F 0 U R T H

E D

T

o N

: FREE COPY NOT TO BE SOLD FREE COPY NOT TO BE SOLD FREE COpy NOT TO .

B

o

i

~

~

~

I

13

~

Including Students with Special Needs

A Practical Guide

for Classroom Teachers

Marilyn Friend

University of North Carolina at Greensboro

William D. Bursuck

University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Boston I New York I San Francisco

Mexico City I Montreal I Toronto I London I Madrid I Munich I Paris Hong Kong I Singapore I Tokyo I Cape Town I Sydney

FREE COpy NOT TO BE SOLD FREE COpy NOT TO BE SOLD FREE COpy N

--

(Special Education

•

\ Procedures and

• • •

\ Services

OBJECTIVES

After you read this chapter, you will be able to

1. Explain the roles and responsibilities of the individuals who may participate in educating students with disabilities.

2. Describe the process through which a student may become eligible to receive special education services.

3. Name the components of individualized education programs (IEPs) and provide examples of them.

4. Describe the types of services that students with disabilities may receive and the settings in which they may receive them.

5. Discuss how parents participate in special education decision making and what occurs when parents and school district representatives disagree.

6. Outline the role of general education teachers in the procedures and services of special education, reflecting on their critical contributions to positive outcomes for students with disabilities.

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Annual review (p. 54)

Due process (p. 55) Individualized education program

(IEP) (p. 53)

Intervention assistance team (p. 49)

Mediation (p. 56) Multidisciplinary team (MDT)

(p. 50)

Self-determination (p. 42) Three-year reevaluation (p. 55) Transition plan (p. 60)

It mentions steps

Jelmiter prepare for a vocational proschool. Ms. Lee notes that speech/language therapist, the transition specialist, and the social worker are mentioned, but the special education teacher is listed as the person to contact to answer questions. • What roles do classroom teachers play in writing and implementing IEPs? What is their responsibility for ensuring that IEP accommodations are available in the classroom? Who are the other service providers teachers may work with as they educate students with disabilities?

33

MS.TURNER TEACHES SCIENCE

to seventh graders. Toward the end of the last school year, she was invited to become a member other school's inclusive practices team. At a summer professional development seminar, she learned that many of the students in her school leave general education classes for a significant part of each day to receive special education services and that some students attend a different school. She worked with her colleagues to develop a plan to ex-

amine whether the options available to students at her school encourage inclusive practices, to reconsider the types of services students should receive, and to enlist the assistance of administrators, parents, and teachers in refining the school's services. • What is meant by a continuum of placement option? How does it affect students with disabilities? How does it affect general education teachers and otherschool stoff? How are decisions about placement mode?

As a teacher, you will encounter students who are struggling in school. Some may appear to be doing everything they can not to learn. Others try their best but still are

not successful. You might even have students who you suspect have a vision or hearing problem so serious that it prevents them from learning. You may find yourself wondering whether some of these students should be receiving special education services and who will provide them. This chapter introduces you to people who specialize in working with students with disabilities and procedures for deciding whether a student is eligible for special education services. You also will learn how students' individualized instructional programs are designed and monitored and which services students with disabilities use. You will discover that parents playa crucial role in special education procedures and that when they or students disagree with school professionals about special services,

procedures exist to help them resolve these differences. Most important, you will learn about your role in working with other professionals and parents to determine student eligibility for special education, carrying out students' educational programs, and monitoring student learning.

You will learn about your role in wor-king with other professionals and parents to determine student eligibility for special education, carrying out students' educational programs, and monitoring student learning.

ho Are the Professionals in Special Education?

Students with disabilities are entitled to a wide range of supports and services. Not surprisingly, many different individuals, sometimes collectively referred to as special seroices staff members, can be involved in the delivery of these services. You probably will interact with some of these professionals, such as special education teachers, almost every day. Others you might work with only occasionally. Some of these professionals serve students indirectly, or they work only with the few students who have the most challenging disabilities. Together, however, these educators create, implement, and evaluate the special education that students with disabilities receive.

General Education Teachers

As the general education teacher; you are the first professional discussed in this section because for many students with suspected or documented disabilities, you are the person who has the most detailed knowledge of students' clay-to-day needs in your classroom. Your responsibilities span several areas. You are the person most likely to

34

Who Are the Professionals in Special Education? 35

bring to the attention of other professionals a student who you suspect may have a disability. That is, you may encounter a student who is reading significantly and persistently below grade level, a student whose behavior is so different from other students' that you suspect an emotional disorder, or a student who has extraordinary difficulty focusing on learning. When you suspect a disability, you document the student's characteristics and behaviors that led to your concern by gathering samples of the student's work, compiling descriptions of the student's behavior, and keeping notes of how you have addressed the student's problem (Lane, Mahdavi, & Borthwick-Duffy, 2003). You work with special education colleagues and other professionals to systematically implement interventions in your classroom to clarify whether the student's problems need further exploration (Buck, Polloway, Smith-Thomas, & Cook, 2003; Knotek, 2003). If the student is referred for assessment for special education, you contribute information about academic and social functioning in your classroom, and you help identify the student's strengths, needs, and educational program components. For example, you might help others understand the curricular expectations in your classroom and the types of adaptations that may be necessary for the student to succeed there. If special education services are deemed necessary, you participate in deciding appropriate goals and, for some students, objectives. You also might assist special services staff members in updating parents on their child's quarterly and yearly progress. Most important, you are expected to work with special services staff to provide appropriate instruction within your classroom (Burstein, Sears, Wilcoxen, Cabello, & Spagna, 2004; DeBettencourt, 1999; Salend, Gordon, & Lopez-Vena, 2002). The responsibilities of a general education teacher are summarized in Figure 2.1.

FaGURE 2. I General Education Teacher Responsibilities in Special Education

Who are the professionals who support students with disabilities and their classroom teachers? What is the classroom teacher's role in identifying students with disabilities and providing their instruction?

Member of pre-referral or intervention assistance team

Provider of day-to-day instruction

Communication link with colleagues

Member of multidisciplinary team that writes the IEP

Identifier of students with possible special needs

Liaison to parents

36

( H A PTE R 2 Special Education Procedures and Services

www.ablonqman.com/frtendz e

RESEARCH NOT E ~\I:~~'Di!"!lil!!_(m!"_. ' • lJt~~ ... ~

Wood (1998) studied teachers' perceptions of their roles in schools that included students with severe disabilities. She found that when inclusion was new, special education and general education kept clear role boundaries. As they worked together, however, those boundaries blurred and collaboration improved.

When all your responsibilities are listed, your role in planning and providing special services to students may seem overwhelming. However, studies of general education teachers typically indicate that they are able and willing to contribute to the education of students with disabilities as long as some conditions are met. The most important conditions include administrative leadership and staff preparation, sufficient time for teacher planning, and adequate funding and other resources for program support (Burstein et aI., 2004; Taylor, Richards, Goldstein, & Schilit, 1997).

Special Education Teachers

Special education teachers are the professionals with whom you are most likely to have ongoing contact in teaching students with disabilities. They are responsible for managing and coordinating the services a student receives, including writing and implementing a student's individualized education program (IEP). They also typically provide direct and indirect instruction to students who are assigned to them (Wood, 1998). In addition, they may consult with you regarding a student suspected of having a disability and work with you to determine whether a referral for assessment for possible special education is warranted, a process explained later in this chapter.

Depending on the state in which you teach and the students in your classroom, you may work with different types of special education teachers. Sometimes, special education teachers are assigned to work with any of the students with disabilities in your class . For example, a special education teacher may support a student with learning disabilities and also work with a student with a moderate cognitive disability or a speech or language impairment. That professional works indirectly with other special education professionals to ensure that each student's educational plan is being implemented and monitored. In some locales, special education teachers work with a specific category of students. For example, your school may have a specific teacher for students with learning disabilities or emotional disabilities. Likewise, a teacher for students with visual or hearing impairments may be available if needed. In states that do not use categorical labels for students, some teachers work with students with high-incidence disabilities or low-incidence disabilities, or they may work with any student who has an IEP.

In other situations, special education teachers may be designated by the type of services they provide. For example, for some students with high-incidence disabilities in your class, you may work with a consulting teacher (Friend & Cook, 2003). This professional might meet with you regularly to monitor students' progress and address your concerns about the students but might not directly teach them. You also might work with a resource teacher who divides time between directly instructing students and working with teachers. In some high schools, special education teachers now are assigned to work with a particular department, attending department meetings and providing supports for all students with disabilities enrolled in that department's courses.

Yet another type of special education teacher designated by type of services is an inclusion specialist or support facilitator (for example, Klinger & Vaughn, 2002). In inclusive schools, inclusion specialists are responsible for providing some student instruction, for problem solving with teachers, and for coordinating the services a student receives. Often, they focus on ensuring that the needs of students with moderate, severe, or multiple disabilities are being met.

For some groups of students, the special educator with whom you interact might be an itinerant teacher. Itinerant teachers often have roles like the professionals just described, but they travel between two or more school sites to provide services to students. Teachers for students with vision or hearing disabilities often are itinerant. However, if you work in a school district where each school has only a few students with disabilities, even the special educator who specializes in working with students with high-incidence disabilities may deliver services this way.

One other type of special education teacher is a transition specialist. This professional typically works in a high school setting and helps prepare students to leave

Who Are the Professionals in Special Education? 3.7

school for vocational training, employment, or postsecondary education (Field, Sarver, & Shaw, 2003). No matter what subject you teach in high school, you might work very closely with a transition specialist, but especially in business education, consumer sci ... ences, industrial or other vocational arts, and similar areas. This professional also spends time working directly with students to assess their skills and interests related to life after school. A transition specialist works with community businesses to arrange student job sites and to resolve problems related to student workers (Cook, 2002). This professional also may serve as a job coach, accompanying a student to a job site and helping the student master the skills needed to do the job successfully.

As the nature of special education services changes, so do job responsibilities and titles of special educators. For example, you might find that the professionals in your school who used to be called special education teachers are now referred to as special services teachers (SSTs) or intervention specialists (ISs). This change in title represents an effort to delabel teachers and parallels efforts to de-emphasize students' labels, that is, to stress student needs instead of the language of disability. As schools work to become more inclusive, the vocabulary related to teachers who work with students with special needs continues to evolve. More importantly, regardless of the type of special education teachers with whom you work, you will find that they are important instructional partners who are no longer relegated to teaching just in a special education classroom. They support students by creating adapted materials, teaching with you in the general education classroom, working directly and separately with students who have disabilities, and often serving as coordinators for all the services any single student may receive.

Other Specialists and Related Service Providers

In addition to working with special education teachers, you will have contact with a variety of other service providers (Shapiro & Sayers, 2003). They, too, play important roles in educating students with disabilities.

• We. 2Q

In some school districts, efforts are being made to decrease the labeling.of not just students with disabilities but also their teachers. You might find that special educators sometimes are called learning specialists or learning facilitators.

In addition to working with special education teachers, you will have contact with a variety of other service providers. They, too, play important roles in educating students with disabilities.

SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS • School psychologists offer at least two types of expertise related to educating students with disabilities. First, school psychologists often have a major responsibility for determining a student's cognitive, academic, social, emotional, and/or behavioral functioning. They typically contribute a detailed written analysis of the student's strengths and areas of need; in many school districts, this document is referred to as a "psych report," that is, a psychological report. In a related role, school psychologists sometimes chair the multidisciplinary team that meets to decide whether a student has a disability and, if so, what types of services are

needed.

A second major task for school psychologists is designing strategies to address students' academic and social or behavior problems (National Association of School Psychologists, 2002). Sometimes, school psychologists serve as behavior consultants. Occasionally, they assist a teacher by working with an entire class group on social skills. They also might provide individual assistance to students with emotional or behavioral problems who are not eligible for special education. Unfortunately, many school districts can employ only enough school psychologists to complete required assessment duties; when this occurs, school psychologists may not be available to assist students or teachers directly (Giangreco, Prelock, Reid, Dennis, & Edelman, 2000).

COUNSELORS • Although counselors most often advise high school students, they also work at other school levels and contribute to the education of students with disabilities (National Clearinghouse for Professions in Special Education, 2004). For example, counselors in some school districts assess students' social and emotional

38 CHAPTER 2 Special Education Procedures and Services

WWW RESOURCES

You can explore career options related to working with students with disabilities at the website for the National Clearinghouse for Professions in Special Education, at http://www. special-ed -careers.org.

The term gross motor skills refers to students' ability to use their large muscles effectively for walking, hopping, running, skipping, and the like. The term fine motor skills refers to students' proficiency in using their small muscles for tasks such as writing, buttoning, and grasping.

functioning, including areas such as self-concept; motivation; attitude toward school, peers, and teachers; and social skills. Counselors also can provide services to both teachers and students. For teachers, they might suggest ways to draw out a student who is excessively shy, to incorporate into day-to-day classroom instruction activities designed to enhance students' self-concept, and to create an emotionally safe classroom environment. For students, counselors might provide individual assistance to a student struggling to understand a parent's death or unexplained departure from the family or other stressful events, arrange group sessions with several students who share specific needs, or work with an entire class on how to interact with a peer who has a disability.

SPEECH/LANGUAGE THERAPISTS • Many students with disabilities have communication needs. Some have mild problems in pronouncing words or speaking clearly. Others have extremely limited vocabulary. Yet others can make only a few sounds and rely on alternative means of communication, such as communication boards. The professionals who specialize in meeting students' communication needs are speech/language therapists. They have a tremendously diverse range of school responsibilities. At the early elementary level, they might work with entire classes on language development or with individual students on pronouncing sounds. At the intermediate elementary level, they might work on vocabulary with a group of students and might also help a student with a moderate cognitive disability pronounce some words more clearly or to combine words into sentences. At the middle or high school level, they often focus on functional vocabulary and work mostly with students with low-incidence disabilities. For example, they might help a student with a cognitive disability learn to read common signs and complete tasks such as ordering in a restaurant or asking for assistance.

SOCIAL WORKERS • Social workers' expertise is similar to that of counselors in terms of being able to help teachers and students address social and emotional issues. Thus, they may serve as consultants to teachers and also may provide individual or group assistance to students. However, social workers have additional expertise. They often are liaisons between schools and families. For example, they can create a family history by interviewing parents and visiting a student's home; this information may be critical in determining whether a student needs special education services. Similarly, they may help other school professionals work with families on matters such as gaining access to community health services. The school social worker often follows up on teacher reports about the suspected abuse or neglect of students. In some school districts, both counselors and social workers are available to meet student needs. In others, only one of these professional groups is employed.

PHYSICAL THERAPISTS AND OCCUPATIONAL THERAPISTS. In order for some students to benefit from education, they require assistance for problems with gross and fine motor skills, for example, skipping or tying their shoelaces. Physical and occupational therapists are the professionals who have expertise in these areas.

Physical therapists assess students' needs and provide interventions related to gross motor skills. They might participate on a multidisciplinary team by assessing areas such as the obviously awkward gait of a student suspected of having a disability. They also interpret information about a student's physical needs that has been provided by a physician. For students with identified disabilities, physical therapists might provide direct training in large-muscle movement and control. They also might monitor how students should be physically positioned, whether in a wheelchair, standing with assistance, or on the t1oor; how their physical needs are affecting their educational needs; and how classroom settings can be adapted to accommodate their needs.

Occupational tbernpists are concerned with fine motor skills; they often have the responsibility of assessing students' use of their hands and fingers and developing and irn-

Who Are the Professionals in Special Education? 39

plementing plans for improving related motor skills. For example, an occupational therapist may assess whether a student with a severe learning disability can appropriately grip and use a pencil. This professional might help younger students or those with more severe disabilities learn skills for feeding or dressing themselves. Occupational therapists are working increasingly with teachers to incorporatefine motor skills

training into classroom routines. '

ADAPTIVE PHYSICAL EDUCATORS. When students have significant gross or fine motor problems, typical physical education programs in schools may not be appropriate given their needs. Adaptive physical educators assess students' motor needs and work with teachers, physical educators, and others to meet them, or they work directly with students. These professionals are experts in adapting traditional physical education activities for students with disabilities. For example, they might create a simplified form of a basketball drill so that a student who has difficulty running can participate in the activity. They also might create activities that help students develop such skills as balancing, skipping, running, and throwing.

NURSES. A link between students' medical and educational needs is provided by nurses. They develop student medical histories as needed, and they may screen students for vision and hearing problems. They also provide the multidisciplinary team with information about specific medical conditions a student might have and the impact the student's medication could have on educational performance. Further, nurses assist other professionals in deciding whether a student's learning or behavior problem could have a medical basis and discussing such matters with parents. Nurses most often are responsible for ensuring day to day that students with disabilities take required medication and for providing first aid or other emergency treatment. They also work with teachers and families to monitor student medical needs (for example, whether a change in medication is causing drowsiness or hyperactivity).

ADMINISTRATORS. The school principal, assistant principal, and sometimes a special education department chairperson or team leader are the administrators most likely to participate actively in the education of students with disabilities. Their role is to offer knowledge about the entire school community and provide perspective on school district policies regarding special education. Administrators assist the multidisciplinary team in determining students' eligibility for services and in exploring strategies for meeting their needs. They also play an important role in addressing parents' concerns. Every team that determines whether a student is eligible for special education must have administrative representation. For example, in one school, the mother of Marisha, a student with severe language delays, requested that her daughter receive speech/language therapy for 40 minutes daily. School professionals were in agreement that this amount of therapy was not appropriate. Dr. Wade, the principal, worked with the team and the parent to negotiate the amount of speech therapy needed to accomplish Marisha's goals.

In some locales, especially in large urban and suburban districts where it is difficult to ensure that all required special education procedures are followed, a special services coordinator is part of the district's administration. Special services coordinators specialize in understanding the sometimes complex procedures of special education. They help alleviate the pressure on school administrators to accurately interpret and follow guidelines. They also explain services and options to parents, problem solve with teachers when issues arise, and assist in monitoring to ensure that students with disabilities receive needed supports.

PARAPROFESSIONALS • Individuals who assist teachers and others in the provision of services to students with disabilities are paraprofessionals (French, 1999a). These individuals usually have a certificate based on completing a community college or

CONNECTIONS

g" ,4····.;.>44

Additional information

about working with paraprofessionals is included in the "Professional Edge" on page 41 and also in Chapter 3.

Who Are the Professionals in Special Education? 41

PROFESSIONAL EDGE

Working with Paraprofessionals

No matter what grade levetyou teach, you are likely at some point to find yoursetfworking closely with paraprofessionals, also called paraeducators . .Ihese individuals are employedby school districts to provlde support to students with disabilities, either by working with a particular student one-to-one or by working in general or special education classrooms with. several students.

Although paraprofessionals. have been a part of special education services and supports for many years, only in the. past decade has much attention been paid to their preparation for their roles and their responsibilities for students. Paraprofessionals do not have sole responsibility for any aspect of a student's educational program. Rather, they share responsibilities. with teachers and other multidisciplinary team members, and they work under the direction of a special education teacher or another professienat. If a paraprofessional is assigned to your classroom in order to support students with disabilities, you probabLy will be expected todirect his or her day-to-day activities there. The following is a list of some responsibilities paraprofessionals may carry out:

• Locate, arrange, or construct instructional materials.

• Assist students with eating, dressing, personal care, and bathroom use.

• Help to prepare the classro()m for students and to keep work areas neat.

• Instruct special education students individually, in smalL or large groups, and/or with typical peers as specified in the IEP or by professionals on the service delivery team.

• Collect student data to contribute to professional team

members regarding student progress toward goals.

• Score tests and certain papers using a key.

• Maintain files or records about students.

• Supervise playgrounds, halls, lunchrooms, busses, and loading zones.

• Provide specific health needs (for example, suction tracheotomy tubes, as assigned and trained by a school nurse).

• Assist and facilitate appropriate peer interactions.

• Assist students using adaptive equipment or devices (for example, a communication board).

• Support student behavior and social needs according to plans.

• Participate positively in evaluative or feedback sessions for the improvement of their skills.

• Participate in training and coaching sessions to improve their skills associated with all duties and tasks assigned.

• Communicate with professionals about their work and students' progress on assigned tasks.

• Move or accompany students from one place to another, assisting students with mobility and transition.

• Contribute to the effectiveness of the special education team by using appropriate communication, problem-solving, and conflict management strategies.

From the Research

As the list suggests, paraprofessionals offer many valuable services to students and to teachers in support of students. However, particuLarly when paraprofessionals are assigned to function as personal assistants to students with severe disabilities, problems can occur. Giangreco, Edelman, Luiselli, and MacFarland (1997) noticed the tendency of some assistants to hover around their charges in inclusive settings, and they decided to explore this topic systematically. Based on interview and observational data collected in 16 classrooms in 11 school districts, with students ranging in age from through 20 who were served by a total of 134 team members, the researchers found that the following problems were caused by paraprofessionals' ongoing proximity to students:

• interference with general educators' sense of ownership for students and their sense of responsibility for those students

• separation of students from classmates

• students' dependence on adults

• negative impact on students' interactions with typical

peers

• limitations on students' receiving competent instruction

• loss of students' personal control

• interference with instruction of typical learners

This research strongly suggests that paraprofessionals need clear instruction regarding their functioning in general education classrooms. It also indicates how important it is that you understand not just how paraprofessionals can assist students but how their actions can unintentionally interfere with students' education, too.

SOURCES: Adapted from "Paraeducators and Teachers: Shifting Roles," by N. French, 1999, Teaching Exceptional Children, 32(2), pp. 69-73; "Helping or Hovering? Effects of Instructional Assistant Proximity on Students with Disabilities," by M. F. Giangreco, S. W. Edelman, T. E. Luiselli, and S. Z. C. MacFarland, 1997, Exceptional Children, 64, pp. 7-18; and "Preparing and Managing Paraprofessionals:' by M. L. Trautman, 2004, Intervention in School and Clinic, 39, pp. 131-138.

40

C H A PT E R 2 Special Education Procedures and Services

www.ablonqman.corn/friendee

RESEARCH NOT E

-~~

Although many educators

see paraprofessionals as essential for inclusion, one risk is that they could have too much responsibility for student learning, in essence functioning as a child's teacher instead of a support. Marks, Schrader, and Levine (1999), in interviewing para-educators of students in grades K-8, found this to be the case.

similar training program; some are even certified teachers. However, these service providers are considered a separate group from every professional group mentioned thus far. Specifically, their responsibilities for decision making about students are limited, and they complete their work by direction from teachers and other professional staff members. Paraprofessionals also might be called instructional assistants, aides, or other titles, depending on local practices.

School districts use paraprofessionals in many different ways (Trautman, 2004).

Two of the most common are as follows. First, some paraprofessionals are assigned to specific students who need ongoing individual assistance. For example, students with no ability to move their arms may have paraprofessionals who take notes for them and complete other tasks such as feeding. A few students have medical conditions requiring that a specially trained paraprofessional be present to monitor their status. Paraprofessionals in this role may be referred to as personal assistants. They also may be called one-to-one assistants.

Second, and more common, are paraprofessionals who assist in the delivery of special services for many students. These paraprofessionals often work in both inclusive classrooms and special education classrooms as well as on the playground, at assemblies, and during bus duty. Their primary responsibility is to work with students with disabilities, but they sometimes also help other students and the teacher as the need arises and time permits. The Professional Edge on page 41 contains more information about working with paraprofessionals.

OTHER SPECIALISTS • Depending on student needs and state and local practices, other professionals also may participate in the education of students with disabilities. For example, some school districts have consultants who are used only when a need exists in their specific areas of expertise (such as significant behavior problems, autism, or traumatic brain injury). If you work in a school district in which many students are non-native English speakers, you also may work with bilingual teachers or bilingual special education teachers. Bilingual teachers are not special educators, but they sometimes help in decision making related to students with disabilities who have limited English skills. Bilingual special education teachers are professionally trained both in special education and in bilingual education (Salend, Dorney, & Mazo, 1997).

Two other types of specialists may provide services to your students with disabilities. One is a mobility specialist whose job is to help students with visual impairments learn how to become familiar with their environments and how to travel from place to place safely. These specialists consult with classroom teachers regarding students with visual impairments. The other type of service provider is a sign-language interpreter. Interpreters are the communication link for students with significant hearing loss (National Clearinghouse for Professions in Special Education, 2004). Interpreters listen to the instruction in a classroom and relay it to students who are deaf or hard of hearing using sign language. Interpreters might accompany a student all day or might be needed only in specific academic subjects such as language arts.

Professionals from agencies outside the school also are part of the specialist group.

If a student has been receiving services through a hospital or residential program, a physician, nurse, social worker, or other representative from that facility may work with school personnel to ensure that the student has a smooth transition back to school. Individuals from the medical community also might be involved when students are being assessed for attentional problems or when they have been injured or ill. Professionals from outside agencies also might be included when a student is receiving assistance from a community service organization or has contact with the juvenile justice system. In these instances, caseworkers may serve as liaisons to the school. Students who are transitioning from school to adult services may need services from a professional in vocational rehabilitation. Finally, parents may obtain an expert opinion from a specialist not associated with the school, and those individuals can attend multidisciplinary team meetings or submit written reports for team consideration.

42

C H A PT E R 2 Special Education Procedures and Services

www.abtonqrnan.com/friendce

WWW RESOURCES

''''"

The Beach Center on

Disability (http://www. beachcenter.org), affiliated with the University of Kansas, has as its goal helping families of individuals with disabilities and those individuals through research, teaching, technical assistance, and community service. The website has many resources to help you work effectively with families.

CONNECTIONS

t;~, c p ..... 4 .. )41

The topics of student selfadvocacy and student selfevaluation are addressed in depth in Chapter 10.

What is the role of parents or caregivers in their child's learning? How do parents

or caretakers contribute on teams that decide whether a student needs special education services?

PARENTS, STUDENTS, AND ADVOCATES • Whenever decisions are being made concerning a student with a suspected or documented disability, the best interests of the student and his or her family must be represented. Parents-or a person who is serving in the role of a parent, including a guardian or foster parent-have the right to participate in virtually all aspects of their child's educational program (Al-Hassan & Gardner, 2002; Dabkowski, 2004; Nelson, Summers, & Turnbull, 2004). Parents' involvement spans the following areas:

• requesting assessment for special services

• providing input on their child's strengths and needs

• bringing to the team independent professionals' opinions about their child's needs

• helping to decide whether their child has a disability and whether the child will re-

ceive special services

• assisting in writing goals and objectives for their child's educational program

• participating in delivering instruction to their child

• monitoring their child's progress

• seeking assistance in resolving disagreements with school professionals

Often, parents are strong allies for general education teachers. They can assist teachers by reviewing at home what is taught in school, rewarding their child for school accomplishments, and working with school professionals to resolve behavior and academic problems.

Whenever appropriate, students with disabilities also can be active participants in decision making about their own education. Increasingly, educators are involving students so they can directly state their needs and goals and can learn to advocate for themselves, a concept referred to as self-determination (Mason, Field, & Sawilowsky, 2004; National Center on Secondary Education and Transition [NCSET], 2002; Test, Mason, Hughes, Konrad, Neale, & Wood, 2004). The extent of student participation on the team depends on the age of the student, the type and impact of the disability, and professionals' and parents' commitment. In general, the older the student, the greater his or her ability to contribute, and the higher the value placed on student contribution, the greater the participation. Thus, first-grade students with disabilities usually are not expected to participate in very many decisions about their education. However, high school students with disabilities usually attend and participate in their team meetings, and their priorities and preferences are central to decision making. These students often have strong opinions about what they would like to do after high school, and they also take on more responsibility for monitoring their progress in reaching their goals (Gringel, Neubert, Moon, & Graham, 2003; Martin, Marshall, & Sale, 2004). You can learn more about student participation on teams in the Professional Edge on page 43.

A final team member is an advocate. Sometimes, parents sense that they are not knowledgeable enough about the policies and procedures that govern special education to represent themselves. In other instances, they are not sure school district personnel are acting in the best interests of their children. In yet other situations, parents may be uncomfortable interacting with school personnel because of language or cultural differences, or for other reasons. Parents have the right to bring an advocate to team and other school meetings concerning their children. This person serves as their advisor and sometimes their spokesperson. Although advocates do not have a direct role in implementing the education program for students with a disability, they might assist parents with their responsibilities. Advocates sometimes are professionals who are compensated by parents for their services. Alternatively, they may be volunteers provided through a professional organization or parent support group, or friends or relatives.

Who Are the Professionals in Special Education? 43

PROFESSIONAL EDGE

Self-Determlnation for Students With Disabilities

Think how you would react if other people constantly controlled your life, deciding what you should wear, where you should go, what career should be your goal. and the type of housing and roommates you shouldhave. Beginning at a very young age, children typically begin to express. their wishes, and they learn that they have a right to act on those wishes. (For example,. have you ever tried to convince a three-year-old that the two articles of clothing she selected to wear do not match?) However, despite good intentions by professionals and parents, many students and adults with disabilities have been denied opportunities to make their own life decisions, and reversing this situation has become a goal for the field (for example, Eisenman; 2001; Gringe[et al., 2003); One way self-determination can occur is for students to actively participate in or lead their IEP meetings and other planning activities.

Student-Led IEPs

When students Iead their IEP meetings, they learn to think and advocate for. themselves (Mason, McGahee-Kovac, & Johnson, 2004). They can Iearn. to do this beginning at a very early age. For eX<lmpte, elementary students might have the roLe of introduCing their parents to the team and describing to team members what they have been learning in schoOl. Students. in middle schootmight explain their disabilities and the impact of those disabilities, share their strengths, and discuss accommodations needed. In high school; students might lead the entire conference, working to ensure that the IEP and transition plan reflect their preferences and plans for the future. Specific student roles vary, and students need to be prepared for participating so that they know the process and ways they contribute to it. Further, general education teachers fi nd that students who actively participate in their IEP meetings have better skills fur interacting with adults, better understanding of their special needs, greater awareness of resources available to help them, and more willingness to accept responsibility for themselves (Test et al., 2004).

Person-Centered Planning

Another example of self-determination is called personcentered planning. This method was developed by profes-

sionalsfromboth the United .... and Canada and is usualLy related to IEP planning as a student with significant disabilities leaves the public school system. It emphasizes these dimensions:

.Community presence. Identify the community settings that the student uses and the ones that would benefit him or her. The intent is to incorporate these settings into the educationalptanning process.

• Choice. Identify decisions made by the.student and decisions madejorthe.student, The goal of person-centered planning is to transfer as many choices to the student as possible.

• Competence. Identifyski.lls that best assist.the student participate fully in the school and community and strategies that are most effective for teaching those skills.

• Respect, Clarify roles the student has in the schooL and local community. The goal is to strengthen .and. expand those roles and. decrease or eliminate student char<lctertstics that might cause the .student to be perceived by others in a stereotypical way.

• Community partidpation. Specify people with. wh?m.the student spends time at school and in other settings. rhe goal. is to identify individuals who. can advocate for the student and to foster friendships with age-appropriate peers.

A number of person-centered planning approaches have been developed, and you may find that one of these is used in your school district. They include Making Action Plans (MAPS), Planning Alternative Tomorrows with Hope (PATH), and Circle of Friends.

SOURCES: Adapted from Person-Centered Practices: Building Personalized Supports That Respect the Dreams of People with Disabilities, by REACH of Louisville, n.d. Retrieved September 15, 2004, from http://www.reachoflouisville.com/person-centered/Defautt.htm; and "How to Help Students Lead Their IEP Meetings," by C. Y. Mason, M. McGahee-Kovac, and L. Johnson, 2004, Teaching Exceptional Children, 36(3), pp. 18-25.

44

CHAPTER 2 Special Education Procedures and Services

www.ablonqrnan.com/friendee

ow Can You Decide Whether a Student Need Might Be a Disability?

You wi!' olav a

I ,

You will playa key role in deciding whether a student in your class should be evaluated for the presence of a disability. Although youngsters with obvious cognitive, sensory, or physical impairments usually are identified when they are infants or toddlers, learning, language, attentional, and behavioral disabilities-such as those displayed by Marcus, introduced at the beginning of the chapter-may not be diagnosed until

children start school. Because you are the professional in daily contact with the student, you are the person most likely to notice an unmet need. It is your judgment that often initiates a special education decisionmaking process.

role

In deciding whether a student In your class should

evaluated for the oresence of

I

a disability.

Analyze Unmet Needs

As you teach, you sometimes will discover that you have a nagging concern about a student. This concern might begin early in the school year, or it might take several months to emerge. For example, when you review a student's records and your own impressions of the student and your concern, you may decide that the student's achievement is not within your classroom's typical range, given the standards of your school district, community expectations, and state achievement standards. Should you ask other professionals to assess the student for eligibility for special education? Perhaps. But first you need to ask yourself some questions. These questions are summarized in Figure 2.2.

fiGURE 1.1 Teacher Concerns about Student Needs

What are examples of Kate's unmet needs? •••

...

Are Kate's needs becoming more serious as time

passes?

· · · · · · · ·

Is there a chronic pattern affecting Kate's learning?

Am I concerned because I see no •• pattern in Kate's

learning or behavior?

..

Is Kate's learning or behavior significantly different from her classmates'?

How (an You Decide Whether a Student Need Might Be a Disability? 45

WHAT ARE SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF UNMET NEEDS? • Having a nebulous worry about a student is far different from specifically stating what your concerns are. For example, sensing that a student is unmotivated is not a clear concern. What does the student do that leads you to conclude that motivation is a problem? Is it that the student doesn't make eye contact when speaking to you, or that the rewards and consequences that affect other students seem to have no effect-positive or negative-on this student? Vague concerns and hunches should be supported by specific information. Phrases such as "slow in learning," "poor attitude toward school," "doesn't pay attention," and "never gets work completed" might have very different meanings to different professionals. To prepare to share your concern with others, then, your first step is to ask yourself, ""Vhen I say the student ... , what examples clarify what I mean?"

IS THERE A CHRONIC PATTERN NEGATIVELY AFFECTING LEARNING? • Nearly all students go through periods when they struggle to learn, behave inappropriately, or otherwise cause you concern. Sometimes, a situation outside of school affects a student. For example, parents divorcing, families being evicted from their apartments, elderly grandparents moving in with the family, or a family member being injured or arrested might negatively affect student learning or behavior. However, the impact of these traumatic events should not be permanent, and the student should gradually return to previous levels of functioning.

Students with disabilities also may be affected by specific situations or events, but their learning and behavior needs form a chronic pattern. In other words, they struggle over a long period of time regardless of the circumstances. For example, Betsy, who has a learning disability, has difficulty remembering sight words no matter what level they are or how creatively they are introduced. Jared, a high school student with an emotional disability, is withdrawn whether sitting in a large class or interacting in a small group. Julianna, an eighth grader who had a severe head injury last year, usually seems to grasp abstract concepts as they are taught, but she struggles to describe or apply them after instruction.

ARE THE UNMET NEEDS BECOMING MORE SERIOUS AS TIME PASSES? • Sometimes, a student's needs appear to become greater over time. For example, Ben, who seemed to see well at the beginning of the school year, now holds books closer and closer to his face, squints when he tries to read, and complains about headaches. Karen, who began the school year fairly close in achievement to her peers, is significantly behind by November. Indications that needs are increasing are a signal to ask for input from others.

IS THE STUDENT'S LEARNING OR BEHAVIOR SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT FROM THAT OF CLASSMATES? • As you think about your concerns about a student, you should ask yourself how the student compares to other students. For example, it has been demonstrated that students at risk for special education referral are achieving at a significantly lower level than other students and that they are more likely to have significant behavior problems (Hosp & Reschly, 2003). However, if you have eight students who are all struggling, the reason might be that the information or skills are beyond the reach of the entire group or that your teaching approach is not accomplishing what you had planned. Even though self-reflection is sometimes difficult, when many students are experiencing problems, it is important to analyze how the curriculum or teaching might be contributing to the situation. In such instances, you should make changes in those two areas before seeking other assistance.

Keep in mind that many students have needs that do signal the presence of disabilities. Perhaps you are an elementary teacher who cannot seem to find enough books at the right level for one student in your fourth-grade class who is almost a nonreader. Perhaps you are an eighth-grade industrial arts teacher who is worried about letting a student who gets extremely angry use equipment that could be dangerous, and

ANALYZE ANOREFLECT

~IJ"~

What might be the effect-

on the student and on

your perception of that student-of deciding prematurely that a student should be referred as possibly having a disability?

DIMENSIONS

OFDIVERSITY

' ... I .• JIll

Teachers sometimes have biases they are not even aware of. For example, when middle school teachers were shown video samples of students displaying "traditional walking" or stylized "strolling," they concluded that the latter students had lower achievement, were more aggressive, and were more likely to need special education than the former students (Neal, McCray, Webb-Johnson, & Bridqest, 2003). The race of the student did not make a difference in the results.

46

C H A PT E R 2 Special Education Procedures and Services

www.ablonqman.com/Iriendce

CONNECTIONS

·.4 .. ····$.····.4.).

Additional information on • parents' roles in working with teachers and other school professionals is included in Chapter 3. You also will find suggestions for working with parents in Chapters 6, 7, and 8.

this is the only student about whom you have this level of concern. Maybe you are an algebra teacher who finds that one student seems to lack many prerequisite skills for succeeding in the course. Students with disabilities have needs that are significantly different from those of most other students.

DO YOU DISCOVER THAT YOU CANNOT FIND A PATTERN? • In some instances, the absence of a pattern to students' learning or behavior is as much an indicator that you should request assistance as is a distinct pattern. Perhaps Curtis has tremendous mood swings, and you arrive at school each day wondering whether it will be a good day or a bad day for him. However, you cannot find a way to predict which it will be. Or consider Becka, who learns science with ease but cannot seem to master even basic reading skills. You are not sure why her learning is so different in the two subjects. In a third example, in physical education, Tyrone some days seems to have average motor skills but on other days frequently stumbles and cannot participate fully in the learning stations you have created.

Communicate Your Observations and Try Your Own Interventions

Your analysis of your students' unmet needs is the basis for further action. Although ultimately you may decide to seek assistance from special education professionals for one of your students, part of your responsibility in attempting to help the student is gathering other information and trying to resolve the problem first.

CONTACT PARENTS. One of your first strategies should be to contact a student's family (Smalley & Reyes-Blanes, 2001; Turnbull & Turnbull, 1997). Parents or other family members often can inform you about changes in the student's life that could be affecting school performance. Family members also can help you understand how the student's activities outside of school might influence schoolwork, including clubs, gang involvement, employment, and responsibilities at home. Further, by contacting the family, you might learn that what you perceive as a problem is mostly a reflection of a cultural difference. For example, a student whose family emigrated from Thailand is extremely quiet because silence signals respect in her native culture, not because she is unable to participate.

Parents also are your partners in working to resolve some student learning problems. They can assist you in monitoring whether homework is completed and returned to school, whether behavior problems are occurring on the walk home, or whether a physician is concerned about a child's medical condition. If you have students whose homes do not have telephones or e-mail access and whose parents do not have transportation to come to school, your social worker or principal can help you make needed contact.

Especially as a new

teacher; you will want to discuss your concerns with other professionals to gain additional perspectives on the student's needs.

CONTACT COLLEAGUES • Especially as a new teacher, you will want to discuss your concerns with other professionals to gain additional perspectives on the student's needs. In many schools, a special education teacher or another professional can arrange to observe the student in your class and

then to discuss the observation. If your school psychologist is available, you might ask for consultation assistance. In schools where grade-level teams or other types of teams meet, you can

raise your concerns in that context. One hallmark of today's schools is an array of professionals who have expertise in many areas. With a little exploration, you are likely to find that your school has an in-house resource you can access to check your perceptions against a broader perspective.

How Do Students Obtain Special Services? 47

TRY SiMPLE INTERVENTIONS • Part of your responsibility as a teacher is to ereMe a classroom where students can succeed. To cultivate such a setting, you can make adaptations part of your attempts to address a student's unmet needs. Here are some examples:

I!II Have you tried moving the student's seat?

It! Have you incorporated teaching strategies that help the student to actively participate in lessons (for example, using choral responding)?

ill Have you thought about ways to make your tests easier for the student to follow (for example, using more white space between items or sections)?

II Do you give the student only part of an assignment at one time because he becomes overwhelmed?

iii! Have you observed the student closely to determine whether helping her work one problem is enough to get her to work on the rest?

These are just a few alterations that many teachers make without even thinking of them as adaptations; many others are presented throughout this textbook. Sometimes, these small accommodations are sufficient to help a student learn. In any case, you should try common interventions before deciding a student might need special education.

DOCUMENT THE UNMET NEED • If you anticipate requesting assistance for a student, you need to demonstrate the seriousness of your concern and your systematic attempts to help meet the student's needs. If you have implemented a plan to improve student behavior, you can keep a record of how effective it has been. If you have contacted parents several times, you can keep a log of your conversations. If you have tried to decrease the number of times the student misses your first-hour class, you can summarize your attendance data. Strategies to document student needs serve two main purposes. First, they help you do a reality check on whether the problem is as serious as you think it is. If you gather data from other students as a comparison, you can judge whether the unmet needs of one student are significantly different from those of typical students. Second, the information you collect helps you communicate with other professionals. Special service providers cannot possibly meet every need in every classroom. Their work is reserved in large part for extraordinary student needs, and your documentation helps in the decision about providing the assistance you seek.

ow Do Students Obtain Special Services?

The majority of students who receive special education have high-incidence disabilities, such as learning disabilities, that you may be the first to recognize. If you teach at the elementary level, you probably will have students every year whom you refer for possible special services. If you teach in middle school, junior high, or high school, you will find that many students with disabilities already have been identified before they reach your class. However, there are exceptions; students may be found eligible for special education at any time during their school years. As a teacher, you always have the option of asking a team of professionals to decide whether one of your students needs special education.

Having a serious and documented concern about a student is only the first step in considering whether a disability may be present. Your concern brings the student to the attention of other school professionals so that further information can be gathered and decisions made. The specific, formal procedures that must be followed to determine

1 ... 1ENSIONS OFDIVERSITY

Hosp and Reschly (2003, 2004) reviewed studies on student referrals for interventions or assessment. They found that African American and Hispanic students were referred significantly more often than Caucasian students, but that only African American students were found eligible for special education services significantly

more often than Caucasian students.

48

(H A PTE R 2 Special Education Procedures and Services

www.eblonqman.rom/triendse

student eligibility for special education services are designed to ensure that only students who truly need these services receive them. These procedures are described in the following sections and are summarized in Figure 2.3, which illustrates the flow of the procedures from beginning to end.

FIGURE 2.3 The Decision-Making Process for Special Education

MDT prepares student IEP

"'""-~-'_·-'-:.<_'?;"::'i'-_--:--:--;-:'-:·_>---'---:':-:--'-~:'/---'--':'1;

Disability negatively affects I; learning; student would .~ benefit from special education

MDT decides student placement

Professionals provide special education and related services

Pre-referral team

Team or screening procedure results in referral to MDT for full assessment

Interventiohs recommended

Full individual assessment 'occurs in all areas of concern

School representative .---x rnntolrt< parents for individual

Teacher, parents, and administrator meet for annual review

MDT monitors for three-year reevaluation and notifies parents

Update IEP; cOhtinue services and placement

How Do Students Obtain Special Services? 49

Initial Consideration of Student Problems

General education teachers, principals, special services personnel, parents, physicians, and social service agency personnel all may initiate the process of obtaining special education for a student. Most often, however, a general education teacher notices a pattern of academic underachievement, inconsistent learning, serious behavioral problems, difficulties in social skills, or a persistent physical or sensory problem. When such problems occur, the teacher brings the student to the attention of others who help decide whether special education is warranted.

INTERVENTION ASSISTANCE TEAM. A common way to begin the process of helping a student suspected of having a disability is to bring the problem to the attention of a team (Bahr, Whitten, Dieker, Kocarek, & Manson, 1999; Friend & Cook, 2003). This pre-referral or intervention assistance team often includes general education teachers, special services personnel, and an administrator. Teachers wishing to "bring a student to the team" complete a referral form on which they describe the student's strengths and problems and describe efforts they have made to assist the student. The teacher then meets with the team to discuss the written information, consider alternative strategies for assisting the student, and determine whether the student should have a detailed assessment for potential special education services (Kovaleski, Gickling, Morrow, & Swank, 1999; Lane et al., 2003). The unifying characteristic of this type of team is an emphasis on problem solving among all members. The Case in Practice on page 50 illustrates how this type of team operates.

SCREENING. Although most schools have teams to help make decisions about the need for assessment for special education, in a few schools the school psychologist, counselor, principal, or another professional has the responsibility of screening the referral, that is, meeting informally with a general education teacher about a student. This individual asks about the strategies the teacher has tried to assist the student and may make additional recommendations. If efforts remain unsuccessful and the presence of a disability is suspected, referral for a more comprehensive assessment follows. According to the provisions of IDEA, any initial special education referral procedure, whether through a team or another screening process, must include the review of existing data about the student. By using already-gathered data, school records, and other information, a more informed decision can be made concerning the need for a full assessment.

DIAGNOSTIC TEACHING • Diagnostic teaching sometimes is part of screening. A special education teacher, another special services professional, or you may carry out sample lessons with a student, teaching different skills, using different teaching methods, and trying various ways of more effectively teaching the student. This approach helps the team working with you to determine the student's response to intervention suggests that the problem can be addressed through structured teaching approaches or whether it is more likely the result of a disability.

When a team initially discusses or screens a student, a parent is not required legally to be involved in the process. However, educators should notify parents of their concerns and enlist parental assistance in trying to solve the problem. In some schools, parents are invited to team meetings. Remember, parents should never be surprised that the possibility of special education is raised-they should have known of the existence of any serious problem.

The Special Education Referral and Assessment Process

If the decision as a result of team intervention or screening is that a full assessment of a student for possible special education placement should occur, the parents are contacted. Their written permission must be obtained prior to any individual assessment.

Fyil .. C .... S-C·

Teams that meet to problem solve about students before consideration of special education also might be called teacher assistance teams, student support teams, instructional support teams, or student assistance teams (Buck et al., 2003). What are such teams called in your local school districts?

RESEARCH NOT E

Slonski-Fowler and Truscott (2004) found that when general education teachers believe their input is valued, the ideas for intervention are innovative instead of routine, and that when the team provides followup, they are satisfied with the pre-referral process. When these matters are not addressed carefully, general education teachers' perceptions are negative.

50

C H A PTE R 2 Special Education Procedures and Services

E IN PRACTICE

www.abtcnqmau.com/triendce

Participating in an Intervention Assistance Team Meeting

It is 3: 15 p.m. and Ms. Jacob's students have just left. She gathers a stack of information from her desk and heads toward the conference room for an intervention assistance team meeting. Ms. Jacobs is the fifth-grade representative on the team this year. Along with two other classroom teachers (they just happen to be from the first and fourth grades this year), a special education teacher, and the assistant principal, Ms. Jacobs meets weekly to problem solve about students and to consider whether any of their needs are so great that a referral for individual assessment should be made.

The first student to be discussed today is third grader Toby. Reviewing her information sheets, Ms. Jacobs sees that Toby is chronically late to school, has what his teacher describes as a sullen attitude, is failing in math and language arts, and has a D in science. Toby's teacher, Mr. Petrovich, is worried that Toby is headed toward failure, especially as he faces the more intense reading load in the intermediate grades. According to Mr. Petrovich, reward systems have not been successful; Toby's dad seems cooperative but tends to forget to follow through on homework monitoring and other requests; and other teachers, including the art teacher and the music teacher, have expressed concern about Toby's future.

As the meeting begins and preliminaries are completed, Ms. Jacobs asks Mr, Petrovich several questions.

Ms. Jacobs: Mr. Petrovich, you've spent a great deal of extra time work-

ing with Toby this year. If you were to summarize your greatest concern for him, what would it be?

AIr. Petrovich: Probably his "I don't care and you can't make me" attitude. It seems to be getting worse as the year goes by. Toby is really a good kid; I don't know what's causing his problems-unless it's peer pressureand I really want to get to the bottom of this.

Ms. Jacobs: Of all the things you've tried with Toby, what seems to have the biggest positive impact on him?

Mr. Petrooicb: Right now, what's keeping him going is his interest in art and the computer lab. But Ms. Yancy says that if he doesn't improve his behavior and attitude during art, she feels she is going to have to take away some of his privileges there.

Ms. Jacobs: If you think about Toby's strengths, what might we start with to try to come up with some ideas for him?

Mr. Petrovich: I'd really like to see us work on something that takes advantage of Toby's computer skills. I know he likes art, but it seems like the computer area is one where we could tie in his academic needs. He'd work on the computer all day if I let him, and he's very skilled at finding information and creating art on it. He seems to like the structure and logic of the computer and the fact that it doesn't "get in his face."

Ms. Jacobs: It sounds as though you have an idea in mind.

Mr. Petrovich: I do. I'm hoping all of you can work with me to design some kind of very structured program that combines getting work done and getting to use computer equipment as a privilege. I think we have all the necessary components, we just need to put them together ... and I think that's a concrete area to work in. I don't think a direct confrontation on attitude is going to have any effect.

The meeting continues with all the team members contributing. After 30 minutes, Mr. Petrovich leaves with a structured work-forcomputer-privileges plan and an agreement to review its effectiveness in 3 weeks. Ms. Jacobs stays as the team discusses another student and recommends an individual assessment for this student.

REFLECTIONS

What is it that makes this team meeting constructive and productive? What purpose is served by including several general education teachers on the team? How does Mr. Petrovich help make the meeting a success? What other strategies might the team try in addition to the work-for-computerprivileges idea? What might happen when the team later reviews the intervention they have planned? Given what you have learned about students with exceptionalities, do you think Toby is the type of student who might be referred for an individual assessment?

At this point, a multidisciplinary team (MDT),induding the parents, educators, and others as appropriate, assumes responsibility for determining how to assess the student and for deciding whether the student has a disability and is eligible for special education services.

How Do Students Obtain Special Services? 51

Assessment involves gathering information about a student's strengths and needs In all areas of concern.

COMPONENTS OF ASSESSMENT • Assessment involves gathering information about a student's strengths and needs in all areas of concern. Typically, if the student has not had a vision and hearing screening and you have reason to suspect a sensory impairment, these tests precede other assessments. If sensory screening raises concerns, parents are notified of the need for a more complete assessment by a physician or appropriate specialist.

Assessments completed by school professionals may address any aspect of a student's educational functioning (Buefner, 2000). Often, for example, students' cognitive ability is assessed: An individual intelligence test (often referred to as an IQ test) is administered and scored by a school psychologist or another qualified school professional. Academic achievement usually is assessed, too: Students complete an individual achievement test administered by a psychologist, spe-

cial education teacher, educational diagnostician, or other professional. A third area often evaluated is social and behavioral skills. This evaluation might involve a checklist that you and parents complete concerning a student's behavior, tests given by the school psychologist, or a series of questions asked of the student.

Another domain for assessment is the student's social and developmental history.

Often, a school social worker meets with the parents to learn about the student's family life and major events in the student's development that could be affecting education. For example, parents might be asked about their child's friends in the neighborhood and favorite out-of-school activities, their expectations for their child as an adult, and their child's strengths. Parents also might be asked whether their child has had any serious physical injuries, medical problems, or recurring social or behavioral problems.

As another assessment component, a psychologist, counselor, or special education teacher often observes the student in the classroom and other settings to learn how he or she responds to teachers and peers in various school settings. For example, a special education teacher may observe Chris, who usually plays with younger students during recess and gets confused when playground games are too complex. Chris also watches other students carefully and often seems to take cues for how to act from how they are acting. These observations all are helpful for understanding Chris.

If a potential need exists for speech therapy or occupational or physical therapy, another component is added to the assessment: The professionals in those areas complete assessments in their respective areas of expertise. A speech/language therapist might use a screening instrument that includes having the student use certain words, tell stories, and identify objects. The therapist also might check for atypical use of the muscles of the mouth, tongue, and throat that permit speech and for unusual speech habits such as breathiness in speaking or noticeable voice strain. Similarly, occupational or physical therapists might assess a student's gait, strength and agility, range of motion, or ability to perform fine motor tasks such as buttoning and lacing.

Throughout the entire assessment process, IDEA specifically gives parents the right to provide information to be used as part of the evaluation. In addition, as the general education teacher, you can provide details on the student's performance in class, patterns of behavior, and discrepancies between expectations and achievement. Your informal and formal observations play an important role in assessment.

ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES • The exact procedures for assessing a student's needs vary according to the areas of concern that initiated the assessment process. The assessment must be completed by individuals trained to administer the tests and other assessment tools used; the instruments must be free of cultural bias; the student's performance must be evaluated in a way that takes into account the potential disability; and the assessment must provide data that are useful for deciding an appropriate education for the student. School professionals are responsible for ensuring that these obligations are met.

What areas of individual assessment are involved when a team is deciding whether a student is eligible for special education services? How is the information

from these assessments used in decision making?

S2

CHAPTER 2 Special Education Procedures and Services

www.ablonqman.com/friend-;e

PARENTS' RIGHTS • Throughout the assessment process, parents' rights to participate in their child's education must be respected as established in IDEA and reinforced in virtually all subsequent litigation (Rothstein, 1995). In addition to the rights already mentioned, parents have the right to be informed in a meaningful way about the procedures and processes of special education and the right to give permission before any individual assessment is completed. Parents also have the right to request information from a school district representative about how to get an independent evaluation for their child and the right to bring information from an independent evaluation to a meeting to discuss the educational needs of the student. In some cases, parents are entitled to be reimbursed for their expense in obtaining an independent evaluation. These and other parents' rights ensured through federal special education laws are outlined in Figure 2.4. Note that all rights must be communicated in the parents' language and in a manner they can understand. If you teach older students, you

fiGURE 1.4 Parent's Rights in Special Education

IDEA stipulates procedural safeguards to ensure that parents have the right to be active participants in their child's education. The following safeguards are some of the major ones provided to parents:

1. Parents are entitled to be members of any group that makes decisions about the educational placement of their child.

2. Parents are to be given written notice before the school initiates, changes, or refuses to initiate or change the identification or educational placement of their child.

3. Parents can participate directly in the determination of their child's eligibility for special education and in the development of the individualized educational program (IEP) and its periodic review, generally at least annually.

4. The school must obtain written, informed parental consent before conducting a formal evaluation and assessment and before initially placing a student in a program providing special education and related services. (Note: Written parental consent is required for initial evaluation and initial placement. Subsequent formal evaluation and placement actions require written notice, as described in Item 1.)

5. Parents can inspect and review any educational records maintained by the school district or other agency providing service under IDEA. Access to educational records will be granted to parents without unnecessary delay and before any meeting regarding an IEP or before a hearing relating to identification, evaluation, or placement of the child, and in no case more than 45 days after the request has been made.

6. Parents may request, and the school district must provide, information on where independent educational evaluations may be obtained. Parents have the right to an independent educational evaluation at public expense if they disagree with an evaluation obtained by the local school district or responsible public agency. However, the local school district or responsible public agency may initiate a due process hearing

to show that the original evaluation is appropriate. If the

final decision is that the evaluation is appropriate, the parents still have the right to an independent educational evaluation, but not at public expense. The results of an independent evaluation obtained by the parents at private expense will be considered by the local school district in any decisions about the provisions of a free appropriate public education to the child. Such results may also be presented as evidence at a due process hearing.

7. Parents have the right to request mediation as a means to resolving conflicts with school districts concerning their child with a disability. Mediation must be available to parents prior to a due process hearing, but it may not delay a hearing. Information shared during mediation is confidential and may not be used as evidence at any subsequent due process hearing. The state, not the parents, bears the cost of mediation.

S. Parents have the right to request a hearing before an impartial hearing officer in cases in which they disagree with school district decisions regarding their child's education. Hearings may relate to any aspect of special education, including the fairness of the evaluation procedures used to determine the presence of a disability, the appropriateness of the disability label given the child, the adequacy of the services provided, and the suitability of proposed changes of placement. If parents fail to win a due process hearing at the local level, they may appeal the results of the hearing at the state department of education level. After this step, if parents are still dissatisfied with the outcome of the hearing, they may initiate court action.

9. Parents must be fully informed of their rights and the procedural safeguards related to special education. They initially should receive this information in a readily understandable manner when their child is referred for evaluation. They should also receive it prior to each IEP meeting and reevaluation, and when a complaint is registered.

SOURCES: Adapted from "Questions and Answers about IDEA," NICHCY NewsDigest 21 (2nd ed.), January 2000, Washington, DC: National Information Center for Handicapped Children and Youth. Retrieved September 15, 2004, from http://nichcy.org/pubs/newsdig/nd21txt.htm; and "Parental Rights in Special Education," April 2004, Trenton: New Jersey Department of Education. Retrieved September 15, 2004, from http://www.state.nj.us.njded/ pariqhts/prtse.pdf

How Do Students Obtain Special Services? 53

also should know that, beginning at least one year before reaching 18 years of age, students also must be informed directly of their rights (NCSET, 2002).

Decision Making for Special Services

After a comprehensive assessment of the student has been completed, the multidisciplinary team meets to discuss its results and make several decisions (Dabkowski, 2004; Huefner, 2000; Miles-Bonart, 2002). The first decision the MDT must make is whether the student is eligible under the law to be categorized as having a disability. If the team members decide that a disability exists, they then determine whether the disability is affecting the student's education, and from that they decide whether the student is eligible to receive services through special education. Although not always the case, in most school districts these decisions are made at a single meeting. As outlined in Figure 2.4, parents must agree with the decisions being made or the student cannot receive special education services. Most school districts have specific guidelines to direct team decision making about the presence of a disability and the need for special education, but the decisions ultimately belong to the team, and the MDT may decide that the guidelines or descriptions do not exactly fit a particular case. For example, most states specify that students identified as having a mild intellectual disability should have an IQ less than 70 as measured on an individual intelligence test and should have serious limitations in adaptive behaviors. However, if a student's test scores are slightly above 70 and adaptive skills are particularly limited, a team can still decide that the student has a mild intellectual disability. Likewise, if a student has a measured IQ lower than 70 but seems to have many adaptive skills, the team might decide that the student does not have a disability.

If the MDT determines that the student has a disability affecting his or her education and that the student is eligible for services according to federal, state, and local guidelines, the stage is set for detailed planning of the student's education and related services. This planning is recorded in the student's individualized education program, or IEP. The IEP is the document that outlines all the special education services the student is to receive. Specific guidelines must be followed in developing an IEP; more details about IEPs and their preparation are provided later in this chapter.

The final decision made by the MDT concerns the student's placement. Placement refers to the location of the student's education. For most students, the placement is the general education classroom, often with some type of support offered. According to IDEA, when a placement is a location other than general education, justification must be provided for that decision. However, for a few students, the appropriate primary placement is a special education setting. Later in this chapter, special education services are discussed and placement options are outlined in more detail.

In your school district, the essentials of the procedures outlined in the preceding section must be followed, but the timelines used and the names for each part of the process may vary. However, all school district procedures are designed to ensure that students with disabilities are systematically assessed and that a deliberate and careful process is followed to provide for their education needs. Further, you are a critical participant in the entire process. A description of your rights as they relate to special education and students with disabilities is included in Figure 2.5.

Monitoring Special Education Services

In addition to specifying the procedures that must be followed to identify a student as needing special education services, federal and state laws also establish guidelines for monitoring student progress. The monitoring process is necessary to ensure that students' educational programs remain appropriate and that procedures exist for resolving disputes between school district personnel and parents.

ANALYZE ANDREFLECT

~~

As you think about yourself as a teacher-regardless of the level at which you plan to teach or the subject in which you are specializing-what are the unique contributions you could make to a team considering whether a student has a disability? Try to identify

at least 10 contributions.

ANALYZE ANDREFLECT

~

How can the differences in expertise among general education teachers, special education teachers, and related service professionals result in higher-quality education for students with disabi lities?

54 CHAPTER 2 Special Education Procedures and Services

1. S General Education Teacher's Rights in Special Education

As a teacher, you playa crucial role in the design and delivery of special education services. The following is a set of rights that attorney and disability advocate Reed Martin has compiled to clarify what you can expect as you work with students with disabilities and other special needs:

• The right to seek assistance for a student in a classroom who is not receiving benefit. It is illegal under federal special education law to leave a child to fend for himself in a classroom designed for others. The student has a right to be referred for necessary assistance, and the teacher has a concomitant right to make the referral when assistance is needed. This is not a right to rid the classroom of that child but rather a right to bring additional information or assistance into the classroom.

• The right to recognize the teacher as a child advocate. The ADA recognizes teachers as advocates, and outlaws retaliation, or reprisals against, and intimidation of teachers who advocate for children.

• The right to have a child fully evaluated. The child has a right to be evaluated in every area that might adversely affect educational performance, and the teacher has a right to know everything educationally relevant to that child.

• The right to receive any training needed under the Comprehensive System for Personnel Development. If the key to serving a student appropriately is teacher training, then the teacher has a right to receive that training.

• The right to participate in the IEP that develops the plan for a student in the teacher's class. The statute includes "the child's teacher" as a participant in the IEP meeting. All questions a classroom teacher might have must be asked and answered before the child comes into the classroom. If the school's practice is simply to have "a representative of instruction" at the meeting, but that person does not repre-

sent the interests of the classroom teacher, the classroom teacher should ask to have the IEP meeting reconvened to ask and answer the questions that have not been addressed. If the classroom teacher advocates in this way, she is protected from reprisals of school administrators.

• The right to receive the related services that should honestly be on the IEP. If needed supplemental aids and services are not discussed at the IEP meeting, then the IEP violates the teacher's, student's, and parents' rights. If services are decided on at the meeting but are not provided in the classroom, the teacher's, student's, and parents' rights likewise are violated.

• The right to be recognized as an advocate for all the children in the classroom. A classroom teacher has a duty to all the children in the classroom. This duty is not antagonistic to a child with special needs. The cases on placi ng children in the least restrictive environment recognize that the interests of other children, and the ability of the teacher to teach the classroom, are balanced with the right of a child with special needs to be in that regular classroom.

• The right to participate in assessing the effectiveness of the program. When the IEP committee leaves the meeting, it must have an IEP that is reasonably calculated to confer benefit. Once the IEP is begun, the teacher must have a role in assessing whether the IEP is working. During the year, and at the next IEP meeting, the teacher's view is vital to determining whether that was an appropriate program and placement.

• The right to be treated as a professional. Teachers are not just subordinate employees expected to carry out orders without questions. They are professionals with rights to ask for referral, for evaluation, for reevaluation, for an IEP meeting, and for further refinements of an IEP.

SOURCE: From "Regular Teachers' Rights in Special Education," by R. Martin (n.d.). Retrieved Spetember 5, 2004, from http://www.reedmartin.com/teacherrights.htm.This information is educational and not intended to be legal advice.

a e q

IDEA includes a provision that allows some states to permit IEPs to cover up to a 3-year period. This option is an experiment related to reducing paperwork in special education.

ANNUAL REVIEWS • The first strategy for monitoring special services is the annual review. At least once each year, a student's progress toward his or her annual goals must be reviewed, and the IEP changed or updated as needed. The purpose of this annual review is to see that the student's best interests are being protected. Not all multidisciplinary team members who participated in the initial decisions about the student's disability and educational needs are required to participate in annual reviews. However, a teacher instructing the student and an administrator or other professional representing the school district must meet with the student's parents to discuss whether goals and objectives (as required) have been met and what the next steps in the student's education should be. In practical terms, if your school district completes all annual reviews during a given month, you will find that the special education staff members with whom you work are unavailable because of their other responsibilities, such as meeting with parents. Depending on local practices, you are likely to be asked to attend annual reviews for some students. For many students, the general education teacher is the most knowledgeable about their day-to-day functioning. This concept was highlighted with the mandate in IDEA that a general education teacher participate in the development of each student's IEP, not necessarily by writing it but by contributing a classroom perspective.

How Do Students Obtain Special Services? 55

THREE-YEAR REEVALUATIONS. A second monitoring procedure required by law is the three-year reevaluation. At least every three years, and more often if deemed necessary by the MDT, students receiving special education services must be reassessed to determine whether their needs have changed. This safeguard is designed to prevent students with disabilities from remaining in services or programs that may no longer be appropriate for them. In some cases, the reevaluation includes administering all the tests and other instruments that were used initially to identify the student as needing special education. However, IDEA permits existing information to be used for reevaluation instead of requiring new assessments. In fact, with parent and team agreement, reevaluations may not involve any new assessment at all (Huefner, 2000; Yell & Shriner, 1997). On the basis of the three-year reevaluation, the MDT meets again to develop an appropriate IEP.

According to current law, parents are informed that it is time for a three-year reevaluation, but school districts are not required to obtain written permission for this monitoring procedure. This practice enables school districts to continue providing high-quality services to students without interruptions that could be caused if new permission had to be sought.

ADDITIONAL REVIEWS • In addition to annual reviews and three-year reevaluations, IDEA specifically stipulates that IEPs must be revised whenever there is a lack of expected progress toward achieving goals noted, reevaluation information is gathered, or parents bring to the attention of the MDT information that affects the IEP. This suggests that IEPs may need to be revised more frequently than the once per year that the basic requirements of the law mandate.

Parents have one more formal mechanism for obtaining information about their child's learning. IDEA specifies that the parents of students with disabilities have the right to receive a progress report about their child as often as do parents of typical learners. In many school districts, this means that formal communication about student learning progress now occurs every 6 or 9 weeks during the school year, that is, at the end of each grading period.

DUE PROCESS • Yet another strategy for monitoring students receiving special education services is due process, the set of procedures outlined in the law for resolving disagreements between school district personnel and parents regarding students with disabilities (Getty & Summy, 2004). Due process rights begin when a student is first brought to the attention of a team as potentially having a disability. Both school districts and parents are entitled to protection through due process, but parents typically exercise their due process rights when they fear that school districts may not be acting in the best interests of the child (Rothstein, 1995). For example, if parents have their child independently evaluated because they believe the assessment for special education did not accurately portray their child's needs, and if the school district does not agree with the findings of the independent evaluator, the parents may request a due process hearing. Or parents could request a hearing if they disagree with the goals and objectives listed on the IEP and with the way services are provided to meet those goals and objectives.

Due process hearings seldom address blatant errors on the part of schools or parents regarding special education; most often they reflect the fact that many decisions made about students with disabilities are judgment calls in which a best course of action is not always clear. For example, Mr. and Mrs. Schubat filed a due process complaint against their daughter's school district because they did not believe the programs offered were addressing their daughter Judy's needs. They wanted Judy to be more actively involved in general education activities despite her multiple disabilities. The school district personnel contended that the complexity of her needs prevented Judy from being reasonably accommodated in a classroom. They also indicated that she was part of a reverse tutoring program in which students without disabilities came to work

WWW

RESOURCES

A; th~'~~i'gh;s'law ~~'b;i~~"

(http://www. wrightslaw. corn/advoc/articles/ iep_guidance.html), you can view a comprehensive guide to rEPs for parents, including general information, related case law, links to related sites, and examples of appropriate and inappropriate rEP goals and objectives.

04

Both elementary and secondary students can benefit from student-led IEP meetings. Young children learn age-appropriate skills such as introducing their parents and stating their preferences; middle and high school students identify their strengths and weaknesses, explain their need for accommodations, and discuss their plans for postschool education or employment (Barrie & McDonald, 2002).

56

C H A PTE R 2 Special Education Procedures and Services

www.abtcnqrnan.com/friendee

DIMENSIONS

OF DIVERSITY

._"-':11,,

Disproportionate representation in special education affects many groups of students. For example, American Indian and Native Alaskan students are overrepresented among students with learning disabilities, mild mental retardation, and emotional disabilities, while Hispanic and Asian/Pacific Islander students are underrepresented (Zhang & Katsiyannis, 2002).

in the special education setting. How do you think a hearing officer would decide this case? What information might be crucial for reaching an appropriate decision?

In practice, most school districts and parents want to avoid due process hearings, which tend to be adversarial and can damage parent-school working relationships to the detriment of the student. To foster a positive working relationship, IDEA requires that all states have a system in place to offer mediation to parents at no cost as an initial means for resolving conflicts with schools (Consortium for Appropriate Dispute Resolution in Special Education, 2001; Mills & Duff-Mallams, 2000). In mediation, a neutral professional skilled in conflict resolution meets with both parties to help them resolve their differences informally. Mediation, however, is not allowed to cause delay in the parents' right to a due process hearing. A hearing is preceded by mediation-a less formal dispute resolution strategy-unless parents decline this option. All hearings must now also be preceded by a dispute resolution session as well, a sort oflast-chance for reaching agreement. If neither mediation nor a dispute resolution session is successful, the hearing is conducted by an independent and objective third party selected from a list provided by the state, but the school district bears the expense (D'Angelo, Lutz, & Zirkel, 2004). If either party disagrees with the outcome of a due process hearing, the decision can be appealed to a state-level review hearing officer. If disagreement still exists, either party can then take the matter to court.

Although school districts work closely with parents to avoid due process hearings, if one occurs concerning a student you teach, you may be called to testify at the hearing. In such a case, you would be asked to describe the student's level of functioning in your classroom, the supports you provided, and your efforts with other special service providers to ensure the student was successfuL An administrator and an attorney might help you prepare for the hearing, and they would answer any questions you might have about your role.

hat Is an Individualized Education Program?

As mentioned earlier, the document that the multidisciplinary team uses to decide the best placement for a student with an identified disability and that serves as a blueprint for a student's education is called an individualized education program. The IEP addresses all areas of student need, including accommodations to be made in a general education class and the services and supports to be provided there. The IEP also documents that services are being provided (Drasgow, Yell, & Robinson, 2001). Classroom teachers generally are involved as team participants in preparing an IEP if a student has any participation in the general education setting (Lytle & Bordin, 2001). Whether or not you are the teacher who serves in this role for particular students, if you have students with disabilities in your classroom, you will have opportunities to examine their IEPs or to meet with special educators to review highlights of these important plans, just as Ms. Lee, introduced at the beginning of the chapter, learned. Accessing IEPs and learning about your state's requirements for them have become very efficient practices with the increasing use of technology. Technology Notes on page 57 explains some of the electronic options related to rEPs and the procedures for developing them.

Required Components of an IEP

The essential components of the IEP were established by PL. 94-142 in 1975, and they have been updated through the years. Although specific state requirements for

ng Technology for IEPs

reparation of lEPs has changed significantly over the 1 years. Although in some school districts lEPs in longhand, increasingly these essential can be created on a computer using com merr"~""available software or templates created at the state level. In addition, banks of goals and objectives (as needed) that align with state curriculum standards exist,

and these can be inserted into rEPs, thus streamtining the IEP-writing process. A few of the options that exist are outlined here.

Computerized IEPs

A number of companies have produced IEP software that enables educators to write an IEP electronically, sometimes even incorporating information from a district database into the process so that basic demographic information already stored does not have to be entered separately on the forms. Examples of computerized IEP programs include IEPWriter (http://www.iepwriter.com). SpeciaL Education Automation Software (http://www.computerautomation.com). and e-IEP PRO (http://www.e-ieppro.com). These programs enable multiple educators to access IEPs from their computers, and they help professionals to generate the reports needed to report student progress.

State and Local UP Polides and Forms

Every state and many school districts now make available online their policies and procedures related to speciaL education as well as the forms that are needed for intervention assistance teams, special education referrals, IEPs,

What Is an Individualized Education Program? 57

and other special education activities. A website for the State of Illinois is an example of how state information and forms are made available, at http://www.isbe.net/. You generally can find this type of information by . . n Internet search engine, searching for the state's ment of Education or the school district, finding the home page for the office of special education, and then scanning to find policies and procedural information.

Information on Spedfic Issues Related to IEPs When you are asked to attend an IEP meeting, you may have questions about particuLar aspects of a student's disability. Throughout this textbook, many websites that are mentioned faU into the category of specific information on special education issues, services, and disability types. One site that provides many Links to information you may find usefuL is Special Education Resources on the Internet, at http://seriweb~com.

Questions and Activities

1. How might computerized IEPs make it easier for you to participate in the IEP-writing process? Ask an experienced professional to discuss computerized IEPs.

2. What is the web address for special education policies and procedures for yourstate? A large school district near you? In addition to forms and procedures, what aq.. ditional helpful information can you find on those

websites? .

3. What aspects of special education are you particularly curious about? What web sites can you find that address these issues?

IEPs vary somewhat, the federally required elements of IEPs are described in the following sections.

PRESENT LEVEL OF FUNCTIONING • Information about a student's current level of academic achievement, social skills, behavior, communication skills, and other areas of concern must be included on an IEP. This information serves as a baseline and makes it possible to judge student progress from year to year. Often, highlights of the information collected from the individual assessment of the student are recorded on the IEP to partially meet this requirement. Individual achievement test scores, teacher ratings, and summary assessments by specialists such as speech therapists or occupational therapists can be used to report the present level of functioning. Another component of this assessment is information about how the student's disabilities affect involvement in the general education curriculum.

ANNUAL GOALS AND SHORT-TERM OBJECTIVES. Annual goals are the MDT's estimate of what a student should be able to accomplish within a year, related to meeting his or her measured needs resulting from the disability. For some students,

RESEARCH NOT E ~~~iII1~~ _a"!,~:~_~A~

General education teachers report that when they participate in IEP meetings, they talk more and include more discussion of student strengths and needs, sense they have a better idea about what to do next, and view meetings positively (Martin et al., 2004).

58 C H A PTE R 2 Special Education Procedures and Services

ANALYZE ANDREFLECT

How might the IEP goals for a student with a significant disability (for example, a student in middle school who reads at a second-grade level or a student with multiple disabilities) be implemented in a general education class? What factors might lead the MDT to decide that services should not be delivered there? What are the costs and benefits of such decisions?

CONNECTIONS

4"." •. '

Students' IEPs address not'

just academics but also behavior and social skills. These topics are addressed in Chapters 12 and 13.

annual goals may refer primarily to academic areas and may include growth in reading, math problem solving, and other curricular areas. Specifically, a student with a learning disability might have an annual goal to read and comprehend books at a particular grade level or to demonstrate skills for finding and keeping a job. For other students, annual goals address desired changes in classroom behavior, social skills, or other adaptive skills. An annual goal for a student with a moderate intellectual disability, for example, may be to order a meal at a fast-food restaurant. A student with autism might have participating in conversation as a goal. Annual goals also may encompass speech therapy, occupational and physical therapy, and other areas in which a student has specialized needs. There is no "right" number of annual goals. Some students have as few as 2 or 3, others as many as 8 or 10. However, IDEA specifies that annual goals must be measurable, and increased emphasis is placed on annual goals that enable a student to progress in the general education curriculum.

Short-term objectives are descriptions of the steps needed to achieve an annual goal, and they generally are required only for the IEPs of students with significant intellectual disabilities. For example, for a student with a severe physical disability whose annual goal is to feed herself, short-term objectives might include grasping a spoon, picking up food with the spoon, and using the spoon to transport food from plate to mouth. The number of short-term objectives for each annual goal relates to the type and severity of the disability, its impact on student learning, and the complexity of the goal. For some students, only a few short-term objectives may be needed; for others, each annual goal may be divided into several smaller steps. Examples of IEP goals and objectives are included in the Professional Edge on page 59.

EXTENT OF PARTICIPATION IN GENERAL EDUCATION • In keeping with the trend toward inclusive practices, the IEP must include a clear statement of justification for placing a student anywhere but in a general education classroom for all or part of the school day. Even for extracurricular and other nonacademic activities, if the team excludes the student from the general class, an explanation of why that student cannot participate in such activities must be part of the IEP.

SERVICES AND MODIFICATIONS NEEDED • The IEP contains a complete outline of the specialized services the student needs; that is, the document includes all the special education instruction to be provided and any other related services needed to ensure instructional success. Thus, a student receiving adaptive physical education has an IEP indicating that such a service is needed. A student's need for special transportation is noted on the IEP, too. A student who is entitled to transition or vocational assistance has an IEP that clarifies these services. Perhaps most importantly, the statement of services must include information about the modifications and supports to be provided so that the student can access and progress in the general education curriculum.

One additional element of this IEP component concerns assessment. IDEA stipulates that if a student needs accommodations (for example, extended time) on district or state assessments, including high-stakes assessments, these should be specified on the IEP. If a student is to be exempt from such assessments, the team must ensure that the student will complete an alternative assessment that takes into account her functioning levels and needs. Remember that the No Child Left Behind Act set specific limits on which students are exempt from high-stakes testing and eligible for alternative assessments, and these limits were confirmed and clarified in IDEA. Most of the students with disabilities whom you teach will be required to complete mandated assessments and their scores must be considered for measuring adequate year progress (AYP).

Part of identifying services is indicating who is responsible for providing them.

Any of the professionals introduced earlier in this chapter could be listed on the IEP to deliver special services. As a general education teacher, you probably will be included, too. For some students, you will be the teacher who completes most of the required instruction; for others, you will assist but will not be primarily responsible. For

What Is an Individualized Education Program? 59

PROFESSIONAL EDGE Sample IEP Goals and Objectives

Thegoillsand objectives 011 lEPs are related to assessed student needs, and they are.written ina specific way (Lignu. garis·Kraft,March~nd-Martellai. & Martella, 2001). For exarnpll~ithey must be measurable, and they. must specify the conditions underwhich the student should. be able to carry out an activity (such as the reading Level of print material or the people with whom a .student should communicate). They also should indicate the level of mastery needed (such as a level of accuracy in an assignment).

Goals outline the progress expected for approximately one school year. They are supplemented by short-term objectives, or benchmarks, that measure. progress . toward achieving the annual goal. The following are sample IEP annual goals and objectives:

Students. with Mild/Moderate Disabilities

• Goal: When assigned to write an essay of three paragraphs, Jerome will use capital letters and punctuation with 80 percent accuracy.

• Goal: Susan will compLete at least 80 percent of her homework assignments in English, algebra, and U.S. history .

• Objective: Susan will write down hOQ1ework assign" ments.90 percent of the time with 90 percent accuracy.

• Objective: Susan will have in her backpack. at the end of the day all needed materials to. do assignments 90 percent of the time.

Students with significant Intellectual Disabilities *

• Goal:. Maria.wilL make eye contact when communicating with adults in school at least five out of six trials.

• Objective: Maria will make eye contact with the speech/language therapist during individual sessions in five out of six interactions .initiatedby the. therapist.

• Objective: Maria will make eye contact when the special education teacher calls Maria's name and looks at her in at least five out of six interactions.

•• Objective: Maria will make eye contact when. a classroom teacher calls Maria's name and looks at her in at least five out of six interactions.

You can find a complete sample IEP form on the website for this textbook (http://www.abLongman.com/friend4e). On that form, can you .identify each of the components required in an rEP? Using a lesson you have created for another class or one provided by your instructor, try writing several goals and objectives for one of the students described at the beginning of this chapter.

*Remember that the lEI's for students with mild or moderate disabiLities ate not required to include objectives, unless requested by parents.

example, a student with a mild cognitive disability probably will be able to complete many class tasks with minor accommodations that you can make. However, if your student has significant cognitive and physical disabilities requiring an alternative curriculum, other professionals undoubtedly will help develop the materials you will use when the student is in your classroom.

BEHAVIOR INTERVENTION PLAN. A critical aspect of the current regulations for educating students with disabilities concerns discipline and the need to respond to inappropriate behavior. Every student with significant behavior problems, not just those students labeled as having emotional disabilities, must have as part of the rEP an intervention plan based on a functional assessment of the student's behavior. This requirement reflects the increasing pressure for students to be supported in general education settings and the acknowledged difficulty of accomplishing that goal without fostering appropriate student behavior.

DATE OF INITIATION AND FREQUENCY AND DURATION OF SERVICEAND ANTICIPATED MODIFICATIONS • Each rEP must include specific dates when specialized services and modifications begin, the frequency of the services and modifications, the types of modifications that are part of the services, and the period of time during which services and modifications are offered. Because the law generally requires

60

C H A PTE R 2 Special Education Procedures and Services

www.abtcoqmau.rcrn/triendso

WWW RESOURCES

".

~~",,}.~. ,,$" ~~

The National Parent Network on Disabilities (http://www.npnd.org) is a nonprofit organization that offers clear information about disabilities, including information on laws and procedures.

that student progress in special education be monitored at least once each year, the most typical duration for a service is a maximum of one year. If during the year an MDT member sees a need to reconsider the student's educational plan, additional IEP meetings can be convened.

STRATEGIES FOR EVALUATION. W'hen a team develops an IEP, the members must clarify how to measure student progress toward achieving the annual goals and how to regularly inform parents about this progress. For example, when short-term objectives are written, the team indicates the criteria and the procedures to be used to judge whether the objective has been met. For the student learning to move around the school without assistance, the criteria might include specific point-to-point independent movement, and a checklist might be used to judge student progress toward reaching the goal. As with all aspects of special education, the evaluation criteria and procedures are individualized; they are as general or specific as needed to accomplish the student's educational goals.

TRANSITION PLAN • For all students who are 14 years of age and older, part of the IEP is a description of strategies and services for ensuring that the student is prepared to leave school for adult life. This part of the IEP is called a transition plan. Students with disabilities who are college-bound might have transition plans that include improvement of their study skills, exploration of different universities and their services for students with disabilities, completion of high school course requirements necessary to obtain admission to a university, and preparation in life skills such as responsibly using credit cards and checking accounts. For students who plan to work immediately after graduation, the transition plan might include developing skills such as reading employment ads and filling out job applications, as well as developing important job skills such as punctuality, pleasant manners, and respect toward people in authority and customers. As with IEPs, there is no single correct way to write a transition plan. However, this plan must be tailored to match the assessed strengths and needs of the particular student. It is updated annually, with participation by professionals from agencies outside the school typically increasing as the student nears graduation or school departure at age 21.

In addition to the basic components, IEPs have several other requirements. For example, they are signed by the individuals who participate in their development, including the student's parent or guardian. They also list a justification for the placement recommended. For example, a decision that the student should receive some services in a pullout program might be justified on the basis of the student's need for one-toone or small-group intensive instruction to succeed. In addition, if a student has specific types of needs, they must be addressed in the IEP. Examples of such needs are behavior, communication, braille (unless specifically excluded on the IEP), and assistive technology. In such cases, appropriate supports, services, and strategies must be specified (Drasgow et al., 2001).

The Value of IEPs

To some educators, IEPs represent paperwork that mostly consumes time and energy (Carlson, Chen, Schroll, & Klein, 2003). This is unfortunate because IEPs guide the education of students with disabilities. An IEP helps you clarify your expectations for a student and provides a means for you to understand the student's educational needs. The document also informs you about the types of services the student receives and when the student's educational plan will next be reviewed. Your job is to make a goodfaith effort to accomplish the goals and/or short-term objectives on the IEP as they relate to your instruction. If you do that, you will have carried out your responsibility; if you do not do that, you could be held accountable. For example, suppose an IEP indicates that a student should learn the concept of freedom of speech. You can demonstrate that you are helping the student learn this by providing class discussion, role-play

What Services Do Students with Disabilities Receive? 61

activities, and access to appropriate resources on the Internet, even if the student does not master this concept. If you state that the student is expected merely to read about the concept in the textbook chapter and you refuse to create opportunities for supported learning in this area, you may be violating the IEP.

Do you have additional questions about your role in the preferral, referral, or IEP process? Additional considerations are presented in the Working Together feature below.

hat Services Do Students with Disabilities Receive?

The services that a student with disabilities can receive are comprehensive, limited only by the stipulation that they must be necessary as part of that student's education. These services are provided in a variety of placements. Both the services and placements are determined by the multidisciplinary team.

Special Education and Related Services

As noted in Chapter 1, the types of services students receive can be grouped into two categories: special education and related services. Special education refers to the specially

WWW RESOURCES

",,,,,,,,<:."" ",9"'*"" .,"'''iiI

Many stati;tics ab~'ut stu-" dents with disabilities and how they receive their education services come from the federally compiled annual reports to Congress on the implementation of IDEA. You can find copies of the reports from the

past several years at http://www.ed.gov /about/ reports/an nualjosep/ index.html.

II& WORKINGTOGETHER

cases one general ~tication teacher can proVl e sentative perspective for the team. .. .

.• Are general education teachers r~sponsible for writi

parts of the IEP? .

Federal law requires participation of general education ; teachers in IEP meetings in most situations because they ...•. bring an important viewpoint to those discussions. However, those teachers generally do not write sections

matter what your role (for example. elem .

mi hool, or high scHool teacher; related arts teacher: •...•

technology spedalist), you are obligated to carry out tiny

of the IEP provisions that pertain to you, including participating in semces offered in the general education classroom and making adjustments to assignments and strategies as noted in the IEP.

• I work in a high school, and most students already have been identified by the time they get to this level. 00 high school teachers still need to have intervention assistance teams?

Federal law does not specifically require that teams exist, . but it does require that, across all levels of schools, a system lie in place to identify students who might ne~d special education. In one study of intervention assistance teams in an urban school district researchers found that classroom teacher involvement on teams was essential fa" their success (Rubinson, 2002).

• 00 all the teachers on a middLe school team need to attend the pre-referral and/or IEP team meetings for their students who have been referred or assessed?

62 CHAPTER 2 Special Education Procedures and Services

Students with disabilities who are enrolled in faithbased private schools are entitled to some benefits from IDEA. For example, although these students must be identified by the public school district in that locale, they may receive only limited services that do not have to be available at the private school-they may be available only at the public school (Eigenbrood, 2004).

ANALYZE ANDREFLECT

Zigmond (2003) suggests that questions about where students with disabilities should be educated are misguided and that the more important questions concern how best to help each student learn. What are the implications of this thi n ki ng for teachers? What impact could this thinking have on the continuum-of-placements model?

designed instructional services students receive. These services may include materials, alternative curriculum, access to a special education teacher qualified to teach students with a particular disability, and individualized instruction. When a student's special education teacher comes to the classroom and teaches with the general education teacher, that is special education. When a student leaves a classroom for 30 minutes three times each week for intensive tutoring, that is special education. When a middle school or high school offers a life skills class for students with disabilities, that is special education, too.

Related services refer to all the supports students may need in order to benefit from special education. Examples of related services are speech therapy, transportation, physical and occupational therapy, adapted physical education, rehabilitation counseling, psychological services, and social work. A student's need to ride a special bus equipped with a wheelchair lift is a related service need. A student's need for assistance with personal care such as toileting is a related service need.

As you might guess, the range of possibilities for special education and related services is immense. Some students, particularly those with high-incidence disabilities, receive a limited number of special education services and perhaps no related services at all. For example, Lucas, a high school student with a learning disability in math, attends a geometry class in which a special education teacher teams with a math teacher. Lucas's assignments are sometimes shortened, and he is allowed extra time to complete tests. He already is looking into colleges that are known to be supportive of students with his special needs. Students with more complex or severe disabilities may have a more highly specialized special education as well as numerous related services. For example, Charmon, a student with physical and cognitive disabilities, might receive the services of a physical and occupational therapist, speech/language therapist, and inclusion specialist, as well as a special education teacher.

Student Placement

Until recently, any discussion of special education services typically began with a discussion of the least restrictive environment (LRE) and rapidly moved to a detailed discussion of the place in which the services would occur. This was because many students spent some, most, or all of the school day in a special education classroom, where it was believed appropriate instruction could best be delivered. Now, views about placement are changing (McLeskey, Henry, & Axelrod, 1999). Some school districts still use special education classrooms, even for students with relatively mild disabilities, and these are sometimes an appropriate LRE. However, the high standards and accountability provisions of NCLB and the requirement that students with disabilities be taught by highly qualified teachers of IDEA are leading to schools becoming more inclusive (U.S. Department of Education, 2002). As in Ms. Turner's school that you read about at the beginning of the chapter, school professionals are considering how to support students more effectively in general education settings. Figure 2.6 shows the continuum of placements that must exist for students with disabilities and recent data on the percentage of students with disabilities in each of those placements. The decision about placement is made by the MDT and reviewed at least annually along with the IEP. Placements can be changed as often as appropriate, with parental permission. Generally, if parents and school district representatives disagree about placement, the student remains in the current placement until the disagreement is resolved. Exceptions to this occur when discipline issues arise. Administrators may unilaterally change a student's placement (for example, through suspension) for up to 10 days, provided such methods are used with other students, too. If students with disabilities bring a weapon or drugs to school, they can be placed in an alternative educational setting for up to 45

What Services Do Students with Disabilities Receive? 63

fiGURE l.6 IDEA Continuum of Placements for Students with Disabilities

Percentage of time outside general education

47.3%

2.67 million

students

28.32% 1.60 million

20.29% 1.15 million

2.90% 164,209

0.69% 0.48%
38,966 27,012
students students
Residential Home or
facility Hospital < 21 (Regular classroom)

21-60 (Resource room)

> 60 (Separate classroom)

Separate school

Settings most like those for typical learners (i.e., general education)

Settings least like those for typical learners (i.e., general education)

SOURCE: From 24th Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2002, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

school days while decisions are made concerning their long-term placement needs (Bear, Quinn, & Burkholder, 2001).

REGULAR (GENERAL EDUCATION) CLASS • Nearly half of students with disabilities leave the general education setting for less than 21 percent of the day to receive special education services (U.S. Department of Education, 2002). Thus, these students spend the majority of their time in the general education classroom. For example, a student in kindergarten with a communication disorder might be served by a speech/language therapist who comes to the classroom and teaches language lessons with the general education teacher. For a student in middle school with cognitive and physical disabilities, an inclusion specialist might adapt a lesson on fractions by helping the student learn how to cut simple shapes into halves. For a student with a learning disability in high school biology, a paraprofessional might assist the student in carrying out lab directions and in recording and completing assignments. The student with LD might have one class period covering study skills and strategies assistance in a special education classroom.

RESOURCE PROGRAM • Another group of students with disabilities attends school mostly in general education settings but also receives assistance in a special education

RESEARCH NOT E

•• ;~"_UIIi

Research suggests that three factors other than race strongly influence the restrictiveness of the placement of a student with disabilities: the perceived severity of the student's problem, the presence of serious behavior problems, and a low level of family involvement (Hasp & Reschly, 2002).

64

CHAPTER 2 SpeciaL Education Procedures and Services

www.ablongman.comjfriend4e

15 ..

In many school districts, students have the opportunity to make choices about the schools they attend. Many students with disabilities are entitled to choose their schools, too-including charter and magnet schools-although students needing highly specialized programs that

are site-bound may be obligated to receive their education at specific schools (Ahearn, 2001).

classroom, often called a resource room, for 21-60 percent of the day (U.S. Department of Education, 2002) in what is called a resource program. In elementary schools, programs sometimes are organized by the skills being taught. For instance, from 10:00 a.m. until 10:45 a.m., basic math skills may be taught, and all the second-, third-, and fourth-grade students needing math assistance may come to the resource room at that time. Alternatively, some resource rooms are arranged by same-age groups. For example, in these programs all fifth graders with disabilities in resource room programs may go to the resource room together. In another approach, special education teachers negotiate with general education teachers about specific times students will attend.

In middle schools and high schools, students are scheduled to have resource classes in the same way that the rest of their classes are scheduled. For example, a student may attend a resource class that provides study strategies or reviews the curriculum being taught in general education classes. How a resource program is organized depends on many factors, including the number of students to be served and their ages, the nature and intensity of their needs, and local policies. One hallmark of resource services is that they are supplemental to the instruction in the general education classroom, that is, they are not in lieu of core academic classes.

SEPARATE CLASS • Some students with disabilities attend separate classes for more than 60 percent of the school day (U.S. Department of Education, 2002). In this placement, a special education teacher has the primary instructional responsibility for the students who receive grades from the highly qualified special educator for the subjects taught there. However, a separate class placement does not mean that students do not interact with typical peers; they may attend a general education classroom for part of the day, and they also may participate in related arts and other school activities with peers. For example, although Kurt is in a separate class most of the day at his high school, he takes a shop class with students without disabilities. A paraprofessional accompanies him because he has limited ability to understand directions and needs close guidance from an adult to operate equipment. At Kyle's elementary school, 30 minutes each day is called "community time," during which students read and write together, share important events from their lives, and learn about their neighborhood and community. For community time, Kyle goes to Mr. Ballinger's fifth-grade class. The students are about Kyle's age and assist her with the community activities and learning. Kyle's special education teacher helps Mr. Ballinger plan appropriate activities for Kyle during that time.

If you teach in one of the related arts-for example, art, music, physical education, or drama-you are likely to instruct students with disabilities regardless of their specific placement. More information about your responsibilities in this regard is included in the Special Emphasis On ... feature on page 65.

SEPARATE SCHOOL. A small number of students with disabilities attend public or private separate schools (U.S. Department of Education, 2002). Some separate schools exist for students with moderate or severe cognitive and physical disabilities, although such schools are becoming obsolete. Other separate schools serve students with multiple disabilities who need high levels of specialized services. For example, in a small communi ty near Chicago, approximately 25 students are educated at a separate school. These students all need the services of a physical and occupational therapist; most have complex medical problems that must be closely monitored; and most cannot move unless someone assists them. These students have opportunities for contact with typical peers who, through a special program, are brought to the separate school to function as "learning buddies."

What Services Do Students with Disabilities Receive? 65

Special EMPHASIS On

A

If you are an art, music, dance, or drama teacher, you might wonder what role you play in the education of students with disabilities. In fact, in many school districts you are the professional who is most likely to work with most, if not all, of the students with disabilities attending your school. In many cases, these students come to your class along with typical peers. In a few cases, a separate class has been arranged for them. Teachers in the arts often express the concern that little attention is paid to the support needs of students with disabilities in their classes, and few materials are available to prepare teachers in the arts for worki ng with students with disabilities.

One website that you will find particularly helpful is VSA Arts (formerly Very Special Arts), at http://www. vsarts.org. Founded in 1974 by Jean Kennedy Smith, VSA Arts is an international organization that creates tearning opportunities through the arts for children and adults with disabilities. The organization has affiliates across the United States and in 60 other countries.

VSA Arts includes an online gallery of works by individuals with disabilities, a showcase of recordings from recent awards for playwrights and musicians with disabilities, a linkto frequently asked questions, a .chronicle of the difference that the arts have made in the lives of individuals with disabilities and the programs serving them, and other

information about the organization and its work. Educators can link to a VSA Arts site to search for information and websites on topics related to their teaching.

VSA Arts also distributes materials to assist educators in working with students with disabilities. One instructional program, Start with the Arts, is designed to foster literacy skills for young children in inclusive settings. Another resource is Express Diversity!, a set of five modules with art activities designed for fifth graders but adaptable for students in grades 1 through 7. The intent of the modules is to demonstrate that students with a wide range of abilities and disabilities share in the joy of arts. The modules include one simulation activity (with cautions about the shortcomings of this approach for trying to understand individuals with disabilities), a creative-writing exercise, an art mural activity, a performance arts activity, and a visual arts activity. The package of materials also includes letters (in Spanish as well as English) that can be sent home to explain theproqram to parents, bulletin board items, video biography cards about people with disabilities, and other support materials.

SOURCE: Adapted from "Publications and Resources for Educators and Parents," by VSA Arts, 2003. Retrieved September 15, 2004, from http://www.vsarts.org/x572.xml.

66

C H A PTE R 2 Special Education Procedures and Services

www.abtonqman.com/friendse

Some students with serious emotional disabilities also attend separate schools.

These students might harm themselves or others. They might not be able to cope with the complexity and social stress of a typical school, and so the least restrictive environment for them is a school where their highly specialized needs, including therapeutic supports, can be addressed.

RESIDENTIAL FACILITY • A few students have needs that cannot be met at a school that is in session only during the day. If students in separate settings have even greater needs, they might attend school as well as live in a public or private residential facility. Few students with disabilities are educated in this manner (U.S. Department of Education, 2002). The students for whom this placement is the LRE often are those with severe emotional problems or severe and multiple cognitive, sensory, and physical disabilities. In some states, students who are blind or deaf also might receive their instruction in a residential facility, an approach that is supported by some professionals and parents and opposed by others.

A somewhat different group of students also can be considered under the residential placement option. According to IDEA, children and young adults with disabilities who are incarcerated in the juvenile justice system must receive special education services. Further, children and young adults who are convicted of a crime and incarcerated as adults also are entitled to special education services unless the IEP team determines there is a compelling reason to discontinue services (Howell & Wolford, 2002). Finally, this group includes incarcerated adults who are 18 to 21 years of age but who were receiving special education services before their incarceration or before they dropped out of school and subsequently were convicted of a crime.

HOME OR HOSPITAL. A very small number of students with disabilities receive their education in a home or hospital setting (U.S. Department of Education, 2002). This placement often is used for students who are medically fragile or who are undergoing surgeries or other medical treatments, or for students who have experienced an emotional crisis. For a few students with limited stamina, school comes to the home because the student does not have the strength to come to school; that is, a special education teacher comes to the home for a specified amount of time each week to deliver instruction there.

If parents and school representatives disagree about an appropriate educational placement, students sometimes are educated at home pending the outcome of a due process hearing. When students are educated at home or in a hospital, the amount of actual instruction often is limited. Home services might involve as little as 4 or 5 hours of teaching per week, delivered by an itinerant teacher. Hospital services range from a few hours of itinerant teaching to a full school program delivered by teachers who are assigned full time to work in that setting.

One more point should be made about placements. For some students, the team may decide that students' learning will suffer significantly if schooling stops during the summer. For these students, any of the services in any of the placements

IS the just described can be extended into school breaks and summer vacations through extended school year (ESY) programs.

would As you can see, because of NCLB and IDEA separate

d! d Ii classes and schools for placement are rapidly becoming less important than supporting the education of students with disabilities in general education classrooms and schools. When placement includes a specialized setting, often that alternative placement is appropriate for a specific skill or service for a spe-

cific and limited period of time. However, the appropriate and required educational setting for most students with disabilities is the same classroom they would attend if

Applications in Teaching Practice 67

they did not have a disability. As a general education teacher, you playa major role in the education of students with disabilities, so it is important for you to understand the kinds of special services your students receive.

SUMMARY

Many individuals work to ensure that students with disabilities receive an appropriate education. These people include general education teachers; special education teachers; related service providers such as school psychologists, counselors, speech/language therapists, social workers, physical and occupational therapists, adaptive physical educators, nurses, administrators, paraprofessionals, and other specialists; and parents, students, and advocates. Depending on need, a student with a disability may receive instruction from just one or two of these professionals, or from several of them.

To determine whether special services are needed, general education teachers usually begin a process of deciding whether to request that a student be assessed for the presence of a disability. They carry out this process by analyzing the nature and extent of a student's unmet needs; clarifying those needs by describing them through examples; determining that the needs are chronic and possibly worsening over time; comparing the student's needs to those of others in the class; possibly recognizing that no pattern seems to exist for the student's performance; and intervening to address the unmet needs and documenting those efforts. Based on these early strategies, the student's needs may be assessed by an intervention assistance team or screening procedure, and then if warranted, a multidisciplinary team (MDT) follows federally established special education referral and assessment steps. This process ineludes completing an individualized assessment with parental permission, making decisions about the need

lications in Teachin

for special education, developing an individualized education program (IEP), and monitoring the special education services. If parents and personnel disagree on any aspect of a student's special education program or services and if the disagreement cannot be resolved informally, due process procedures, including mediation and dispute resolution sessions, are used to ensure that the student receives the appropriate education.

When an IEP is developed, it includes the student's present level of functioning, goals (and sometimes objectives), justification for any placement outside general education, needed services, the person(s) responsible for the services, beginning and ending dates for service delivery, and criteria for evaluation. It may also include a behavior intervention plan and a transition plan. The IEP generally must be reviewed at least annually, and the student must be reevaluated at least every 3 years. The services a student may receive, as outlined by the IEP, include special education and related services and a designation of the placement for the student: a general education classroom, resource program, or separate special education setting.

General education teachers play an integral role in the education of students with disabilities. They are involved in the early identification of students who seem to have special needs, contribute during the assessment and identification process, and implement IEP goals and, possibly, objectives as outlined by the multidisciplinary team.

Practice

• A Visit to an MDT Meeting

• Ms. Richards teaches science to sixth graders. Beginning in the fall, she and her team mem-

• bers will be working with Natasha, a student newly identified as having a learning disability.

Natasha enjoys many friends and extracurricular activities, but she has extraordinary diffi-

• culties with reading fluency, comprehension, and written expression. She also has significant : problems organizing her work and remembering to complete and turn in assignments. To

• help set appropriate goals for the coming year, Ms. Richards is participating in an MDT

• meeting to create an IEP for Natasha. Although it would be preferable for all the sixth-

68

C H A PTE R 2 SpeciaL Education Procedures and Services

www.ablongman.com/friend4e

• grade-team members to attend the meeting, this is not feasible, and so Ms. Richards is representing her colleagues as well.

General education (sixth-grade) science teacher: Ms. Richards General education (fifth-grade) teacher: Mr. Tucker

Special education middle school teacher: Ms. Hill

Principal: Ms. Hubbert

Psychologist: Ms. Freund

Speech/language therapist: Mr. Colt

Parent: Ms. Wright

Ms. Hubbert: Our next task is to develop goals for Natasha. I'd like to suggest that we discuss academics first, then social areas, and wrap up with related services needed. Let's look at Natasha's strengths first-in all those areas.

Mr. Colt: Natasha has a very strong speaking vocabulary. She is considerably above average in that realm.

Ms. Freund: Along with that, Natasha's general knowledge is very good. She also is near grade level in basic math skills.

Mr. Tucker: It's not really academics, but one strength Natasha has that I see is her willingness to help classmates. She really wantsto help everyone in class learn even when she herself is struggling. She also was very active in extracurricular activities this yearshe participated in the service learning program, volunteered to read to the kindergarten class, and competed in the after-school sports program.

Ms. Hill: As we write academic goals, then, we need to remember that Natasha has strong vocabulary skills and general knowledge and that she does not need help in math. Perhaps we can use her social skills and other interests to help in the academic arena. Ms. Wright, what strengths do you see in Natasha?

Ms. Wright: Hmmm. She minds me, that's for sure. And she helps out around the house with chores. She likes to help me watch her baby brother.

Ms. Hill: Helping really seems to be Natasha's thing-let's keep that in mind. Ms. Hubbert: Let's focus for a minute on academic areas of need.

Ms. Freund: Reading comprehension and written expression are by far the areas that need the most work. Natasha's comprehension is just at a beginning third-grade level and her written expression is below that.

Ms. Wright: She says she doesn't like reading because the other kids make fun of her when she can't read the words and they tease her when Mr. Tucker gives her a baby book.

Ms. Richards: In middle school, that could be even more of a problem. We need to be sure that she uses the same textbooks as the other students next year. I'm sure we can also arrange to get some supplemental materials for her to use at home. Let's be sure that before we finish today we talk about that some more.

Ms. Freund: Ms. Richards and Ms. Hill, given what you know and have heard about Natasha, what might be the priorities for next year?

Ms. Hill: I agree that comprehension is the key. I think a goal should be for her to improve her comprehension to a fourth-grade level on reading tasks that include stories, textbooks, and other materials such as children's magazines.

Ms. Hubbert: Ms. Wright, how does that sound to you? [Ms. Wright nods.]

[The conuersation continues ... ]

Working the Standards 69

Before the meeting ends, the MDT has generated the following additional goals in reading comprehension using materials at her instructional level: Natasha will identify the main characters and the problem and solution in literature that she reads at a third-grade level. She will comprehend 80 percent of both narrative and expository material she reads aloud and 80 percent on material she reads to herself.

QUESTIONS

1. What are the responsibilities of the professionals represented at the MDT meeting?

Which of the professionals are required to attend? How would your responses be different if this were an annual review?

2. What role does Ms. Richards take at the meeting? Why is her presence helpful in creating an educational program for Natasha? How else might she contribute during this meeting?

3. What is the purpose in having both the fifth-grade teacher and a sixth-grade teacher attend the meeting? How might this improve the quality of the IEP? What problems might it cause?

4. What steps do you think occurred prior to this meeting? How did the general education teacher prepare? What other team responsibilities were met?

5. What part of the IEP is the team addressing? What other parts have to be completed before the meeting ends? What must occur for the IEP to be valid?

6. What would happen if Natasha's mother asked the school district for a separate class as Natasha's placement and the school district disagreed with this?

WORKINGTHE STANDARDS

IINTASC PRINCIPLES REFLECTED INTHIS CHAPTER:

Principle #1 states that all teachers

• Understand key concepts such as special education and related services; disability definitions; free appropriate public education; least restrictive environment and continuum of services; due process and parent participation and rights; and nondiscriminatory assessment (Principle 1.04).

• Understand the purpose and requirements of individualized education programs (IEPs), including transition plans, and individualized family support plans (lFSPs), both of which are specified in IDEA, and individual accommodations plans (lAPs), which are specified in Section 504, and their responsibility for implementing these plans (Principle 1.04).

• Know about and can access resources to gain information about state, district, and school policies and procedures regarding special education, including those regarding referral, assessment, eligibility, and services for students with disabilities (Principle 1.05).

Principle #8 states that all teachers understand the purposes, strengths, and limitations of formal and informal assessment approaches for making eligibility, placement, and instructional decisions for students with disabilities (Principle 8.01).

Principle #10 states that all teachers

• Understand the purposes of, and are effective

members of, the different types of teams within the special education process (for example, child study

and teacher assistance teams, multidisciplinary teams that focus on identification and placement, IEP /IFSP teams), including the role of the general education teacher in initial and ongoing assessment, and planning and instruction of students with disabilities (Principle 10.02).

• Accept families as full partners in planning appropriate instruction and services for students

with disabilities, and provide meaningful opportunities for them to participate as partners in their children's instructional programs and in the life of the school (Principle 10.04).

70 CHAPTER 2 Special Education Procedures and Services

WORKING THE STANDARDS (continued)

CEC STANDARDS REFLECTED ~='---' IN THIS CHAPTER:

CEC Content Standard #1 states that special educators understand the relationships of organizations of special education to the organizations and functions of schools, school systems, and other agencies, and use this knowledge as a ground upon which to construct their own personal understandings and philosophies of special education.

CEC Content Standard #7 states that special educators II Develop long-range individualized instructional plans

anchored in both general and special curricula.

II Systematically translate these individualized plans into carefully selected shorter-range goals and objectives, taking into consideration an individual's abilities and needs, the learning environment, and a myriad of cultural and linguistic factors.

CEC Content Standard #8 states that special educators

II Understand the legal policies and ethical principLes of measurement and assessment reLated to referral, eLigibility, program pLanning, instruction, and pLacement for individuaLs with exceptionaL Learning needs.

II ColLaborate with families and other coLLeagues to ensure unbiased, meaningfuL assessments and decision making.

BACK TO THE CASES

The standards and principles just Listed reLate to the teachers described at the beginning of this chapter: Mr. Vazquez, Ms. Lee, and Ms. Turner. The questions and activities that foLLow demonstrate how these standards and principles, aLong with other concepts that you have Learned about in this chapter, connect to the everyday activities of aLL teachers.

Mr.Vazquez

Mr. Vazquez and Marcus's parents have tried severaL strategies to change Marcus's behavior and improve his academic

progress. However, they do not think there has been significant improvement and want to consult the school's instructional assistance team. (See INTASC PrincipLes 1.05, 10.02, and 10.04; and CEC Standard 8.) What information shouLd Mr. Vazquez provide to the team? Use specific exampLes from the case.

Ms. Lee

Ms. Lee is Looking forward to working with the speech/language therapist. but she is unsure what to expect. Does she need to teLL the therapist what to do? ShouLd she be keeping records of Jennifer's Language difficuLties? (See INTASC PrincipLe 1.04 and CEC Standard 8.) Using information from the chapter and the American Speech-language-Hearing Association website (http://www.asha.org), outline how a speech/Language therapist works with teachers and IEP teams, and expLain what Ms. Lee shouLd expect to happen in her classroom.

MS.Turner

As Ms. Turner works with her school's inclusive practices team, she becomes concerned that student rights to an inclusive education may create unreaListic expectations for a generaL educator's ability to work with students who have exceptionaL Learning needs. She has other concerns about the amount of paperwork and time required to meet the IDEA requirement that generaL education teachers participate in IEP meetings. (See INTASC PrincipLes 1.04 and 10.02.) How wouLd you assure her that she is a necessary participant in the process and address her concerns? In your answer, specifically address both Ms. Turner's responsibilities and her personaL concerns.

i Visit the companion website (http://www.abLongman. com/friend4e) for a compLete correLation of this chapter to the INTASC PrincipLes and CEC Standards.

Further Readings

Further Readings 71

Malian, L, & Nevin, A. (Eds.). (2002). Impact of selfdetermination curricula [Special issue]. Remedial and Special Education, 23(2),66-128.

This special issue of the journal considers several aspects

of self-determination, including the implications of selfdetermination for classroom practice at all school levels, the importance of administrative support for self-determination, and students' views on this topic.

Pickett, A. L., & Gerlach, K. (Eds.). (2003). Supervising paraeducators in educational settings: A team approach (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

This book provides practical and specific information on preparing para-educators for their roles, helping them to manage their roles and responsibilities, supervising them, and resolving issues that arise.

Stodden, R. A., Galloway, L. M., & Stodden, N. J.

(2003). Secondary school curricula issues: Impact on post-

secondary students with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 70, 9-26.

This article is a review of literature on the status of students with disabilities in high schools in the context of rigorous, standards-based curricula and high-stakes testing and other accountability practices. The authors clearly map out the dilemmas, but they devote much of their writing to exemplary practices that can help all high school teachers help their students with disabilities to succeed.

Ulrich, M. E., & Bauer, A. M. (2003). Levels of awareness: A closer look at communication between parents and professionals. Teaching Exceptional Children, 35(6),20-25.

This teacher-friendly article outlines types of reactions and stages parents may go through when they learn that their child has a disability. The article can help teachers to better understand and respond appropriately to the parents of their students.