vir tually all climates. Within the last century, humans have explored Antarctica, t he ocean depths, and outer space, although large-scale colonization of these env ironments is not yet feasible. With a population of over six billion, humans are among the most numerous of the large mammals. Most humans (61%) live in Asia. T he remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (14%), Europe (11%), and Oceania (0.5%). Human habitation within closed ecological systems in hostile environments, such as Antarctica and outer space, is expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Life in space has been very sporadic, with no more than thirteen humans in space at any given tim e[citation needed]. Between 1969 and 1972, two humans at a time spent brief inte rvals on the Moon. As of July 2011, no other celestial body has been visited by humans, although there has been a continuous human presence in space since the l aunch of the initial crew to inhabit the International Space Station on October 31, 2000. However, other celestial bodies have been visited by human-made object s. Since 1800, the human population has increased from one billion to over six bill ion.[44] In 2004, some 2.5 billion out of 6.3 billion people (39.7%) lived in ur ban areas, and this percentage is expected to continue to rise throughout the 21

st century. In February 2008, the U.N. estimated that half the world's populatio n will live in urban areas by the end of the year.[45] Problems for humans livin g in cities include various forms of pollution and crime,[46] especially in inne r city and suburban slums. Humans have had a dramatic effect on the environment. As humans are rarely preye d upon, they have been described as superpredators.[47] Currently, through land development, combustion of fossil fuels and pollution, humans are thought to be the main contributor to global climate change.[48] Human activity is believed to be a major contributor to the ongoing Holocene extinction event, which is a for m of mass extinction. If this continues at its current rate it is predicted that it will wipe out half of all species over the next century.[49][50] Biology