Chapter Five
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN:
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
5-2
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Objective To gain a qualitative To quantify the data and
understanding of the generalize the results from
underlying reasons and the sample to the population
motivations of interest
Sample Small number of non- Large number of
representative cases representative cases
Data Collection Unstructured Structured
Data Analysis Non-statistical Statistical
Outcome Develop an initial Recommend a final course of
understanding action
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A Classification of Qualitative Research Procedures
Qualitative Research
Procedures
Direct (Non Indirect
disguised) (Disguised)
Projective
Depth Interviews Techniques
Focus Groups
Association Completion Construction Expressive
Techniques Techniques Techniques Techniques
5-4
Characteristics of Focus Groups
Group Size 8-12
Group Composition Homogeneous,
prescreened
Physical Setting Relaxed, informal atmosphere
Time Duration 1-3 hours
Recording Use of audiocassettes and videotapes
Moderator Observational, interpersonal, and
communication skills of the moderator
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Key Qualifications of Focus Group Moderators
1. Kindness with firmness: The moderator must combine a disciplined
detachment with understanding empathy so as to generate the
necessary interaction.
2. Permissiveness: The moderator must be permissive yet alert to signs
that the group’s cordiality or purpose is disintegrating.
3. Involvement: The moderator must encourage and stimulate intense
personal involvement.
4. Incomplete understanding: The moderator must encourage
respondents to be more specific about generalized comments by
exhibiting incomplete understanding.
5-6
Key Qualifications of Focus Group Moderators
5. Encouragement: The moderator must encourage unresponsive
members to participate.
6. Flexibility: The moderator must be able to improvise and alter the
planned outline amid the distractions of the group process.
7. Sensitivity: The moderator must be sensitive enough to guide the
group discussion at an intellectual as well as emotional level.
5-7
Procedure for Planning and Conducting Focus Groups
Determine the Objectives and Define the Problem
Specify the Objectives of Qualitative Research
State the Objectives/Questions to be Answered by Focus Groups
Write a Screening Questionnaire
Develop a Moderator’s Outline
Conduct the Focus Group Interviews
Review Tapes and Analyze the Data
Summarize the Findings and Plan Follow-Up Research or Action
5-8
Variations in Focus Groups
Two-way focus group. This allows one target group
to listen to and learn from a related group.
Dual-moderator group. A focus group conducted by
two moderators: One moderator is responsible for the
smooth flow of the session, and the other ensures that
specific issues are discussed.
Dueling-moderator group. There are two
moderators, but they deliberately take opposite
positions on the issues to be discussed.
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Variations in Focus Groups
Respondent-moderator group. The moderator asks selected
participants to play the role of moderator temporarily to improve group
dynamics.
Client-participant groups. Client personnel are identified and made
part of the discussion group.
Mini groups. These groups consist of a moderator and only 4 or 5
respondents.
Tele-session groups. Focus group sessions by phone using the
conference call technique.
Online Focus groups. Focus groups conducted online over the Internet.
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Advantages of Focus Groups
1. Synergism
2. Snowballing
3. Stimulation
4. Security
5. Spontaneity
6. Serendipity
7. Specialization
8. Scientific scrutiny
9. Structure
10. Speed
5-11
Disadvantages of Focus Groups
1. Misuse
2. Misjudge
3. Moderation
4. Messy
5. Misrepresentation
5-12
Depth interview
An unstructured , direct, personal interview in which
a single respondent is probed by a highly skilled
interviewer to uncover underlying motivation ,
beliefs, attitudes, and feeling on a topic.
5-13
Characteristics of Focus Groups
Size One to One
Respondent probed by highly skilled interviewer
Time Duration 30 minutes to more than 1 hour
Recording Use of audiocassettes, videotapes and
written form
Interviewer Observational, interpersonal, and
communication skills of the moderator
5-14
Depth Interview Techniques: Laddering
In laddering, the line of questioning proceeds from
product characteristics to user characteristics. This
technique allows the researcher to tap into the
consumer's network of meanings.
Wide body aircrafts (product characteristic)
I can get more work done
I accomplish more
I feel good about myself (user characteristic)
Advertising theme: You will feel good about yourself when flying
our airline. “You're The Boss.”
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Depth Interview Techniques:
Hidden Issue Questioning
In hidden issue questioning, the focus is on deeply felt
personal concerns.
5-16
Depth Interview Techniques:
Symbolic Analysis
Symbolic analysis attempts to analyze the symbolic meaning of
objects by comparing them with their opposites.
“What would it be like if you could no longer use airplanes?”
“Without planes, I would have to rely on letters and long distance
calls.”
Airlines sell to the managers face-to-face communication.
Advertising theme: The airline will do the same thing for a manager as
Federal Express does for a package.
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Definition of Projective Techniques
An unstructured, indirect form of questioning that
encourages respondents to project their underlying
motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings regarding
the issues of concern.
In projective techniques, respondents are asked to
interpret the behavior of others.
In interpreting the behavior of others, respondents
indirectly project their own motivations, beliefs,
attitudes, or feelings into the situation.
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Word Association
In word association, respondents are presented with a list of words,
one at a time and asked to respond to each with the first word that
comes to mind. The words of interest, called test words, are
interspersed throughout the list which also contains some neutral, or
filler words to disguise the purpose of the study. Responses are
analyzed by calculating:
(1) the frequency with which any word is given as a response;
(2) the amount of time that elapses before a response is given; and
(3) the number of respondents who do not respond at all to a test word
within a reasonable period of time.
5-19
Completion Techniques
In Sentence completion, respondents are given incomplete
sentences and asked to complete them. Generally, they are asked
to use the first word or phrase that comes to mind.
A person who shops at Sears is ______________________
A person who receives a gift certificate good for Sak's Fifth Avenue
would be __________________________________
J. C. Penney is most liked by _________________________
When I think of shopping in a department store, I ________
A variation of sentence completion is paragraph completion, in
which the respondent completes a paragraph beginning with the
stimulus phrase.
5-20
Completion Techniques
In story completion, respondents are given part of a
story – enough to direct attention to a particular topic but
not to hint at the ending. They are required to give the
conclusion in their own words.
5-21
Construction Techniques
With a picture response, the respondents are asked to
describe a series of pictures of ordinary as well as unusual
events. The respondent's interpretation of the pictures
gives indications of that individual's personality.
In cartoon tests, cartoon characters are shown in a
specific situation related to the problem. The respondents
are asked to indicate what one cartoon character might say
in response to the comments of another character. Cartoon
tests are simpler to administer and analyze than picture
response techniques.
5-22
A Cartoon Test
Sears
Let’s see if we can
pick up some
house wares at
Sears
5-23
Expressive Techniques
In expressive techniques, respondents are presented
with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the
feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation.
Role playing Respondents are asked to play the role or
assume the behavior of someone else.
Third-person technique The respondent is presented
with a verbal or visual situation and the respondent is asked
to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person rather
than directly expressing personal beliefs and attitudes. This
third person may be a friend, neighbor, colleague, or a
“typical” person.
5-24
Advantages of Projective Techniques
They may elicit responses that subjects would be
unwilling or unable to give if they knew the
purpose of the study.
Helpful when the issues to be addressed are
personal, sensitive, or subject to strong social
norms.
Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and
attitudes are operating at a subconscious level.
5-25
Disadvantages of Projective Techniques
Require highly trained interviewers.
Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the
responses.
There is a serious risk of interpretation bias.
They tend to be expensive.
May require respondents to engage in unusual
behavior.
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Comparison of Focus Groups and Depth Interviews
Criteria Focus Depth
Groups Interviews
1. Group synergy and + -
dynamics
2. Group influence + -
3. Client involvement + -
4. Generation of + -
innovative idea
5. In-depth probing of - +
individual
6. Uncovering hidden - +
motives
7. Sensitive topic -
discussion +
8. Amount of information
9. Bias in moderation and + -
interpretation - +
10.Cost per respondent
5-27
Advantages of Online Focus Groups
Geographical constraints are removed and time
constraints are lessened.
Unique opportunity to re-contact group participants
at a later date.
Can recruit people not interested in traditional focus
groups: doctors, lawyers, etc.
Moderators can carry on side conversations with
individual respondents.
There is no travel, video taping, or facilities to
arrange; so the cost is much lower.
5-28
Disadvantages of Online Focus Groups
Only people that have access to the Internet can
participate.
Verifying that a respondent is a member of a target
group is difficult.
There is lack of general control over the respondent's
environment.
Only audio and visual stimuli can be tested. Products
can not be touched (e.g., clothing) or smelled (e.g.,
perfumes).
