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Essay Writing:
An Overviewi
In this lecture, we will provide an overview of essay writing. In future lessons, we
will be looking in more detail at aspects of academic writing.
Introductory Task:

Look at the following statements. To what extent do you agree with them? Discuss
your ideas with a partner.
1. It is always best to start writing as soon as you have got your essay
question.
2. My tutor wants to know what other researchers have said about the
essay topic.
3. Writing an essay is simply about producing a long document to be
handed in.
4. Drafting and redrafting is a waste of my time.
5. There are things I can assume my reader (i.e. my tutor) will know
about my essay topic.

Stages in the Process

The process of planning and producing an essay has a number of stages:
Stage 1: Understanding the question or title of the essay
Stage 2: Effective reading and note-taking
Stage 3: Planning the essay
Stage 4: The process of writing
Stage 5: Final editing, proof-reading and presentation

Stage 1: Understanding the Question or Title of the Essay

An essay title or question will often tell you three things:
1. The topic you are to write about (the topic)
2. What you are expected to do with the topic (the instruction)
3. The type of essay you are expected to write (the type of essay)
1

Task 1
Look at the essay title below and identify these three items.
Discuss the ways in which credit can be provided to the agricultural sector of the
economy. In your discussion consider the strengths and weaknesses of the alternative
possibilities.
The Topic
The Instruction
The Type of
Essay

It is important that you understand exactly what the instruction tells you to do. For a
list of essay question words, see page 6.

Stage 2: Effective Reading and Note-Taking

Effective reading means only reading those parts of a book or article which are of
relevance (or are essential) to your immediate purpose.
Never pick up a book or article or even a chapter and read it straight through from
beginning to end, as the chances are you will be so bored or confused that you will
give up! Instead, try to follow the procedure given below:
Reading with a purpose:
Before you begin to read a book or an article, ask yourself
(a) Why am I reading this?
(b) What do I hope to learn from it?
Be selective in your reading. Only read those sections which are really relevant to
your essay. Try to take notes when you read, it will often help you to concentrate.
Effective note-taking means taking notes of the most important points of a chapter or
article. Many students have a tendency to copy long sections without distinguishing
between the main points and the examples used to support these points.
When you take notes you may find it useful to use symbols to distinguish between an
exact quote and something which you have expressed in your own words. You will
find this very useful when you want to include quotations in your essay. It also helps
to guard against accidental plagiarism.

Stage 3: Planning the Essay

You will need to start with a detailed plan of the essay or chapter of the dissertation.
You will probably find it useful to develop a plan showing the content of the different
paragraphs in the essay.
Many essays fit the pattern:
1. Introduction : including an overview
2. Main body of the essay
3. Summary and/or conclusion
When planning your essay you may want to use one of the following frameworks:

cause and effect

problem and solution

comparing advantages and disadvantages

classifying

chronological order

Task 2
Would you use any of the above frameworks for the following question, taken
from a Cultural Studies exam? Why (not)?
Michael Jacksons death is a sad reflection of everything that is unholy about our
celebrity-obsessed culture. Critically discuss this statement.

Always remember to:

build an argument (thesis) if you can
give evidence in support of your argument
use signposting
review other peoples work critically (use a polite tone)

Move from the general to the specific topic of your essay. An outline for this can be
determined from the essay question. Look at this example essay title from an earlier
exercise:
Discuss the ways in which credit can be provided to the agricultural sector of the
economy. In your discussion consider the strengths and weaknesses of the alternative
possibilities.

General

the agricultural sector of the economy

Less general credit to the agricultural sector of the economy

More specific the ways in which credit can be provided to the agricultural sector
of the economy.
Most specific Discuss consider the strengths and weaknesses of the alternative
possibilities
Task 3
Can you do the same for the Michael Jackson question?
Task 4
Look at the extract below. Identify the 2 general (main) ideas. Then indicate with
each time the statements become more specific.
The cost of health care in the U.S. is the highest in the world today. A higher percentage of
national income, and more per capita, is spent on medical care by the United States than by
any of the twenty-eight other country members of the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD). The United States spent $4,178 per capita on health
care in 1998, more than twice the OECD median of $1,783, and far more than its closest
competitor, Switzerland ($2,794). U.S. health care spending as a percentage of gross
domestic product (GDP), 13.6 percent in 1998, also exceeded the next most expensive health
care systems, in Germany (10.6 percent) and Switzerland (10.4 percent) However, the U.S.
government finances a smaller portion of health-care spending than does any OECD country
except Korea (Friedman, 2001; Hilsenrath et al., 2004).
However, the U.S. government finances a smaller portion of health-care spending than does
any OECD country except Korea (Friedman, 2001; Hilsenrath et al., 2004). More than fortytwo million Americans (15.5 percent) were not insured in 1999 (Bureau of Labor Education
at the University of Maine, 2001). Most of the uninsured have no employer-provided health
care options and are unable or unwilling to bear the cost for the few types of plans available
to them. If ineligible for government assistance, the uninsured have little choice but to wait
until their health concerns justify emergency room treatment, an extremely costly option for
hospitals. In fact, these emergency facilities may turn patients away unless their conditions
are deemed to be medical emergencies.ii

Stage 4: The Process of Writing

Some tips on writing the first draft:

Never translate whole sentences from your mother tongue.

Just write your thoughts in English - don't worry about style at this stage.

Write short, simple sentences.

Use simple verbs such as to be, have, get, see, find out.

Let yourself use 'spoken forms', for example there is/are.

Develop a system for recording your references

5

Stage 5: Final Editing, Proof-Reading and Presentation

Leave plenty of time for this final stage. You will need to read through your work
several times concentrating on different things.

Avoid a series of short sentences: link some and embed others.

For example:
X costs a lot. It is not often available there. can be changed to:

X is expensive and is seldom available there

(linked)

X; being expensive, is seldom available there (embedded)

Replace simple verbs with more precise verbs, e.g. determine, detect,
assess, confirm, exemplify, evaluate, characterise.

Replace there is/are X with X exists/occurs/appears/arises etc.

Replace the colloquial forms a lot of, lots of with much/many, numerous,
large (or substantial) amounts/numbers of
Replace contractions, e.g. don't, isn't with the full forms, e.g. do not, is not.
Make sure each verb agrees in number with its subject: locate every verb and
scan backwards until you find the subject.
If there are many passive verbs, convert some of these to the active voice by using
'inanimate agent', e.g.:
As shown in the study
The study shows ...
Subject were given
Subjects received ...

Check for spelling mistakes.

Check the layout and pagination

Cover page: include one; follow your departments instructions about the
lay-out.
Font: use point size 11 or 12 and a clear font type, e.g. Times New Roman.
Margins: leave a 4 cm left-hand margin and a 2.5 cm right-hand margin.
Line Spacing: leave 1.5 or 2 lines of spacing. For long quotations, indent
and use single-line spacing.
Paragraphs: Either indent and start the paragraph on the fourth character
space, with 1 line in between paragraphs; or use blocked paragraphs,
i.e. no indents but a double-line space between each paragraph
Emphasis: Choose either italics or bold.

Please note that these are general guidelines; always check with your own department or tutor.

Are longer quotations correctly indented? (More information on this in the handout Quoting and Paraphrasing Techniques).

Remember the 1:1 service at Priorsfield. We can read part of your draft and give
advice. You can book an appointment through the main office. Contact Vicky
by email [email protected], or phone 0121 414 7153.

Glossary of essay and examination question words

Question word

Meaning

Account for

Give reasons for; explain

Give an account of

Describe

Analyse

Divide, discuss, examine, explain

Assess

Decide on the importance and then give reasons

Calculate

Estimate; determine; weigh reasons carefully

Characterise

Describe

Classify

Arrange into groups

Comment on

Explain the importance of

Compare

Describe similarities

Consider

Show that you have thought about it carefully

Contrast

Describe differences

Critically evaluate

Discuss pros and cons

Criticise

Discuss and point out faults

Define

State precisely the meaning of

Demonstrate

Show clearly by giving proof or evidence

Describe

Say what something is like

Determine

Find out something; calculate

Differentiate between

Show how something is different

Discuss

Consider something from different points of view, and then give your opinion

Distinguish between

Describe the difference between

Elaborate

Discuss in detail, with reasons and examples

Elucidate

Explain, make clear

Enumerate

Name and list

Estimate

Calculate; judge; predict

Evaluate

Assess and explain

Examine

Look carefully at; consider

Explain

Make clear; give reasons for

Express

Show, describe

Identify

Point out and describe

Indicate

Show and explain

Infer

Conclude something from facts or reasoning

Illustrate

Give examples that support your answer

Justify

Give good reasons for; explain satisfactorily

List

Put in sequence

Mention

Describe briefly

Name

Identify

Outline

Give a short description of the main points

Prove

Show that something is true or certain; provide strong evidence (and examples) for something

Quantify

Express or measure the amount or quantity of

Relate

Give an account of

Show

Indicate; give evidence of; make clear; demonstrate; illustrate

Speculate

Form an opinion without having complete knowledge

Suggest

Mention as a possibility; state as an idea for consideration; propose

State

Express carefully, fully and clearly

Summarise

Give the main points of

Trace

Outline and describe

Verify
Make sure that something is accurate or true; check
From R.R. Jordan (1990). Academic Writing Course. Nelson.

i
ii

Last updated in 2010 by EVG.

Extract taken from http://www.ukessays.com/essays/health/us-health-care-system.php, accessed 08/04/09.

Key
Introductory Task: here is BIAs advice:
1. Think and plan first, then write. (Once you have done that, it is good advice to just start writing. Otherwise you might risk
postponing the writing or suffering from fear of failure. Just write, then amend and edit later (see stages 4 and 5)).
2. This is true. You are expected to put these views together and comment on them.
3. Writing an essay is a complex task. The final outcome does not just demonstrate that you can produce a long document, but
that you can research as well as think critically and independently.
4. Drafting and redrafting is what it is all about.
5. You should assume that your reader needs to be told everything. Only words and concepts in general use will not need
explaining. If you do not define or explain a concept, your tutor may assume that you do not know it.
Task 1
Topic: credit provision to agriculture
Instruction: discuss
(Note: this means Consider something from different points of view, and then give your opinion-see page 6)
The Type of Essay: strengths and weaknesses
Tasks 2 and 3
This question asks you to critically discuss. Looking at the glossary on page 6, we can take this to mean
Consider something from different points of view, and then give your opinion (discuss) and point out possible faults/not to
accept it at face value (critically). You could use cause and effect to some extent, but effect is stronger than reflection, so
you would have to adapt that. A better framework may be to look at different points of view one by one.
general
less general
more specific
most specific

the celebrity-obsessed culture

what is unholy (terrible) about this culture
Michael Jacksons death in this context
different points of view about this

Task 4
A. The cost of health care in the U.S. is the highest in the world today. A higher percentage of national income, and more
per capita, is spent on medical care by the United States than by any of the twenty-eight other country members of the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). (1)The United States spent $4,178 per capita on health
care in 1998, more than twice the OECD median of $1,783, and far more than its closest competitor, Switzerland ($2,794). (2)
U.S. health care spending as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP), 13.6 percent in 1998, also exceeded the next most
expensive health care systems, in Germany (10.6 percent) and Switzerland (10.4 percent)
-------------B. However, the U.S. government finances a smaller portion of health-care spending than does any OECD country except
Korea (Friedman, 2001; Hilsenrath et al., 2004). More than forty-two million Americans (15.5 percent) were not insured in
1999 (Bureau of Labor Education at the University of Maine, 2001). Most of the uninsured have no employer-provided health
care options and are unable or unwilling to bear the cost for the few types of plans available to them. If ineligible for
government assistance, the uninsured have little choice but to wait until their health concerns justify emergency room treatment,
an extremely costly option for hospitals. In fact, these emergency facilities may turn patients away unless their conditions are
deemed to be medical emergencies.

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