1

MSc Lecture 4:

Lab Review
Professor W.K. Chow
Department of Building Services Engineering
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Hong Kong, China
22 Sep 2015
MScFD4.ppt

(1) Ignition and Burning

Behaviour of Materials

Most materials would be ignited when the surface

temperature is at about 525C for spontaneous and
350C for pilot ignition.
The ignition time can be determined by how long it
would take to raise the surface temperature to these
temperatures. Below a certain value, the incident
radiation cannot raise the surface temperature to the
ignition temperature and ignition will not occur.
The intensity at which ignition of the material is just
possible can be defined as the critical intensity. In
practice, the minimum intensity at which ignition of a
material occurs is always higher than this critical
intensity.

Definitions applied
Sustained ignition
After withdrawal of the ignition source, the presence of a
flame on the surface of the specimen that persists for at least
10 s.

Transient ignition
After withdrawal of the ignition source, the appearance of
flashes, or flames, which are not sustained for a continuous
10 s.

Progressive smouldering
An exothermic oxidation not accompanied by flaming which
is self-propagating, i.e. independent of the ignition source,
and maybe accompanied by incandescence.

Objective of the test

To appreciate the British Standard method and
apparatus for the determination of the ignitability
characteristics
The exposed surface of essentially flat, rigid or semi-rigid
building materials or composites will be tested in the vertical
position.

To observe the burning behaviour of materials.

Equipment
Ignitability test apparatus
Rigid samples of building materials

Stop watch
Micrometer
Bunsen burner, clamps
Selection of materials of size 228 mm
228 mm, thickness 1.5 mm

Ignitability test apparatus

Testing Procedures
Measure the thickness of the specimen to the
nearest mm.
Adjust the gas orifice so that the centre of the
orifice is 3 mm from the centre of the face of the
specimen held vertically by the clamps.

Move the gas orifice away from its testing

position and the gas is turned on and lit. Adjust
the flow regulator to a gas flow of 40 c.c./min.

The gas jet is moved quickly to its testing

position and start the stop watch simultaneously.
After 10 seconds, move the jet away and note
make of the subsequent duration of flaming.

Stop the stop watch as soon as the flaming stops.

Note the time to the nearest second.
Repeat for other specimens.

10

Discussion
Effects of construction, thickness and the surface
of the specimen and its classification
Ignition, pilot ignition and spontaneous
ignition

The thermal inertia of the materials.

11

Test results
The test results obtained do not necessarily
indicate how the product will behave in any
particular fire.
The test results relate only to the behaviour of
the test specimens of a product under particular
conditions of test.
They are not intended to be the sole criterion for
assessing the potential fire hazard of the product
in use.

12

References
BS476 on fire test of materials
T.Z. Harmathy kc or (kc)1/2 - thermal inertia or
thermal absorptivity? Fire Technology, May, p. 146-149
(1985)
W.D. Woolley, S.A. Ames, A.I. Pitt and K. Buckland The
ignition and burning characteristics of fabric covered
foams Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 3, p. 39-59 (1979/80)

Fire Protection Engineering Handbook, SFE/ NFPA (2002)

V. Babrauskas, Ignition Handbook: principles and
applications to fire safety engineering, fire investigation,
risk management and forensic science, Fire Science
Publishers, Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Issaquah,
Wash. (2003).

13

(2) Critical Oxygen Index

14

Oxygen index
The critical oxygen index is the minimum
concentration of oxygen, expressed in volume
percent, in a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen
that will just support flaming combustion of a
material under specified test conditions.
The oxygen index (n in %) is defined as:

100 O2
n
N 2 O2
- N2 = volumetric flow rate of nitrogen, mm3/s
- O2 = volumetric flow rate of oxygen, mm3/s

15

Principle of the test

Specimen is supported vertically in a mixture
of oxygen and nitrogen flowing upwards
through a transparent chimney.
The upper end of the specimen is ignited and
the subsequent burning behaviour is observed
to compare the period for which burning
continues, or the length of specimen burnt,
with specified limits for such burning.
The minimum oxygen concentration can be
estimated by testing a series of specimens in
different oxygen concentrations.

16

Equipment
Critical oxygen index apparatus
Gas assembly and valves
Oxygen measuring system with digital
read out unit

Burner
Material samples

17

Critical oxygen index apparatus

18

Testing Procedures
Cut the sample to required size and place it in the
sample holder

Remove the chimney, place the sample holder

loaded with sample in position and place the
chimney over the sample holder
Light the burner and place it in a safe position
Switch on both gas valves for oxygen and
nitrogen; adjust until the total flow is
approximately 10.5 l/min with the concentration
of O2/N2 at least 25%. Purge for 30 s at this
concentration before proceeding

19

Light the sample with the burner

Adjust the gas valves until the burning front of the
sample is just maintained. If the flame goes out,
increase the oxygen concentration slightly and light
the sample again with the burner
Record the oxygen concentration from the digital
read out unit (in %)

At the completion of a run, switch off both valves

immediately and clear the chimney and sample
holder
Repeat for different samples
Note down any unusual burning behaviours, e.g.
charring, dripping, bending, etc

20

Discussion
Effects of the shape, orientation and
isolation of the test specimen
Condition of ignition
Air flow rate and mixture of the gases

Any other aspects affecting equilibrium

conditions

21

Test results
Oxygen index results can provide a sensitive
measure of the burning characteristics of
materials under certain controlled laboratory
conditions, and hence maybe useful for
quality control purpose.
Results obtained from test specimens of
different thickness or by using different
ignition procedures may not be comparable
and no correlation with flammability
behaviour under other fire conditions.
It is proposed to specify different test
conditions for particular materials or
applications.

22

References
ASTM D2863-95 Standard test method for measuring
the minimum oxygen concentration to support candlelike combustion of plastics (Oxygen Index)
K.T. Paul Characterization of the burning behaviors
of polymer material Fire & Materials, Vol. 8, No. 2, p.
137-147 (1984)
K.T. Paul Burning characterization of materials Fire
& Materials, Vol. 3, No. 4, p. 223-236 (1979)
V. Babrauskas, Ignition Handbook: principles and
applications to fire safety engineering, fire
investigation, risk management and forensic science,
Fire Science Publishers, Society of Fire Protection
Engineers, Issaquah, Wash. (2003).

23

(3) Cone Calorimeter

24

Cone calorimeter is now the most powerful

bench-scale test for fire hazard assessment
There is a conical heater which can give radiative
heat flux of up to 100 kWm-2
The maximum size of the sample to be tested is
10 cm 10 cm and up to 5 cm thick

Gas analysis makes it possible to calculate the

heat release rate and assess the smoke toxicity.
Smoke production can be assessed by measuring
the attenuation of a laser beam by smoke in the
exhaust duct.

25

Heat release rate calculation based on

oxygen consumption method
Basic principle
Consideration for complete combustion, a constant E = 13.1 MJ/kg
of O2 consumed will be used as default value if the fuel is unknown

Oo 2 m
O2
q E m

where m Oo and m O are oxygen mass flow rates in the intake and
exhaust parts respectively
2

Correction might be necessary by measuring other

incomplete combustion products (CO, Soot, etc.):
CO : about 17.7 MJ/kg of O2 consumed
Soot: about 12.3 MJ/kg of O2 consumed

26

BSE Calorimeter

Layout

27

BSE Calorimeter

Cone

28

Testing Procedures
Samples preparation
Calibration
Set the heat flux of the conical heater

Put the cone tray with the sample under the

heater and start the test
Observe the fire behaviour of the burning sample
Stop the test and save data

Plot the curves and data analysis

29

Calibration Procedure - 1
Turn on the computer, select command prompt
only, and type cone

Select Utility Program

Select Calibration a module
Select Smoke system
Select Smoke calibration
Insert a filter with factor of 0.3, enter the correct
reading of filter
Same procedure for filter with a factor of 0.78

30

Calibration Procedure - 2
Select Save, press Esc to leave and get into
Smoke system

Select Check PD outputs, press A to adjust

the ratio to 1
Press Esc twice to leave
Select Gas analyzers, select Calibrate, and
record the readings of Oxygen cell pressure
Turn off the pump

Turn the gas sample valve on the cone panel to

N2
Tune N2 to the same amount as marked in
Oxygen cell pressure.

31

Calibration Procedure - 3
Wait for 5 minutes for reading of oxygen
concentration [O2] to 0.00%

Input 0 for [O2], wait for 30 seconds, and press

ENTER
Close N2 and turn gas sample valve from N2 to O2

Switch on pump again

Wait for 5 minutes for reading of [O2] to 20.95%
Input 20.95 for oxygen concentration when the
reading is steady, wait for 30 seconds and press
ENTER
Press Esc twice to leave

32

Calibration Procedure - 4
Turn off all fans and cover the exhaust duct, wait for
5 minutes

Select Differential pressure transducer, press z

to set zero
Press Esc twice to leave
Switch on the fans
Turn off the pump
Press the button for calibration first and then press
the button for setting zero on the CO/CO2
Analyzer, press the two buttons with reverse
sequence when the reading is 0

Turn on the pump again

33

Discussion
Burning behaviour of the sample tested with a
cone calorimeter

The effects of key calibrating procedures on the

final testing results
Results analysis
Improvements on the test

34

References
ISO 5660: 2002(E), Reaction-to-Fire Tests
Heat Release Rate, Smoke Production and Mass
Loss Rate, International Organization for
Standardization, Switzerland
V. Babrauskas and S.J. Grayson, Heat Release in
Fires, Elsevier Applied Science, London and
New York, 1992

W.K. Chow and S.S. Han Studies on fire

behaviour of video compact disc (VCD)
materials with a cone calorimeter, Polymer
Testing, Vol. 23, No. 6, pp. 685-694 (2004).