Rectangular Wave & Square Wave Generators (Op-Amp Schmitt Triggers & 555 Timers) 2 | vets c L, R +Voo Ve > +¥ LN for, 7 b ' Vee R Va ~ L Ya R Vout (a) Circuit diagram (b) Output waveform Figure 16-15: Square-wave generator Vee R 84 ve 7 3 on, +¥ec & 555 6 5 2 + 0 +t ©, =F0001 pF re (a) Circuit diagram (b) Output waveform Figure 16-17: The 555 timer connected as a rectangular waveform generatorSQUARE-WAVE GENERATOR Recall that the output of the Schmitt trigger, which was introduced in Chapter 11 as a bi- reference level comparator, is a square wave with +0o() =+Vsq of the op-amp. With the addition of a capacitor C and a feedback resistor R, as shown in Figure 16-15(a), the need for an input signal is eliminated and the output frequency can also be controlled by proper selection of the R and C. Pt ony 1, Ve WV Cc Be +a f - +t Ve R Pras (a) Circuit diagram (©) Output waveform Figure 16-15: Square-wave generator Referring to Equations 11-7 and 11-8, the upper and lower threshold voltages (Vir & V7) or (V4) can be written in one equation as follows: 4Y, f (16-64) Vy RAR, Itean be shown, with some considerable algebraic effort, that the period of the output waveform is as follows: reanci 28.1) (16-65) Rx 1 (16-66) fore 2RCIn(2R, /R, +1) However, if we select Ry and Ro such that (1 + 2R2/Ry In(1 + 2Re/R,) will equal unity. 2.178 (the natural log base), then *hai-ane (16-67) 2Rp=1.718Ri (16-68) Ro=0.859R: (16-69) Hence, the output frequency is a function of R and C only, and its equation simplifies as follows: 1 © 2RC Electronic Devices: a design approach, Ali Aminian & Marian Kazimierczuk, 2004 fe (16-70)16.8 THE 555 TIMER The 555 timer is a popular 8-pin integrated circuit (C), which may be used in many applications including rectangular waveform generation. Figure 16-17 shows the common configuration of the 555 timer as it is connected to produce a rectangular waveform. Vee R 8 4 Vof 7 3 en, *¥ec & 555 6 5 pos | 0 +t F001 pF + ty Hen.+4 (a) Circuit diagram (b) Output waveform Figure 16-17: The 555 timer connected as a rectangular waveform generator ‘The time duration for which the output is high (ty) is given by the following equation: t= 0.69(Ry + Ra)C (16-71) ‘The time duration for which the output is low (t,) is given by the following equation: 11,= 0.69(R2)C (16-72) ‘Therefore, the period and frequency of the waveform are as follows: T= t+ t= 0.69(Ry + 2Ra)C (16-73) 1 1 f T 069K, +2R,)C (16-74) Fora rectangular waveform, the ratio of the pulse duration (ty) to the period T'is referred to as the duty cycle (d) of the waveform. A square wave is a rectangular waveform with d= 0.5 or 50% duty cycle. Examining the equations for fy and f1, we notice that it would not be possible to produce a square wave with the circuit of Figure 16-16, However, there is a simple solution for this problem, and that is to connect a diode across the Rp and let Ry = Ro= R, as illustrated in Figure 16-18(a). Electronic Devices: a design approach, Ali Aminian & Marian Kazimierezuk, 2004Wee Ri=R=R R t= ti, d= 0.5 34 vot 7 3 2% Vee} wR 555 6 5 rn . c Cc 001 be yet, >| aa poole Hm (@) Circuit diagram (b) Output waveform jure 16-18: The 555 timer connected as a square-wave generator When the output is high, the diode is forward-biased, shorting out Ro; hence, t= 0.69(R1)C = 0.69RC ‘When the output is low, the diode is unbiased, behaving like an open-circuit; hence, (16-75) 1, = 0.69(R2)C = 0.69RC (16-76) T= t+ = 0.69RC* 0.69RC = 1,38RC (16-77) (16-78) (16-79) T 1.38RC In order to produce a rectangular waveform with a duty cycle less than 50% (tu < ), we ccan pick Rp larger than Rj, as required. However, the practical solution is to split Ry into a series combination of a fixed resistor and a potentiometer, so that R; can be adjusted for a desired duty cycle, +5V 8 4 tet 30% —ssV 555, 5 i 1 O55 70 as) C3 0.01 HF = (b) Output waveform (a) Circuit diagram sure 16-19: Rectangular waveform generator of Design Example 16-6 Electronic Devices: a design approach, Ali Aminian & Marian Kazimierczuk, 2004