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EarthingCalculation
FromOpenElectrical
Contents
1Introduction
1.1Whydothecalculation?
1.2Whentodothecalculation?
1.3Whenisthecalculationunnecessary?
2CalculationMethodology
2.1Prerequisites
2.2EarthingGridConductorSizing
2.3TouchandStepPotentialCalculations
2.3.1Step1:SoilResistivity
2.3.2Step2:SurfaceLayerMaterials
2.3.3Step3:EarthingGridResistance
2.3.3.1SimplifiedMethod
2.3.3.2SchwarzEquations
2.3.4Step4:MaximumGridCurrent
2.3.4.1CurrentDivisionFactor
2.3.4.2DecrementFactor
2.3.5Step5:TouchandStepPotentialCriteria
2.3.6Step6:GroundPotentialRise(GPR)
2.3.7Step7:EarthingGridDesignVerification
2.3.7.1MeshVoltageCalculation
[Link].1GeometricSpacingFactorKm
[Link].2GeometricFactorn
[Link].3IrregularityFactorKi
[Link].4EffectiveBuriedLengthLM
2.3.7.2StepVoltageCalculation
[Link].1GeometricSpacingFactorKs
[Link].2EffectiveBuriedLengthLS
2.3.7.3WhatNow?
3WorkedExample
3.1Step1:SoilResistivity
3.2Step2:SurfaceLayerMaterials
3.3Step3:EarthingGridResistance
3.4Step4:MaximumGridCurrent
3.5Step5:TouchandStepPotentialCriteria
3.6Step6:GroundPotentialRise(GPR)
3.7Step7:EarthingGridDesignVerification
3.7.1MeshVoltageCalculation
3.7.2StepVoltageCalculation
4ComputerBasedTools
5Whatnext?
Introduction
Theearthingsysteminaplant/facilityisveryimportantforafewreasons,allofwhicharerelatedtoeithertheprotectionofpeopleandequipmentand/or
[Link]:
Equipotentialbondingofconductiveobjects([Link],buildings,pipingetc)totheearthingsystempreventthepresenceof
dangerousvoltagesbetweenobjects(andearth).
Theearthingsystemprovidesalowresistancereturnpathforearthfaultswithintheplant,whichprotectsbothpersonnelandequipment
Forearthfaultswithreturnpathstooffsitegenerationsources,alowresistanceearthinggridrelativetoremoteearthpreventsdangerousground
potentialrises(touchandsteppotentials)
Theearthingsystemprovidesalowresistancepath(relativetoremoteearth)forvoltagetransientssuchaslightningandsurges/overvoltages
Equipotentialbondinghelpspreventelectrostaticbuildupanddischarge,whichcancausesparkswithenoughenergytoigniteflammable
atmospheres
Theearthingsystemprovidesareferencepotentialforelectroniccircuitsandhelpsreduceelectricalnoiseforelectronic,instrumentationand
communicationsystems
ThiscalculationisbasedprimarilyontheguidelinesprovidedbyIEEEStd80(2000)([Link]
safetyinACsubstationgrounding".Lightningprotectionisexcludedfromthescopeofthiscalculation(refertothespecificlightningprotectioncalculation
[Link]
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formoredetails).
Whydothecalculation?
[Link],youcan:
Determinetheminimumsizeoftheearthingconductorsrequiredforthemainearthgrid
Ensurethattheearthingdesignisappropriatetopreventdangerousstepandtouchpotentials(ifthisisnecessary)
Whentodothecalculation?
[Link]
confirmthattheearthingsystemisadequate,orhighlighttheneedforimprovement/[Link],soilresistivitytestresultsfromthesitewillbe
availableforuseintouchandsteppotentialcalculations(ifnecessary).
Whenisthecalculationunnecessary?
Thesizingofearthingconductorsshouldalwaysbeperformed,buttouchandsteppotentialcalculations(perIEEEStd80forearthfaultswithareturnpath
throughremoteearth)arenotalwaysnecessary.
Forexample,whenallelectricityisgeneratedonsiteandtheHV/MV/LVearthingsystemsareinterconnected,thenthereisnoneedtodoatouchandstep
[Link],allearthfaultswouldreturntothesourceviatheearthingsystem(notwithstandingsomesmallleakagethroughearth).
However,wheretherearedecouplednetworks([Link]),thentouchandsteppotentialcalculationsshouldbe
performedfortheremoteareaonly.
CalculationMethodology
ThiscalculationisbasedonIEEEStd80(2000),"GuideforsafetyinACsubstationgrounding".Therearetwomainpartstothiscalculation:
Earthinggridconductorsizing
Touchandsteppotentialcalculations
IEEEStd80isquitedescriptive,detailedandeasytofollow,soonlyanoverviewwillbepresentedhereandIEEEStd80shouldbeconsultedforfurther
details(althoughreferenceswillbegivenherein).
Prerequisites
Thefollowinginformationisrequired/desirablebeforestartingthecalculation:
Alayoutofthesite
Maximumearthfaultcurrentintotheearthinggrid
Maximumfaultclearingtime
Ambient(orsoil)temperatureatthesite
Soilresistivitymeasurementsatthesite(fortouchandsteponly)
Resistivityofanysurfacelayersintendedtobelaid(fortouchandsteponly)
EarthingGridConductorSizing
Determiningtheminimumsizeoftheearthinggridconductorsisnecessarytoensurethattheearthinggridwillbeabletowithstandthemaximumearthfault
[Link],[Link]
anormalcable,wherethelimitingtemperatureisthatwhichwouldcausepermanentdamagetothecable'sinsulation,thetemperaturelimitforearthinggrid
[Link],duringtheworstcaseearthfault,wedon'twanttheearthinggridconductorstostart
melting!
TheminimumconductorsizecapableofwithstandingtheadiabatictemperatureriseassociatedwithanearthfaultisgivenbyrearrangingIEEEStd80
Equation37:
Where
istheminimumcrosssectionalareaoftheearthinggridconductor(mm2)
istheenergyofthemaximumearthfault(A2s)
isthemaximumallowable(fusing)temperature(C)
istheambienttemperature(C)
isthethermalcoefficientofresistivity(C1)
istheresistivityoftheearthingconductor(.cm)
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is
isthethermalcapacityoftheconductorperunitvolume(Jcm3C1)
ThematerialconstantsTm,r,[Link]
copperhasmaterialconstants:
Tm=1084C
r=0.00381C1
r=[Link]
TCAP=3.42Jcm3C1.
AsdescribedinIEEEStd80Section11.3.1.1,therearealternativemethodstoformulatethisequation,allofwhichcanalsobederivedfromfirst
principles).
Therearealsoadditionalfactorsthatshouldbeconsidered([Link]),asdiscussedinIEEEStd80Section
11.3.3.
TouchandStepPotentialCalculations
Whenelectricityisgeneratedremotelyandtherearenoreturnpathsforearthfaultsotherthantheearthitself,thenthereisariskthatearthfaultscancause
dangerousvoltagegradientsintheeartharoundthesiteofthefault(calledgroundpotentialrises).Thismeansthatsomeonestandingnearthefaultcan
receiveadangerouselectricalshockdueto:
Touchvoltagesthereisadangerouspotentialdifferencebetweentheearthandametallicobjectthatapersonistouching
Stepvoltagesthereisadangerousvoltagegradientbetweenthefeetofapersonstandingonearth
[Link]
calculationsareperformedinordertoassesswhethertheearthinggridcandissipatethefaultcurrentssothatdangeroustouchandstepvoltagescannotexist.
Step1:SoilResistivity
Theresistivitypropertiesofthesoilwheretheearthinggridwillbelaidisanimportantfactorindeterminingtheearthinggrid'sresistancewithrespectto
[Link]([Link]
complywithsafestepandtouchpotentials).
[Link]([Link]).
AgooddiscussionontheinterpretationofsoilresistivitytestmeasurementsisfoundinIEEEStd80Section13.4.
Sometimesitisn'[Link],itgoeswithoutsayingthatone
shoulderronthesideofcautionandselectahigherresistivity.IEEEStd80Table8givessomeguidanceonrangeofsoilresistivitiesbasedonthegeneral
characteristicsofthesoil([Link]=10.m,moistsoil=100.m,drysoil=1,[Link]=10,000.m).
Step2:SurfaceLayerMaterials
Applyingathinlayer(0.08m0.15m)ofhighresistivitymaterial(suchasgravel,bluemetal,crushedrock,etc)overthesurfaceofthegroundiscommonly
[Link]
([Link])andthefeetofapersonstandingonit,therebyloweringthecurrentflowingthroughthepersonintheeventofafault.
IEEEStd80Table7givestypicalvaluesforsurfacelayermaterialresistivityindryandwetconditions(e.g.40mmcrushedgranite=4,000.m(dry)and
1,200.m(wet)).
Theeffectiveresistanceofaperson'sfeet(withrespecttoearth)whenstandingonasurfacelayerisnotthesameasthesurfacelayerresistancebecausethe
[Link]
footresistance(withrespecttoearth)[Link]
formulaasperIEEEStd80Equation27:
Where
isthesurfacelayerderatingfactor
isthesoilresistivity(.m)
istheresistivityofthesurfacelayermaterial(.m)
isthethicknessofthesurfacelayer(m)
ThisderatingfactorwillbeusedlaterinStep5whencalculatingthemaximumallowabletouchandstepvoltages.
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Step3:EarthingGridResistance
Agoodearthinggridhaslowresistance(withrespecttoremoteearth)tominimisegroundpotentialrise(GPR)andconsequentlyavoiddangeroustouchand
[Link],youdesigntheearthinggridtominimise
[Link],thetotallengthofburiedearthingconductorsandthe
numberofearthingrods/electrodes.
IEEEStd80offerstwoalternativeoptionsforcalculatingtheearthinggridresistance(withrespecttoremoteearth)1)thesimplifiedmethod(Section14.2)
and2)theSchwarzequations(Section14.3),bothofwhichareoutlinedbrieflybelow.IEEEStd80alsoincludesmethodsforreducingsoilresistivity(in
Section14.5)andatreatmentforconcreteencasedearthingelectrodes(inSection14.6).
SimplifiedMethod
IEEEStd80Equation52givesthesimplifiedmethodasmodifiedbySveraktoincludetheeffectofearthinggriddepth:
Where
istheearthinggridresistancewithrespecttoremoteearth()
isthesoilresistivitiy(.m)
isthetotallengthofburiedconductors(m)
isthetotalareaoccupiedbytheearthinggrid(m2)
isthedepthoftheearthinggrid(m)
SchwarzEquations
TheSchwarzequationsareaseriesofequationsthataremoreaccurateinmodellingtheeffectofearthingrods/[Link]
Std80Equations53,54,55(footnote)and56,asfollows:
Where
istheearthinggridresistancewithrespecttoremoteearth()
istheearthresistanceofthegridconductors()
istheearthresistanceoftheearthingelectrodes()
isthemutualearthresistancebetweenthegridconductorsandearthingelectrodes()
Andthegrid,earthingelectrodeandmutualearthresistancesare:
Where isthesoilresistivity(.m)
isthetotallengthofburiedgridconductors(m)
is
forconductorsburiedatdepth metresandwithcrosssectionalradius metres,orsimply forgridconductorsonthe
surface
isthetotalareacoveredbythegridconductors(m2)
isthelengthofeachearthingelectrode(m)
isnumberofearthingelectrodesinarea
isthecrosssectionalradiusofanearthingelectrode(m)
and areconstantcoefficientsdependingonthegeometryofthegrid
Thecoefficient
canbeapproximatedbythefollowing:
(1)Fordepth
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(2)Fordepth
(3)Fordepth
Thecoefficient
canbeapproximatedbythefollowing:
(1)Fordepth
(2)Fordepth
(3)Fordepth
Whereinbothcases,
:
isthelengthtowidthratiooftheearthinggrid.
Step4:MaximumGridCurrent
[Link]
current,youfirstlyneedtocalculatetheworstcasesymmetricalearthfaultcurrentatthefacilitythatwouldhaveareturnpaththroughremoteearth(callthis
).[Link],thehighestrelevantearthfaultlevelwillbeon
theprimarysideofthelargestdistributiontransformer([Link]).
CurrentDivisionFactor
[Link]([Link])
ortherecouldbealternativereturnpathsotherthanremoteearth([Link],buriedpipesandcables,etc).Thereforeacurrent
divisionfactor mustbeappliedtoaccountfortheproportionofthefaultcurrentflowingbackthroughremoteearth.
Computingthecurrentdivisionfactorisataskthatisspecifictoeachprojectandthefaultlocationanditmayincorporatesomesubjectivity(i.e.
"engineeingjudgement").Inanycase,[Link]
case,acurrentdivisionfactorof
canbeapplied,meaningthat100%ofearthfaultcurrentflowsbackthroughremoteearth.
Thesymmetricalgridcurrent
iscalculatedby:
DecrementFactor
Thesymmetricalgridcurrentisnotthemaximumgridcurrentbecauseofasymmetryinshortcircuits,[Link]
decrementfactor,whichcanbecalculatedfromIEEEStd80Equation79:
Where
isthedecrementfactor
isthedurationofthefault(s)
isthedctimeoffsetconstant(seebelow)
ThedctimeoffsetconstantisderivedfromIEEEStd80Equation74:
Where
istheX/Rratioatthefaultlocation
isthesystemfrequency(Hz)
Themaximumgridcurrent
islastlycalculatedby:
Step5:TouchandStepPotentialCriteria
[Link]
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(at50Hzor60Hz)thatahumanbodycanwithstandistypicallyintherangeof60to100mA,[Link]
durationofanelectricshockalsocontributestotheriskofmortality,[Link],weneedtoprescribe
maximumtolerablelimitsfortouchandstepvoltagesthatdonotleadtolethalshocks.
ThemaximumtolerablevoltagesforstepandtouchscenarioscanbecalculatedempiricallyfromIEEEStdSection8.3forbodyweightsof50kgand70kg:
Touchvoltagelimitthemaximumpotentialdifferencebetweenthesurfacepotentialandthepotentialofanearthedconductingstructureduringafault(due
togroundpotentialrise):
50kgperson:
70kgperson:
Stepvoltagelimitisthemaximumdifferenceinsurfacepotentialexperiencebyapersonbridgingadistanceof1mwiththefeetwithoutcontacttoany
earthedobject:
50kgperson:
70kgperson:
Where
isthetouchvoltagelimit(V)
isthestepvoltagelimit(V)
isthesurfacelayerderatingfactor(ascalculatedinStep2)
isthesoilresistivity(.m)
isthemaximumfaultclearingtime(s)
Thechoiceofbodyweight(50kgor70kg)[Link],wherewomenareexpectedtobeonsite,
theconservativeoptionistochoose50kg.
Step6:GroundPotentialRise(GPR)
Normally,thepotentialdifferencebetweenthelocaleartharoundthesiteandremoteearthisconsideredtobezero([Link]).
Howeveranearthfault(wherethefaultcurrentflowsbackthroughremoteearth),theflowofcurrentthroughtheearthcauseslocalpotentialgradientsin
[Link](GPR).Itisimportanttonote
thatthisisamaximumpotentialpotentialdifferenceandthatearthpotentialsaroundthesitewillvaryrelativetothepointoffault.
ThemaximumGPRiscalculatedby:
Where
isthemaximumgroundpotentialrise(V)
isthemaximumgridcurrentfoundearlierinStep4(A)
istheearthinggridresistancefoundearlierinStep3()
Step7:EarthingGridDesignVerification
[Link]
thetouchandstepvoltagelimits(fromStep5),thenthegriddesignissafe.
Howeverifitdoesexceedthetouchandstepvoltagelimits,thensomefurtheranalysisisrequiredtoverifythedesign,namelythecalculationofthe
maximummeshandstepvoltagesasperIEEEStd80Section16.5.
MeshVoltageCalculation
ThemeshvoltageisthemaximumtouchvoltagewithinameshofanearthinggridandisderivedfromIEEEStd80Equation80:
Where::
isthesoilresistivity(.m)
isthemaximumgridcurrentfoundearlierinStep4(A)
isthegeometricspacingfactor(seebelow)
istheirregularityfactor(seebelow)
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istheeffectiveburiedlengthofthegrid(seebelow)
GeometricSpacingFactorKm
Thegeometricspacingfactor
Where
iscalculatedfromIEEEStd80Equation81:
isthespacingbetweenparallelgridconductors(m)
isthedepthofburiedgridconductors(m)
isthecrosssectionaldiameterofagridconductor(m)
isaweightingfactorfordepthofburial=
isaweightingfactorforearthelectrodes/rodsonthecornermesh
forgridswithearthelectrodesalongthegridperimeterorcorners
forgridswithnoearthelectrodesonthecornersorontheperimeter
isageometricfactor(seebelow)
GeometricFactorn
Thegeometricfactor
iscalculatedfromIEEEStd80Equation85:
With
forsquaregrids,orotherwise
forsquareandrectangulargrids,orotherwise
forsquare,rectangularandLshapedgrids,orotherwise
Where
isthetotallengthofhorizontalgridconductors(m)
isthelengthofgridconductorsontheperimeter(m)
isthetotalareaofthegrid(m2)
and
arethemaximumlengthofthegridsinthexandydirections(m)
isthemaximumdistancebetweenanytwopointsonthegrid(m)
IrregularityFactorKi
Theirregularityfactor
Where
iscalculatedfromIEEEStd80Equation89:
isthegeometricfactorderivedabove
EffectiveBuriedLengthL M
Theeffectiveburiedlength
isfoundasfollows:
Forgridswithfewornoearthingelectrodes(andnoneoncornersoralongtheperimeter):
Where
isthetotallengthofhorizontalgridconductors(m)
isthetotallengthofearthingelectrodes/rods(m)
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Forgridswithearthingelectrodesonthecornersandalongtheperimeter:
Where
isthetotallengthofhorizontalgridconductors(m)
isthetotallengthofearthingelectrodes/rods(m)
isthelengthofeachearthingelectrode/rod(m)
and
arethemaximumlengthofthegridsinthexandydirections(m)
StepVoltageCalculation
ThemaximumallowablestepvoltageiscalculatedfromIEEEStd80Equation92:
Where::
isthesoilresistivity(.m)
isthemaximumgridcurrentfoundearlierinStep4(A)
isthegeometricspacingfactor(seebelow)
istheirregularityfactor(asderivedaboveinthemeshvoltagecalculation)
istheeffectiveburiedlengthofthegrid(seebelow)
GeometricSpacingFactorKs
Thegeometricspacingfactor
Where
basedonIEEEStd80Equation81isapplicableforburialdepthsbetween0.25mand2.5m:
isthespacingbetweenparallelgridconductors(m)
isthedepthofburiedgridconductors(m)
isageometricfactor(asderivedaboveinthemeshvoltagecalculation)
EffectiveBuriedLengthL S
Theeffectiveburiedlength
Where
forallcasescanbecalculatedbyIEEEStd80Equation93:
isthetotallengthofhorizontalgridconductors(m)
isthetotallengthofearthingelectrodes/rods(m)
WhatNow?
Nowthatthemeshandstepvoltagesarecalculated,[Link]:
,and
thentheearthinggriddesignissafe.
Ifnot,however,[Link]:
Redesigntheearthinggridtolowerthegridresistance([Link],moreearthingelectrodes,increasingcrosssectionalareaof
conductors,etc).Oncethisisdone,recomputetheearthinggridresistance(seeStep3)andredothetouchandsteppotentialcalculations.
Limitthetotalearthfaultcurrentorcreatealternativeearthfaultreturnpaths
Considersoiltreatmentstolowertheresistivityofthesoil
Greateruseofhighresistivitysurfacelayermaterials
WorkedExample
[Link]
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Inthisexample,[Link]
networkconnectionviaatransmissionlineandadeltawyeconnectedtransformer.
Step1:SoilResistivity
ThesoilresistivityaroundthesitewasmeasuredwithaWennerfourpinprobeandfoundtobeapproximately300.m.
Step2:SurfaceLayerMaterials
Athin100mmlayerofbluemetal(3,000.m)[Link]:
Step3:EarthingGridResistance
Arectangularearthinggrid(seethefigureright)withthefollowingparametersisproposed:
Lengthof90mandawidthof50m
6parallelrowsand7parallelcolumns
Gridconductorswillbe120mm2andburiedatadepthof600mm
22earthingrodswillbeinstalledonthecornersandperimeterofthegrid
Eachearthingrodwillbe3mlong
Usingthesimplifiedequation,theresistanceoftheearthinggridwithrespecttoremoteearthis:
[Link]
Step4:MaximumGridCurrent
SupposethatthemaximumsinglephasetoearthfaultattheHVwindingofthetransformeris3.1kAandthatthecurrentdivisionfactoris1(allthefault
currentflowsbacktoremoteearth).
TheX/Rratioatthefaultisapproximately15,[Link]
therefore:
Thedecrementfactoristhen:
Fianlly,themaximumgridcurrentis:
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kA
Step5:TouchandStepPotentialCriteria
Basedontheaverageweightoftheworkersonthesite,[Link]
clearingtimeof150msisalsoassumed.
Themaximumallowabletouchpotentialis:
V
Themaximumallowablesteppotentialis:
Step6:GroundPotentialRise(GPR)
Themaximumgroundpotentialriseis:
V
TheGPRfarexceedsthemaximumallowabletouchandsteppotentials,andfurtheranalysisofmeshandstepvoltagesneedtobeperformed.
Step7:EarthingGridDesignVerification
MeshVoltageCalculation
Thecomponentsofthegeometricfactor
Thereforethegeometricfactor
and
fortherectangulargridare:
is:
Theaveragespacingbetweenparallelgridconductors
is:
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where
EarthingCalculationOpenElectrical
and
arethewidthandlengthofthegridrespectively(e.g.50mand90m)
and
isthenumberofparallelrowsandcolumnsrespectively(e.g.6and7)
Thegeometricspacingfactor
Theirregularityfactor
is:
is:
Theeffectiveburiedlength
is:
m
Finally,themaximummeshvoltageis:
V
Themaximumallowabletouchpotentialis1,720V,whichexceedsthemeshvoltagecalculatedaboveandtheearthingsystempassesthetouchpotential
criteria(althoughitisquitemarginal).
StepVoltageCalculation
Thegeometricspacingfactor
Theeffectiveburiedlength
is:
is:
m
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Finally,themaximumallowablestepvoltageis:
V
Themaximumallowablesteppotentialis5,664V,whichexceedsthestepvoltagecalculatedaboveandtheearthingsystempassesthesteppotentialcriteria.
Havingpassedbothtouchandsteppotentialcriteria,wecanconcludethattheearthingsystemissafe.
ComputerBasedTools
Ascanbeseenfromabove,touchandsteppotentialcalculationscanbequiteatediousandlaborious
task,andonethatcouldconceivablybedonemuchquickerbyacomputer.EvenIEEEStd80
recommendstheuseofcomputersoftwaretocalculategridresistances,andmeshandstepvoltages,and
alsotocreatepotentialgradientvisualisationsofthesite.
Computersoftwarepackagescanbeusedtoassistinearthinggriddesignbymodelingandsimulationof
[Link]
topowersystemanalysissoftware(suchasPTW'sGroundMat
([Link]
([Link]
includeSESAutogrid([Link]
([Link]
Whatnext?
Theminimumsizefortheearthinggridconductorscanbeusedtospecifytheearthinggridconductor
[Link](where
necessary)[Link]
earthingdrawingscanthereforebeapprovedforthenextstageofreviews.
[Link]
(courtesyofSKMSystemsAnalysisInc)
Retrievedfrom"[Link]
Category:Calculations
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon17December2015,at09:47.
[Link]
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